PA notes 88.pdf

UNIT-I 1.1: Objectives After going through this unit, you will be able to know:  The concept of Administration, Public Administration  Meaning, Nature and Scope of Public Administration  Different approaches to the Study of Public Administration  The role of Public Administration in Developed and Developing Countries 1.2: Introduction to Administration Public Administration is one of the important concept of the study of administration. Therefore, before understanding the meaning of Public Administration, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the word „Administration‟. The word „Administration‟ is derived from the Latin word „ad and ministrare‟ which means „to serve‟ or „to look after the people‟ or „to care for‟ or to manage. Thus, literally the term administration means management of affairs- public or private. Administration is as old as the human civilization and human existence. It is the administration which controls and stabilizes the society. The whole society has been guided by the norms and values of the administration. So the society without administration is not effective. It is the administration which brings society from a set of ignorance to the brightened antiquity. The society is the best whose administration is the best. So knowledge about administration is very important for the students of Political Science. 1.3. Definition and Meaning of Administration The concept of administration is defined by various writers in the followings: According to E.N. Gladden “Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning, for it means, to care for or look after the people, to manage affairs …is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose.” 2 According to L.D. White “The arts of Administration is the direction, coordination and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.” According to F.A. Nigro “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose.” According to H.A. Simon“In the broadest sense administration can be defined as the activities of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.” According toK. Henderson “Administration is the arrangement of men and materials in the rational carrying out of purposes.” According to D. Waldo “Administration is the type of cooperative human effort that has a high degree of rationality.” According to James McCanny “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized vocation of managers who has skills of organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as an engineer has the skill of building structures or a doctor has the skill of understanding the human ailments.” According to J.E. Berkley“Administration is a process involving human beings jointly engaged in working towards common goals.” According to Brooks Adams “Administration is the capacity of coordinating many and often conflicting social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that they shall operate as a unity.” According to Ordway Tead “Administration is a variety of component elements which together in action, produce the result of a defined task done. Administration primarily, is the direction of people in association to achieve some goal temporarily shared. It is the inclusive process of integrating human effort so that a desired result is obtain. It is the central power house of the motivational impulsion and the spirit which makes the institution drive to fulfil its purpose.” 3 According to F.M. Marx “Administration is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which one wants to happen and foretelling everything to the contrary.” According to John A. Veig “Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources, aimed at making those things happen which we want to happen and simultaneously preventing developments that fail to square with all our intensions. It is the marshalling of available labour and materials irorder to gain that which is desired at the lowest cost in energy, time and money.” According to Luther Gluck “Administration has to do with getting things done; with the accomplishment of defined objective.” According to James L. Mc Canny Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It is the specialized vocation of managers who have skills of organizing and directing men and materials just as definitely as the engineer has the skill of building structure or a doctor has the skill of understanding human ailments. According to Piffner and Presthus “Administration is the organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends. Thus, it becomes clear that administration is essentially a group activity which involves co- operation and co-ordination to achieve desired goals.” From the above, in a broader sense the term “Administration” signifies the following fourdifferent perspectives taking under different context it is used. They are (i) As a Discipline, (ii) As a vocation, (iii) As a process, (iv)As a synonym for the word Executive or Government. As a discipline it deals with the name of a branch of learning or intellectual discipline as tought and studied in colleges and universities. As a vocation it deals with the types of work or trade or profession or occupation specially one that involves knowledge and 4 training in a branch of advance learning. As a process it deals with the sum total of activities undertaken to implement public policy or policies to produce some services or goods. As a synonym for word executive or Government it deals with such other body of persons in supreme charge of affairs for example Bush Administration, Nehru‟s administration and present Modi‟s administration. 