Palm Cards for Science PDF

Palm cards for science Bunsen burner Lighting a Bunsen Burner 1. Tie long hair back and wear safety goggles. 2. Place Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat. 3. Connect the rubber tubing to the gas tap. 4. Turn the collar so that the air hole is in the closed position. 5. Light a...

Palm cards for science Bunsen burner Lighting a Bunsen Burner 1. Tie long hair back and wear safety goggles. 2. Place Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat. 3. Connect the rubber tubing to the gas tap. 4. Turn the collar so that the air hole is in the closed position. 5. Light a match and hold it at the top of the barrel of the Bunsen burner. 6. Turn the gas tap on. The safety flame should light. 7. Extinguish the match. 8. Switch to the blue flame by rotating the collar to open the air hole. Observations Scientists make Observations about the world around them to try to determine why things happen. Observations can be detected by using our senses. – See – Hear – Smell – Feel – Taste Continued An inference is an explanation based on observations. A prediction is a statement of what might happen next time based on the observation and the inference. The more we know about something, the easier it is to make predictions. The less we know about something, the more difficult it is make predictions. Data is information gathered during a scientific experiment and be used to make conclusions Qualitative data is descriptive – Eg. The day is hot Quantitative data can be measured and expressed in numbers – Eg. It is 35°C today Scientific method Aim: This is a statement of what you want to investigate or find out in the experiment Hypothesis : This is a prediction of what you think will happen in the experiment Equipment: This is a list of equipment or materials that you will use in the experiment Method: This is a detailed set of instructions that you will follow to conduct the experiment Usually written as a numbered list down the page Results: This is where you record the data from the experiment This can be recorded as written observations, tables and/or graphs Discussion : This is where the meaning of the results is discussed, Also discusses how the experiment could, have been improved and any errors that may, have been encountered Conclusion : A statement that summarises what was found in the investigation, This links directly back to the aim. Setting up a scientific experiment Anything that can be change in an experiment is called a variable (amount of water, temperature, time etc) Fair and valid scientific experiments should have only 1 variable should changed at a time. The variable that is changed is called the independent variable This is what the experiment will be testing. Eg plants are watered with different amounts of water Continued To find out the results of the experiment,measurements need to be performed The thing that is measured is called the dependent variable e.g. the height of the plant All other factors that could affect the outcome of the experiment need to be kept the same these are called controlled variables e.g. type of plant, how much sunlight, length of experiment Forces Types of forces A force is defined as a push or pull acting on an object, which can make things move closer or further apart or even cause them to twist. Forces can change an object’s motion, shape, or both, and can make an object start, stop, speed up, slow down, change direction, or spin. Forces are categorized as either contact or non-contact. Contact forces involve direct contact between objects and include push, pull, friction, air resistance, buoyancy, and surface tension. Non-contact forces, on the other hand, act over a distance without direct contact and include gravity, magnetic forces, and electrostatic forces. These various forces are constantly at play in our daily lives, influencing movement and interactions in numerous ways. Measuring forces Force is measured in newtons (N) and is commonly measured with a spring balance, which uses an internal spring that stretches in response to applied force. The amount of stretch corresponds to the force and can be read on a scale. Stronger springs are used for larger forces, while weaker springs measure smaller forces. Forces are often represented in diagrams using arrows, or vectors, where the arrow’s direction indicates the force direction. When multiple forces act on an object, the net force can be calculated; balanced forces cancel each other out, causing no movement, while unbalanced forces cause movement in the direction of the stronger force. Surface tension Surface tension is a force across the surface of a liquid, creating a film-like effect due to cohesion, where water molecules cling together. This cohesive force enables water to form drops and behave like an elastic skin, allowing unique effects like droplets in space taking a spherical shape to minimize surface area. Surface tension enables certain insects, like water bugs, to walk on water without sinking, and objects like needles to float if carefully placed on water. This phenomenon explains everyday observations such as raindrops forming, puddles collecting, insects walking on water, and bubbles maintaining their shape briefly. Friction Friction