1.4: Public Administration Public Administration is to the state what a shadow is to the body. It is the front of the state. It is visible, standing manifestation of the state. Its importance depends on the stage of development of the society. As the society becomes complex and advanced, its public administration, too, becomes of crucial significance. Its role does not decrease- the nature of its work changes. Public Administration is a part of the administration and a contemporary concept of governance. It is a collective activity to attain some specific goal. While coordinating with club, association or the company, the administration develops private administration and while relating with the state and central Government this is developed as Public Administration. Public Administration has obtained a specialized position in the academic field. It is like any other administration which is carried out in public interest. It is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programme as well as the behavior of officials formally responsible for their conduct. In this regard, many public servants are considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, Human Resources administrators, city managers, census managers, state directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government. With the growing complexity of contemporary life, the importance of public administration has been increasing. This is because of the need for intervention by the State in the day -to-day activities of the citizens. There is hardly any aspect of a citizen‟s life which does not come into contact wit h some government agency or the other. In ancient times the needs of the citizens were 5 limited. They could, therefore, live in more or less self-sufficient village communities producing in the village itself whatever they needed for their simple existence. The scientific and industrial revolutions have changed the situation. The industrial products require a degree of specialization which makes it necessary for the communities to live in bigger cities. The means of production have become rather complex and require a much greater degree of organizational effort. A number of activities can no longer be organized by the citizens privately or even by village or city communities. The national government and the State and the local governments have, therefore, to come forward to provide the necessary infrastructural facilities for organizing production as well as for facilitating community living. For example, roads and Railways have to be built to facilitate the transport of raw material to the site of production as well as to facilitate the distribution of the manufactured goods. These facilities are also required to meet the needs of the citizens in moving over long distances required by modern day living. Similarly, communication facilities like the telephones; microwave transmissions, satellite communication etc. have to be provided to meet the needs of the communities. All these require massive investments in human and material resources far beyond the capacity o f small village or even city communities. These investments have to be made by the national government and administered with the help of the local governments and the local communities. Apart from the financial investments, a lot of organizational effort is required to meet these needs of the citizens. The points of contact between the citizens and the government have, therefore, increased tremendously. The importance of public administration has been keeping pace with these developments. The interest of the scholars in the study of public administration has also been correspondingly increasing. Although the study of public administration as a separate discipline is of recent origin, the subject has been studied for quite a long time as a part of the discipline of the political science. Before taking up a study of the subject of public administration, it would be worthwhile to have an idea of the meaning and scope of the subject. 6 1.4.1: Definition and Meaning of Public Administration According to Woodrow Wilson “Public Administration is a detailed and systematic application of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.” He further says “Administration is the most obvious part of the government. It is the government in action. It is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of the government.” According to Percy Mc Queen, “Public administration is administration related to the operation of the government, whether local or central.” According to Luther Gullick “Public administration is that part of science of administration which has to do with the government and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive branch, where the work of the government is done though there are obviously problems in connection with the legislative and judicial branches.” According toH.A. Simon “By Public Administration is meant in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of the national, state and local governments.” According to L.D. White “Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.” According to Pfiffner “Public Administration consists of doing the work of the government whether it is running an X-ray machine in a health laboratory or coining money in the mint …Public Administration consists of getting the works of government done by coordinating the efforts of the people so that they can work together to accomplish their set tasks.” According to E. N. Gladden “Public Administration is concerned with the administration of the government.” According to H. Walker “The work which the government does to give efforts to a law.” According to Willoughby “The term administration may be employed in Political Science in two senses. In its broadest sense it denotes the work involved in the actual conduct of governmental affairs regard less of the particular branch of 7 government concerned. It is thus quite proper to speak of the administration of the legislative branch of the government, the administration of justice or judicial affairs or the administration of the executive branch as well as the administration of the affairs of the administrative branch of the government, or the conduct of the affairs of the government generally. In its narrowest sense it denotes the operations of the administrative branch only. ” According to D. Waldo “Public Administration is the art and science of management as applied to the affairs of the state.” He further observes “The process of Public Administration consists of the actions involved in affecting the intent or desire of a government. It is thus the continuously , business part of a government, concerned with carrying the law as made by legislative bodies and interpreted by the course, through the process of organization and management….of Public Administration focuses upon Public Administration as a process.” According to M.E. Dimock “Public Administration is the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy as declared by the compete nt authorities. It deals with the problems and powers of the organization and techniques of management involved in carrying out the laws and policies formulated by the policy making agencies of government. Public Administration is the law in action. It is the executive of a government. ” According to John A. Veig “Administration signifies the organization personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of the government. ” According to P. McQueen “Public Administration is administration related to the operations of government whether central or local.” According to Merson “The administrator gets things done, and just as the science of politics is an enquiry into the best means wher e by the will of the people may be organized for the formulation of policy so the science ofPublic Administration is an enquiry as to how policies may best be carried into operations. ” 8 According to Corson and Harris “Public Administration is the action part of the government, the means by which the purposes and goals of the government are realized.” According to F.A. Nigro “Public Administration (i) is a cooperative group effort in a public setting; (ii) covers all the three branches- executive legislative and judicial, and their inter-relationship; (iii) has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus part of the political process; (iv) is different in significant ways from private administration; and (v) is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community.” According to J.S. Hodgson “Public Administration comprises all activities of persons or groups in governments or their agencies, whether these organizations are international, regional or local in their scopes, to fulfill the purpose of these governments or agencies.” According to James W. Fesler “Public Administration is policy execution and policy formulation, public administration is bureaucracy and public administration is public.” According to James W. Davis “Public Administration can be best identified with the executive branch of a government.” According to Frank Goodnow “Administration includes the function of executing the law as well as the semi-scientific quasi-judicial and quasi-business or commercial functions.” According to Ridley “Public Administration is administration in the public sector…It is administration by the state…Public Administration is governmental administration …It is administration by public authorities…Public authorities are authorities which administer according to the rules of public administrati on. Public administration should be the study of administration, descriptive, theoretical and normative.” According to M. RuthnaSwamy “When administration has to do with the affairs of a state or minor political institutions like a Municipal or Country Council, or District Board, it is called Public Administration. ” 9 According to Dimock and Dimock “like the study of politics, the study of public administration is a study of what people want through government and how they go about getting it. In addition, administration also emphasizes the methods and procedures of management. Thus, public administration is as much concerned with what government does as it is with how it does it.” They further add, “Public Administration is the area of study and practice where law and policy are recommended and carried out.” According to J. Greenwood and D. Wilsonv “Public Administration is an activity, a set of institutions and a subject of study.” According to Rosenbloom “Public Administration does involve activity, it i s concerned with politics and policy making, it tends to be concentrated in the executive branch of the government, it does differ from private administration, and it is concerned with implementing law.” He further adds, “Public Administration is the use of managerial, legal and political theories and processes to fulfill legislative, executive and judicial governmental mandates for the provision of regulatory and service functions for the society as a whole or for some segments of it.” According to E. McGregor “The term Public Administration is reserved to denote the generation of purposive public action whose success depends on reconciling the competing demands of administrative operations, democratic governance and public solving.” According to F.M. Marx “Public Administration has come to signify primarily the organization, personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of government.” Thus from the above definitions it indicates that the term Public Administration has been used in two sense (i) Wider sense and (ii) Narrower sense. In its wider sense it deals with the all the three branches of the government i.e. Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. This view has been taken by Woodrow Wilson, L. D. White, M. Dimock, F.A. Nigro and Pfiffner. 10 In a broad sense, therefore, Administration is common to both public and private affairs. Public Administration would then refer to that part of administration which pertains to the administrative activities of the government. Here again, it would be worthwhile to turn to the definitions of public administration given by some well-known scholars. Percy Mc Queen “Public Administration is administration related to the operations of government whether local or central”. 1.4.2: Wilson’s view on Public Administration Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of USA (1913-1921), the father of American Public Administration. Wilson and his contribution to the subject of public administration is widely read and referred to. He was one of the first political leaders who emphasized the need to increase the efficiency of the Government. Wilson argued that administration is the most obvious part of the Government and the least discussions happen around it. He further says that despite being the executive, the operative and the most visible side of the Government and being as old as the Government itself it has remain hidden from the scrutiny and inspection of writer, authors and subject matter experts where it should have been the centre of debates and researches. He shows little appreciation towards the obsession regarding the constitution of Government, the philosophical approach towards the existence of State, the sovereignty or some greater meaning lying at the heart of the Government. Basically what he meant was the know -how of the actual business of Governing people and how that can be made more efficient. In