is a force that arises when two surfaces interact, resisting motion by acting in the opposite direction. It’s present not only in objects moving along solid surfaces but also in materials like air or water, where it appears as air or water resistance. This resistance can create heat, which is often noticed when surfaces rub together. The amount of friction depends on two main factors: the type of surface and the force pressing the surfaces together. Rough surfaces produce more friction than smooth ones, and heavier objects experience stronger friction because of the increased contact force. Higher friction levels make moving an object more difficult, while less friction allows for easier movement. Friction plays a dual role, being both beneficial and problematic; it can be useful by providing grip and control in actions like walking or driving, but it can also be a source of energy loss and wear in machinery, requiring balance in its application. Magnetic forces Magnetic forces arise from interactions between magnetic fields and magnetic materials, influencing objects that have magnetic properties. These forces can either attract or repel, depending on the alignment of the magnetic poles: like poles repel each other, while opposite poles attract. The strength of the magnetic force depends on the proximity of the objects and the intensity of their magnetic fields, with closer distances and stronger fields yielding a more substantial force. Magnetic fields are invisible but can exert influence within their range, affecting not only metals like iron, nickel, and cobalt but also creating effects in electric currents and certain environmental conditions. Magnets have two main poles—north and south—and their force flows outward from the north pole, looping back to the south pole. This looping field creates a "magnetic field" that is strongest at the poles and weaker further away. Magnetic forces have various practical applications, from electric motors and generators to data storage and compasses, harnessing this invisible yet powerful force for everyday use. Buoyancy Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid (such as water, air, or any liquid) that opposes the weight of an object immersed in it. This force is a result of the pressure exerted by the fluid, which increases with depth. When an object is placed in a fluid, it experiences greater pressure on its bottom surface compared to the top, creating a net upward force. This buoyant force is what makes objects feel lighter in water and enables them to float if the force is strong enough. Electromagnets Electromagnets are temporary magnets created by electric current passing through a coil of wire, usually wound around a ferromagnetic core. The magnetic field produced can be controlled by adjusting the current or number of coil turns, making electromagnets versatile for various applications. Their strength depends on factors like current, coil density, and core material. Unlike permanent magnets, electromagnets can be turned on and off and have reversible polarity. They’re widely used in motors, generators, electric bells, MRI machines, and industrial lifting, where their controlled magnetic field is essential for efficient functionality. Gravity, Mass, weight Gravity, mass, and weight are closely related concepts that describe the interaction between objects and the forces acting on them. Gravity is a non-contact force that attracts objects with mass toward each other, with smaller masses being pulled toward larger ones. This is why objects on Earth are pulled downward toward its center, as Earth’s mass is significantly larger than that of objects on its surface. Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object and remains constant regardless of location. In contrast, weight is the force exerted on that mass by gravity and depends on both the object's mass and the gravitational pull of the body it's on. Weight can be calculated using the formula: weight = mass × gravity. On Earth, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 N/kg, meaning that for every kilogram of mass, there is a force of 9.8 Newtons acting on it. Unlike mass, weight varies depending on the gravitational force of the planet or celestial body where the object is located. Ecosystems Mrs Gren The seven characteristics that define living organisms are summarized by the acronym MRS GREN: 1. Movement: The ability to change position; animals actively move, while plants grow towards light. 2. Respiration: The process of converting food and oxygen into energy, distinct from breathing. 3. Sensitivity: Detecting changes in the environment and responding to stimuli. 4. Growth: An increase in size through cell division or enlargement; animals stop growing at adulthood, while plants grow continuously. 5. Reproduction: The ability to produce offspring, which occurs sexually or asexually. 6. Excretion: The removal of waste; animals excrete through various organs, while plants release gases and water. 7. Nutrition: The intake of food for energy and growth; animals consume other organisms, while plants produce food via photosynthesis. For an entity to be considered alive, it must exhibit all seven processes. Types of ecosystems An Ecosystem is a geographical area where plants, animals, landscape and climate all intersect together. It is the interaction between living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things. Ecosystems can be identified at different scales: A local small-scale ecosystem can be a pond, hedgerow or woodland etc. A biome is global-scale ecosystem such as a tropical rainforest or deciduous woodland Types of ecosystems include: Desert, savanna, rainforest, deciduous forest, tundra, taiga, arctic, Aquatic, wetland, rivers, lakes. Weather’s effects on ecosystems Weather significantly impacts ecosystems by influencing species distribution, population dynamics, and overall ecosystem health. Temperature affects habitat ranges and metabolic rates, while precipitation determines water availability, influencing plant growth and animal survival. Extreme weather events like floods and droughts can disrupt habitats and affect food resources. Wind aids in seed dispersal but can also cause physical damage to vegetation. Seasonal changes impact biological events like flowering and migration, altering ecological interactions. Long-term climate change leads to habitat loss and changes in ecosystem services. Additionally, localized weather conditions create microclimates that support specific species. Understanding these interactions is crucial for conservation and predicting ecological responses to climate change. Features of ecosystems Organisms, species, habitat, population and community are apart of an ecosystem Biotic factors are the living components of an ecosystem, such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, which interact with each other and their environment. Abiotic factors are the nonliving physical and chemical elements of an ecosystem, including sunlight, temperature, water, soil, and nutrients, that influence the living organisms within it. Adaptations Adaptations may be: Structural adaptations (physical appearance) Physiological adaptations (internal systems inside the body) Behavioural adaptations (something an organism does) Levels of a food chain Each organism in an ecosystem occupies a specific position (or trophic level) in the food chain or web. Producers, who make their own food using photosynthesis, make up the bottom of the trophic pyramid. Primary consumers, mostly herbivores, exist at the next level, followed by secondary and tertiary Consumers (omnivores and carnivores) At the top of the system are the apex predators: animals who have no predators other than humans. Food webs Food webs show all the different feeding interactions within an ecosystem There may be several different interconnected food chains within the one food web Trophic pyramids Trophic pyramids also represent the amount of Energy in the food chain The amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an ecosystem, or up the trophic pyramid Only about 10% of energy is passed onto each new trophic level Animal classification Animals are classified into vertebrates (with a backbone) and invertebrates (without a backbone). Vertebrates, about 5% of animals, include mammals (furred, warm-blooded, live births), birds (feathered, lay eggs, warm-blooded), reptiles (scaly, lay eggs, cold-blooded), amphibians (moist skin, life cycle in water and land, cold-blooded), and fish (gilled, aquatic, mostly egg-layers, cold-blooded). Invertebrates, which make up around 95% of animals, include flatworms, true worms, molluscs (e.g., snails), echinoderms (e.g., starfish), cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish), and arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders), each group characterized by distinct body structures and functions. Water cycle The water cycle, or hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below Earth's surface. It involves several key processes: 1. Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil absorbs heat from the sun and changes into water vapor, rising into the atmosphere. 2. Transpiration: Plants absorb water through their roots and release it as water vapor through their leaves, contributing to atmospheric moisture. 3. Condensation: As water vapor rises and cools in the atmosphere, it changes back into tiny droplets, forming clouds. 4. Precipitation: When water droplets in clouds combine and grow heavy, they fall to the Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, depending on temperature conditions. 5. Runoff: Precipitated water flows over land and collects in rivers, lakes, and eventually returns to the ocean. This water also infiltrates the soil, replenishing groundwater supplies. 