the context of the early 20th century USA and the world in general, Wilson and his ideas regarding administration made sense. Life had changed much since the good old days of farms and cattle and now there were complexities of trade and commerce, stocks and bonds and financers and then the national debts, the ever increasing conflicts between the capitalist class and the workers. In the light of these developments, ways the Government can function also needed a change which unfortunately was not assessed adequately resulting in inefficiency and wastage of resources. In addition to above aspects, the Government‟s sphere of work was expanding, like the postal service in America and rail-road lines in Europe. So, if the transition was happening at the grass root 11 level say for example to manage rail-road, national commissioners were made in addition to older state commissioners, the resulting extension of administrative function became a matter which needed to be delicately handled and not carried out in haste. Wilson also clarified that the studies conducted in the field of public administration were mostly carried out by French and German academicians and were therefore not entirely relevant and suited to the needs of the American people and State in its original form. He suggested that any principle adopted from Europe would have to be Americanized and modified for the complex and multiform state and a highly decentralized form of Government in the USA. Wilson had carefully studied the administrative practices of not just France and England but a small nation like Prussia and praised the rule r Frederick the Great who regarded himself as the chief servant of the people and his office as a public trust. He also wrote favorably of Napoleon and his recasting of French administration after ending the monarchial rule. He however; wrote harshly about the ways of English administrators and those of his own country; pointing out that their history was not of administrative development but of legislative oversight. There were little progress made in Government organizations but vast leaps taken in law making and political criticism. While reading Wilson one cannot help but wonder that whether inaugurating public opinion in the matters of Government a wise decision at all? The dark side of it is that it becomes a larger obstacle to manage; since any change or reform proposed needs to get pass veto at so many levels. To sum up, Wilson proposed a very no -nonsense and business- like approach to administration which should be free of shackles of political doctrines. 1.4.3: Characteristics of Public Administration Public Administration as a unique subject differs from both Political Science and management in terms of developing certain facets of organizing theory and techniques of management. Accordingly there are different characteristics of Public Administration on the basis of the exclusive public field and administrative efficiency. The chief characteristics are as follows. (a) Due to the absence of the process of competition in governmental sp here the situation of monopoly arises. This process leads to the despotic rular. 12 (b) There is a high degree of consciousness of community services. (c) There is a high consistency of treatment. (d) There is a sense of anonymity of by the officials carrying out the public business. (e) There is a high degree of public responsibility. (f) Availability of public information. (g) There is the large scale organization facilities. (h) Formulation and implementation of public policies. (i) Co-ordination, group activity and social relationship. 1.4.4: Nature of Public Administration From the views of the different scholars of Public Administration, the nature of Public Administration has been described under the following point. 1.4.4.1: Integral View and Managerial view According to the integral view, administration is the sum total or whole complex of activities such as manual, clerical, technical and managerial which are undertaken to realize the objective in view, i.e. implementation of the policies in a given field of administration. According to the managerial view, administration is not the sum total of activities concerned with management which unite and control the rest of them as a part of co-coordinated enterprise. To distinguish between the above two views of administration is nothing b ut the work between getting things done and doing things. In managerial view, only the managerial activities constitute the whole priority of public administration. So in this view there is something different from the integral views and administration is not doing things but getting them done. The main supporters of the integral views are L.D. White and M.E. Dimock and the main supporters of the managerial view are Henry Simon, Smithburg, Thompson and Luther Gullick. In regard to managerial view Luther Gullick emphasized on the POSDCORB view such as Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Controlling, Reporting and Budgeting where he emphasized that administration is to be identified with managerial techniques. Moreover, in the words of Nigro, Wilson, and White the simple meaning of Public administration is Government administration, it is a science so far as knowledge is concerned and art in its applicability. It is different from private 13 administration in the sense of accountability, less profit motive and greater public responsibility etc. Thus Public administration deals with the act of government with works including active and effective laws with high executive functions. The above two views manifests differences. While accepting the integral view one may understand about the entire administrative system from one sphere to another sphere of the different organization. But in the managerial view one holds that administration is the organization and the use of men and materials in the pursuit of given objective. It is a specialized calling of the manager whose function is to organize and to use men and materials to realize a given objective. Thus administration is to be identified with the managerial techniques common as they are to all the fields of activities. However neither the integral view nor the managerial view is without any faults. The real meaning of „administration‟ would depend upon the context in which it is functional. In this regard, M.E. Dimock, G.O.Dimock and L.W. Keening have abridged the position under the following ways: (i) As a study: It examines the aspect of government‟s effort to discharge the laws and to give effort to public policy. (ii) As a process: It includes the agencies participation in the formulation of the programme. (iii) As a vocation: It is organizing and directing the activities of others in a public agency. 1.5: Scope of Public Administration From the different definitions regarding Public Administration, it meets with the different problems of understanding the scope of the study of Public Administration. From the differences of opinions of Public Administration an important question arises that whether Public Administration is only the managerial part of the governmental work or the entire intricate of activiti es of only the executive branches of government, or of all the branches, i.e. Executive, legislative and judiciary. But in reality the concept of Public Administration coversall the aspects of public policy. Presently the scope of Public 14 Administration has increased both in its greatness and in its direction for the welfare of the people by applying new tool and techniques through science and technology. Public Administration is a segment of wider field of „administration‟. But regarding its scope, there are differences. According to some intellectuals, the use of the word „public‟ before „administration‟ limits its coverage to administrative activities of the government- government being the only organization which includes within itself all the people living in the state. According to them, Public Administration is defined as the organization and management of human and material resources to fulfill the objective laid down by the government which consists of three branches i.e. legislature, executive and judiciary. From the above definitions of public administration, it mainly pertains the administrative activities of the government. It is well known for the activities of the government and commonly divided into three major branches, namely Legislative, Executive and Judicial. The question naturally arises as to which of the activities of the government are included in the study of public administration. There are two views on this subject. One point of view, public administration is conceived in a comprehensive sense to include all the activities of the government, whether falling in the sphere of legislative, executive or judicial branch of the govern ment. However, according to the other point of view, `public administration‟ is concerned only with such activities of the government which pertain to the executive branch. L.D. White takes the former broad view, while Luther Gulick supports the latter na rrow view. There is a further narrowing down of the scope of public administration by restricting it to these activities of the executive branch which are connected with the execution of the policies. It means that the policy formulation has to be separate d from the execution of the policy. It is only the execution which is supposed to form part of public administration according to this narrow view. The other part of the scope of the study of public administration is introduced by the two views of administration, namely, integral and managerial views. Public administration, as a part of the more general term administration, is subject to these two views of administration. The differences of opinion about 15 the scope of study of public tends us to think that whether public administration is only the managerial part of the government work or the entire complex of the activities or only the executive branch of the government or of all branches. Administration is mere execution or application of policy or is a factor in the formulation of policy also. There are various views regarding the source of Public Administration. Let us categories them as follows: 1. Broader and Narrower view 2. POSDCORB view 3. The Subject Matter View 1.5.1: Broader and Narrower view In broader point of view Public Administration is conceived in a comprehensive sense to include all the activities of the government whether falling in the sphere of legislative, executive or judicial part of the Government.The broader view of the scope of Public Administration includes the study of all the three organs of the state i.e. the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.L.D White, Woodrow Willson, Marshal Dimock, John Pfiffner and John J. Corson endorse the broader view of Public Administration. L.D. White said “Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose to fulfillment or enforcement of public policy…..” Macqueen said “Public Administration is related to the operations to the government whether central or local.” According to J.J. Corson “Public Administration is the action part of the government, the means by which the purposes and goals of the governments are realized.” In Narrower view, Public Administration only deals with the activities of the executive organ of the government. Simon, Smithburg and Thumpson are the supporters of the view. According to them Public Administration is meant in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of national, state and local governments…. Specifically excluded are judicial and legislative agencies of the government and non- governmental administration. Luther Gullick also viewed the activities of the executive branch. Morson also viewed the science of Public Administration is an enquiry as to how policies may best be carried into operation. So according to this narrower view, Public Administration is generally linked with the activities of the executive organ of the government. 