6. Infiltration and Percolation: Some water seeps through the soil, reaching underground reservoirs or aquifers, which store  Living things classification Kingdom: Each domain is divided into kingdoms. The Eukarya domain, for instance, includes kingdoms like Animalia (animals), Plantae (plants), Fungi, and Protista. Phylum: Within each kingdom, organisms are grouped into phyla based on major body plans and structural similarities. For example, the animal kingdom includes phyla like Chordata (vertebrates and related animals) and Arthropoda (insects, spiders, and crustaceans). Class: Each phylum is divided into classes. For instance, in the Chordata phylum, Mammalia (mammals) and Aves (birds) are separate classes. Order: Classes are further divided into orders. In mammals, for example, Carnivora (carnivores) and Primates (humans, monkeys, and apes) are distinct orders. Family: Orders are divided into families. For example, within Primates, Hominidae is the family that includes humans and great apes. Genus: Families are divided into genera (singular: genus). In the Hominidae family, Homo is the genus that includes humans. Species: The most specific level, species is the basic unit of classification, defined by organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. For example, Homo sapiens is the species name for humans. Food chain A food chain shows who eats whom in an ecosystem. It is a feeding relationship where one organism provides energy for the next one in the chain. A food chain shows the flow of energy between producers and consumers. The arrow shows the direction of energy flow  Dichotomous Keys Dichotomous keys are used as a tool that can be used to identify organisms or objects in the natural world according to their physical features Dichotomous keys have two choices (Yes/NO) At each branch where organisms can be divided based on the Similarities Or Differences in their physical features Types of dichotomous keys 1. Branched (Indented) Key In a branched key, choices are arranged in a branching structure, with each branch representing one of the two choices. Each choice indents further to the right, making it visually clear which choices lead to each outcome. Often used for its simplicity but can be challenging to follow with longer keys. 2. Linear (Tabular) Key In a linear key, each choice is listed as a numbered or lettered pair. Users move down a list, choosing between two statements at each step. It’s easier to read in a list format, especially for longer or more complex keys. Each choice points to another pair of statements or to the identification. Dichotomous keys Branching keys Tabular keys Matter  Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space, with mass being the amount of matter in a substance and volume as the space it takes up. All matter is composed of particles, the What is matter smallest of which is the atom. Matter exists in three states: solids, liquids, and gases. Solids have fixed shapes and volumes, cannot be compressed easily, and do not flow. Liquids take the shape of their container, have a fixed volume, cannot be compressed, and can flow. Gases have no fixed shape or volume, expand to fill any container, can be compressed, and also flow.  The Particle Model of Matter describes that all matter consists of constantly Particle model moving particles with spaces between them and forces of attraction that vary by state. In solids, particles are closely of matter packed in an orderly structure with strong bonds, allowing only vibration. In liquids, particles are less tightly bonded, able to move around each other, giving a fixed volume but no fixed shape. In gases, particles have weak bonds, large spaces between them, and move freely, filling any container.  Matter changes state through processes such as melting (solid to liquid), Changing states evaporation/boiling (liquid to gas), condensation (gas to liquid), freezing (liquid to solid), sublimation (solid to of matter gas), and deposition (gas to solid). According to the Particle Model of Matter, adding heat increases particle movement, leading solids to melt and liquids to evaporate. Conversely, cooling slows particles, causing gases to condense and liquids to freeze. For water, these changes occur at 0°C (melting/freezing) and 100°C (evaporation/condensation).  The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid, while the boiling point is when it transitions from liquid to gas. Boiling points and For water, the melting/freezing point is 0°C, and the boiling/condensation point is 100°C, with both melting points (b.p & transitions happening at the same respective temperatures. Different substances have unique m.p) melting and boiling points, determining their state at room temperature (25°C). For instance, gold melts at 1064°C, and oxygen boils at -183°C. At temperatures below the melting point, a substance is solid; between melting and boiling points, it’s liquid; and above the boiling point, it’s gas. During these changes, temperature remains steady while the state shifts, shown in heating curves that plateau at each phase change.  Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until they are evenly distributed, occurring in liquids and gases but not in solids since solid particles are fixed in place. For example, we can smell perfume across a room or Diffusion mix cordial in water due to diffusion. The rate of diffusion is influenced by temperature, concentration gradient, and distance. Higher temperatures increase diffusion speed as particles gain energy and move faster. A steep concentration gradient, where there's a large difference between high and low concentrations, results in faster diffusion, while a shallow gradient slows it down. Additionally, shorter distances allow for quicker diffusion, whereas longer distances slow the process.  