16 1.5.2: The POSDCORB View The managerial view regarding the nature of Public Administration assumes that administration is the organization and the practice of men and materials in the quest of common activities as well as common objectives. It directly deals with the techniques of management which are common to all types of organization and institutions. That view has limited the nature and scope of administration within the technique of management. However, the scope of Public Administration is popularly advocated by Luther Gullick in his POSDCORB view. He strongly believed that administration consisted of seven elements. He summed of these elements in the acronym i.e. „POSDCORB‟ view which stands as follows. P- stands for Planning which signifies working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the organisation. O- stands for organizing which signifies the establishment of formal structure of authority through which the whole work is to be done with proper arrangement, definition and coordination for the fulfilment of defined objectives. S-stands for Staffing which signifies the personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and conserving the favourable conditions of work. D- stands for Directing which signifies the decisions making and issuing orders and instructions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. Co- stands Coordinating which signifies the interrelation of the various parts of the work. R- stands for reporting which signifies keeping information those to whom the executive is responsible as to what is going on, and arranging for the collection of such information through different techniques such as research, records etc. B- stands for Budgeting which signifies the fiscal planning, accounting and control. 1.5.3 The Subject Matter View The subject-matter view of Public Administration has come into estimate in reaction to the POSDCORB view. The POSDCORB view of the scope of Public 17 Administration was continuing for a long time. In course of time, the view became insignificant. It was found neither as the whole of Public Administration nor a significant part of it. This view advocates that problems of administration are same in all the agencies irrespective of the peculiar nature of the functions they do. It superintends the fact that there are different problems in different administrative agencies. Further the tools of administration are only represented in the POSDCORB view. The real principal of administration consists of various services such as defense, health, education, agriculture, soc ial security, justice, etc. These services have their own special techniques where the common POSDCORB techniques fails. It means these organizations have their own subject matter on which the basic features of organizations are based. The subject matter view is quite subject oriented, whereas the POSDCORB view is technique oriented.The subject matter view emphasizes on the services rendered and the functions performed by the administrative agency. So the study of Public Administration should be not only based on the technique of administration but also the substantive concerns of administration. However, the scope of Public Administration neither depends on the POSDCORB view nor on the subject matter view. It is a complement of each other. In this regard Le wis Merian said “Public Administration is an instrument with two blades like a pair of scissors. One blade may be a knowledge of the fields covered by POSDCORB, the other blade is knowledge of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both blades must be good to make an effective tool.” Simultaneously M.E. Dimock said “Administration is concerned with „What‟ and „How‟ of the government. The „What‟ is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of the field, which enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The „How‟ is the technique of management, the principle according to which the cooperative programmers are carried to success. Each is indispensable, together they formed the synthesis called administration.” However as a discipline Public Administration consists of organizational theory and behavior, public personnel administration, public financial administration, comparative and development administration and public policy analysis. 18 1.5.4: Other Views regarding the Scope of Public Administration Willoughby in his book „Principles of Administration‟ has discussed at great length regarding the scope of public administration. According to him, the study of public administration includes the study of five areas. 1. General or Overhead Administration- It primarily denotes to managerial activities such as planning, co-coordinating, commanding etc. 2. Organizational Structure- It refers to the study of the design of the organization such as hierarchy, scalar chain etc. 3. Personnel Administration- it includes training, promotion, grievance redressal, recruitment etc. 4. Financial Administration- It refers to the study of the economical use of financial sources. 5. Material and Supply- It refers to the management of material resources. Macqueen says that the scope of public administration extends to three Ms 1. Man 2. Method- The study of structures and processes. 3. Material Pfiffner says that scope of public administration includes the study of two areas. 1. The principles of administration- It refers to the study of the various concepts, theories, law, methods, methodologies, tools, techniques etc. 2. The sphere of administration- It refers to the study of various levels of administration such as local administration, regional administration, internal administration, national administration, international administration etc. In a similar way, Walker has come out with two major areas of study in this regard. 1. Administrative Theory- It refers to the study of concepts, theories, tools, techniques, methods and methodologies of administration. 2. Applied Administration- It refers to the study of various functional are as of administration such as school administration, health administration, law and order administration etc. 19 This definition also brings about a scope of public administration from a similar perspective as was the case with Macqueen. But, if one looks at these definitions individually, the scope seems to be simple.According to Stephen K. Bailey the study of public administration includes four major areas which are as follows Descriptive Theory- It refers to „what‟ the study of organizational structures and organizational processes. Normative Theory- It refers to the study of „what ought to be‟ or „what should be‟ i.e. the study of the normative concerns and objectives of the government. Instrumentalist Theory- It refers to the study of tools and techniques of administration. Assumptive Theory- It refers to the objective study of administrative behaviour. It refers to the behaviour of the individual within organization without assuming their angelic or iniquitous behaviour. Thus, Public administration carries a wider scope and it is the study of government in action. Government in action is a dependent variable and being a dependent variable, it is linked to a number of ecological concerns. The government in action is never static and thus, its boundary can ne ver be established or delineated. 