Density measures how much mass is packed into a given volume, calculated with the formula: Density = Mass / Volume. To find mass when density and volume are known, use Mass = Density Density × Volume; for instance, if a substance has a density of 2 g/cm³ and a volume of 10 cm³, the mass is 20 g. To find volume when mass and density are known, use Volume = Mass / Density; for example, if the mass is 50 g and density is 5 g/cm³, the volume is 10 cm³. This concept is essential in identifying materials and calculating space and weight requirements.  Expansion and contraction describe how materials change in size with temperature. When solids are heated, they expand as the particles gain energy and move slightly Expansion and further apart, increasing the material’s overall size. Conversely, when cooled, solids contract as particles move closer together. However, the particles themselves don't contraction change size—just the space between them. This principle is crucial in real-world applications, such as leaving gaps between railway tracks to prevent buckling during hot weather, or fitting expansion joints in bridges to allow for seasonal changes in length. Thermometers also use this concept: as the temperature rises, the liquid inside expands and rises, and when it cools, the liquid contracts and drops. A classic demonstration of expansion and contraction is the ball and ring experiment, where a heated ball expands and no longer fits through the ring, illustrating the effect of temperature on solid objects. Mixtures  Pure substances and mixtures are fundamental concepts in chemistry that describe different forms of matter. A pure substance consists of a single type of particle and has a fixed composition and distinct properties; it can be an element, like oxygen or gold, or a compound, such as Pure Substances and water or sodium chloride. Pure substances exhibit consistent physical and chemical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, and density. In contrast, a Mixtures mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances that retain their individual properties. Mixtures can be homogeneous, where the components are uniformly distributed (like saltwater), or heterogeneous, where the components are not uniformly mixed (like a salad). The proportions of substances in a mixture can vary, allowing for a wide range of compositions, and they can often be separated by physical means, such as filtration or distillation. Understanding the distinction between pure substances and mixtures is essential for studying chemical reactions and material properties.  Separating insoluble substances in mixtures involves several methods that utilize the distinct physical properties of the components. Gravity separation Separating relies on density differences, allowing heavier particles to sink while lighter ones remain on top. insoluble Magnetic separation uses magnets to attract magnetic materials from non-magnetic substances. substances Centrifuging spins mixtures at high speeds, causing heavier particles to settle at the bottom. Sieving employs a mesh to separate particles by size, with larger ones retained while smaller ones pass through. Filtration traps solid particles using filter paper, allowing liquids to pass. Lastly, electrostatic separation uses electrical charges to isolate materials based on their conductivity. Together, these techniques are essential for effectively isolating insoluble components in various applications.  A solution is a homogeneous mixture formed when one substance dissolves in another, consisting of a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance that dissolves, such as sugar in water, and is usually present in a smaller amount. The solvent is the Solutions substance that does the dissolving, commonly water, which is known as the "universal solvent" due to its ability to dissolve many substances. During dissolution, solute particles spread out and mix evenly with solvent particles, creating a clear solution. The concentration of a solution indicates the amount of solute in a given volume of solvent and can be classified as concentrated or dilute. Understanding solutions is essential for studying chemical reactions and has practical applications in daily life, including cooking and cleaning.  Concentrated, dilute, and saturated solutions are key concepts for understanding how Dilute and solutes and solvents interact. A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute concentrated relative to the solvent, resulting in a strong flavor or color, such as a highly sweetened solutions sugar solution. In contrast, a dilute solution has a small amount of solute compared to the solvent, leading to a weaker flavor, like lightly sweetened water. A saturated solution occurs when the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved at a given temperature, meaning any additional solute will not dissolve and will remain undissolved at the bottom.  