1.6: Approaches of Public Administration There are various approaches to the study of Public Administration which can be categorized from different angles. It may be divide under two heads such as Normative Approach and Empirical Approach. The normative approach deals with what Public Administration should be and empirical approach sets its eyes on descriptions and analysis of actual administrative situations. From another view point it can be categorized under the following heads such as (A) Philosophical Approach (B) Legal Approach (C) Historical Approach (D) The Case-Method Approach (E) Institutional and Structural Approach (F) Behavioral Approach 20 (G) Human Factor Approach (H) Political Economy Approach to Public Administration (I) Structural Functional Approach to Public Administration (J) Public Policy Approach to Public Administration (K) Marxian Traditions and their Approach to Public Administration 1.6.1: Philosophical Approach The philosophical approach is the most comprehensive and perhaps the oldest approach to the Public Administration as of all other social sciences. For example this approach is there in the „Shanti Parva‟ of Mahabharata, Plato‟s „The Republic‟, Aristotle‟s „The Politics‟, Hobbes Leviathan, Locks „Treaties on Civil Government‟ etc. This approach is also advocated by Swami Vivekananda and Peter Self. This approach covers a wide ranging purview of administrative activities which aims to find out the principles of organization. 1.6.2: Legal Approach The legal approach to the study of Public Administration wasoriginated after the development of philosophical approach. This approach has traced its originfrom the European tradition of Public Administration in law. This approach has gained its popularity in European countries like France, Germany and Belgium. It also has its advocates in Britain and USA. This approach was advocated by F.J. Goodnow. This approach in the study of Public Ad ministration is a part of law and legally prescribed structure and organization of public authorities. This is also known as judicial or juristic approach, which came into existence in the era of Laissez Faire, limiting the functions of the state. 1.6.3: Historical Approach The study of History is also vital to apprehend the present as well as the future. The study of public administration also cannot be complete without understanding the evolution and progress of civilizations from the past to the present. The Historical approach to public administration focuses on the administrative systems, process and policies practiced in the past and then try to interpret them relevantly in the context of present times. There are two sides of the coin which the scholars have argued, while this approach may provide rich 21 details regarding what worked and what not in the past but authors like John Pierre and B Guy Peters say that the study of history cannot provide any usable information which can be used now and the students of public administration should not have such misconceived notions. The important point to note is that scholars should know when to reconsider the past and when to isolate from it to draw relevant philosophies and assumptions. However, the study of hi story of administration does not become any lesser important even in the light of above contrasting argument. It remains important because developments in society over time and ages have a lasting effect on the quality and quantity of public services delivered. This approach also helps the scholars and students to understand that how the Government adjusted its administration and functioning with changing times and what ramifications it had. The study of the past also provides crucial information regarding why some methods, policies, systems etc were adopted and which needs did they address. With the importance of historical approach established in studies of public administration, we shall now see what the legal approach to public administration is. Taking the legal route to public administration would venture into the formidable legal structure and organization of public bodies. As the name suggests, this approach associated itself with laws, rules, regulations, codes, official duties etc. It also described the power, limitations and discretionary powers of the authority and judicial decisions. Many countries especially in Europe like Germany, France, Belgium and others have adopted the legal route to study public administration. It works well for these countries as they have two distinct divisions of laws, the constitutional and the other administrative. The constitutional law mainly dealt with the interrelation of power between the legislative, executive and judicial branches of the Government while the administrative part concerns itself with the functioning of the public organizations. Thus, the historical approach to the study of Public Administration studies the Public Administration of the past within particular time spans, organizing and interpreting the information in a chronological order. This approach naturally commands the powerful attraction in a society which had a very rich past and identifies the distinctive administrative system. For example 22 L.D. White has divided the American federal administration under the following four heads such as (i)The Federalist (1948) (ii)The Jeffersonoan (1951) (iii)The Jacksonian (iv) The Republican Era However, analyzing the historical approach, Kautilya‟s Arthasastra and book on Mughal administration and British administration also emphasizes the past administrative system in India. 1.6.4: The Case-Method Approach In the year 1930s this approach became very popular. It deals with the narration of specific events that lead to a decision of an administrator. This approach is based on the administrative realities and students accustoms with them. In 1952, twenty case studies were conducted and titled as Public Administration and Policy Administration by Harold Stein. The Indian Institute of Public Administration in New Delhi and the National Academy of Administration had also published several case studies. According to D Waldo “The case approach has been motivated by a commitment to the objectives and methods of the socia l sciences, to be sure, but it has been saved also by a considerable sensitivity to traditional concerns of the humanities and by a practical interest in pedagogy as against research”. 