Chromatography is a technique used to separate and analyze mixtures of substances. It consists of a stationary phase, which stays still, and a mobile Chromatograph phase, which moves through it. Different substances in a mixture move at different rates, allowing for separation. Types of chromatography include paper y chromatography, where a mixture is placed on paper and a solvent moves up the paper, and thin-layer chromatography (TLC), which uses a thin layer of material on a plate. Column chromatography involves pouring a mixture into a column packed with material, while gas chromatography (GC) and high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are used for gases and liquids, respectively. Chromatography is useful for checking food additives, testing for pollutants, and purifying medicines, making it an important tool in science and industry.  Distillation is a method used to separate mixtures of liquids based on their boiling points. It works by heating a liquid to turn it into vapor and then cooling the vapor to turn it back into liquid. There are different types of distillation. Simple distillation is used when the boiling points of the liquids are very different, Distillation while fractional distillation is for liquids with closer boiling points and involves using a special column to separate them. Vacuum distillation lowers the pressure, allowing liquids to boil at lower temperatures, which is helpful for sensitive substances. Steam distillation is used to extract essential oils from plants. Distillation is important in many areas, such as purifying water, producing alcohol, and refining oil. The main equipment includes a distillation flask to hold the liquid, a heat source, a condenser to cool the vapor, and a receiving flask to collect the separated liquid.  Centrifugation is a technique used to separate mixtures by spinning them at high speeds. When a mixture is placed in a machine called a centrifuge, it spins very fast, creating a force that pushes heavier particles to the bottom of the container. This process is based on the Centrifugation principle that different substances have different densities, so the heavier ones settle down while lighter ones stay on top. Centrifugation is commonly used in laboratories to separate substances like blood into its components, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and plasma. It can also be used in cooking, such as separating cream from milk to make butter. The result of centrifugation is that the mixture is divided into layers, making it easy to collect the different parts.  The cell theory has three main parts: First, all living organisms are composed of one or more cells. This means that whether it's a tiny bacterium or a large elephant, they're all made of cells. The cell theory Second, the cell is the smallest unit of life that can carry out all the functions of a living organism. This means that cells are able to grow, reproduce, and respond to their environment. Third, all cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division. This explains how organisms grow and how new organisms are formed.  To use a microscope, start by placing it on a stable surface and ensuring it is plugged in if it has a light source. Prepare your slide by placing a specimen on a clean glass slide, adding a drop of water or stain, and covering it with a coverslip. Begin with the lowest Microscopes magnification lens (usually 4x or 10x) and secure the slide on the stage using stage clips, ensuring the specimen is over the light source. Turn on the light and adjust the brightness, then look through the eyepiece and use the coarse focus knob to bring the specimen into focus. After focusing, you can switch to a higher power lens and use the fine focus knob for clearer details. Observe your specimen, adjust the light and focus as needed, and when finished, return to the lowest power, remove the slide, clean the lenses if necessary, and turn off the microscope.  Microscopes come in several types, each suited for different uses. The light microscope is the most common, using visible light to magnify specimens from 40x to 1000x and is often used in schools and labs for viewing cells and tissues. A compound Types of microscope is a specific type of light microscope with multiple lenses, ideal for examining thin specimens like tissue slices. The stereo microscope (or microscopes dissecting microscope) provides a 3D view of larger objects, using lower magnification (up to 100x) for dissection and examination of insects or plants. In contrast, the electron microscope uses beams of electrons to achieve much higher magnifications, often exceeding 1,000,000x. It includes two main types: the transmission electron microscope (TEM), which produces detailed images of internal structures by sending electrons through thin specimens, and the scanning electron microscope (SEM), which scans the surface of a specimen to create 3D images showing surface details.  Cells contain various organelles that perform specific functions. Common organelles in both animal and plant cells include the nucleus (control center containing DNA), cytoplasm (jelly-like substance for Cell organelles metabolic reactions), cell membrane (protective barrier), mitochondria (energy producers), ribosomes (protein synthesizers), endoplasmic reticulum (network for protein and lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (packaging and shipping center), and lysosomes (digestive enzymes for waste breakdown). Plant cells also have a cell wall (rigid support structure), chloroplasts (organelles for photosynthesis), and a central vacuole (large sac for storage and turgor pressure).