1.6.5: Institutional and Structural Approach The institutional approach to the study of public administration recognizes itself with the institutions and organizations of the State. The core area of this method lies in detailed study of the structure, the functioning, rules, and regulations of the executives, legislatures and the departments of the Government. The scholars who practice this approach contemplates administration to be an apolitical and mechanical function which lies only in the aspect of policy implementation.The authors like L D White and Luther Gulick concentrated their efforts in unfolding what an institutional structure was and did little to build any theory actually. The reader may be fascinated as to why this special attention was paid to define 23 institutions. The present day definition of institution encom passing all kinds of rules, regulations and organizations is argued as inaccurate by many authors like B Guy Peters and Jon Pierre. An organization keeps getting complex by adding informal norms and practices which happens through its interaction with the external environment and they are in a sense independent of the individuals who make an organization at a given point of time. However, according to Selznick (1957), any organization which is complex needs to be infused with value which is beyond the technical requirement of the tasks that are performed by that organization. This means that an organization has a distinctive sense of self and identity and its way and its beliefs become important for the society as well. It also starts representing the aspiration of the community and in turn influences the community with their own values and beliefs. A real institution becomes a symbol for the community in many ways, like the very building in which it is housed. It can be interestingly explained and seen all t hrough the History that the revolting group often occupy the presidential palace or offices or the parliamentary buildings or pose a threat to the powerful and symbolic structures. The above discussion becomes relevant with respect to the study of public administration because Government organizations are institutional in many ways and represent the needs and aspirations of the community. Therefore, studying and understanding their administration becomes important to make them more efficient and result oriented. While the traditional study of public administration emphasizes on the knowledge of History and Law but this institutional approach focuses on the organizational structure, goals and principles as primary. So, a lot of attention was given to the problems related to the functioning of an organization like delegation, coordination and control and bureaucratic structure. However, the main drawback to this approach was that little or no attention was given to the external sociological and psychological influences. These factors affect the organization in ways which are not always subtle, but have strong consequences on the health and wellbeing of an organization. With this new approach the older approach and theories to the study of public administration also underwent a few changes. There were serious questions raised on the politics- administration bifurcation. The premise that the basic 24 principles of administration can be applied universally was also challenged with the emergence of diverse administrative environments. The administrative goals of economy and efficiency were supplemented with social and economic progress. And also, a lot of management principles came into the field of public administration. 1.6.6: Behavioural Approach The increasing dissatisfaction against the institutional and structural approach preserved into what has come to be called the behavioural approach to the study of Public Administration. In 1940s this approach had emerged focusing the actual behaviour of persons and groups in organization. The forerunners of this approach were Herbert A. Simon and Robert A. Dahl. 1.6.7: Human Factor Approach Public administration is meant for human beings. So human factors becomes central part of it. On the one hand it involves the relation between administration and its employees and on the other it is meant between administration and those who are administered. Thus in modern age public administration implies a large organizations whose boundary cannot be drawn easily. The formal procedures are necessary and even anticipated for the organization but in the management procedure human factor plays an abundant role in functioning the administration. According to O.Tead “The central powerhouse of the motivational impulsion and spirit which makes the institution drive to fulfill its purpose”. Although the large organizations inevitably results in depersonalization, loss of individuality for the member and virtual treatment as a cog in the machine and in operational levels work of management and supervision, human factors are neglected but human factor plays an important role. It is also discussed in the human relation theory developed by Elton Mayo. 1.6.8: Political Economy Approach to Public Administration We have read about the famous Wilsonian dichotomy of politics and administration and after the Second World War the diminishing relevance of this dichotomy. The above reference is vital to be kept in mind to understand this 25 topic which brings together the science of politics and economic together to gain a detailed understanding of the administration of the state and its resources. After the New Public Administration theory of 1968, there was a new approach proposed in the 1970s which talked about economic approaches to analyze public administration called the Public Choice Theory. We shall take a step back to understand a few concepts and developments of that time to better analyze the Public Choice Theory. By the middle of the last century, the Pigouvian social welfare system was adopted by many economies. British economist Arthur C Pigou wrote a book called The Economic of Welfare in 1920 and also tried defining what welfare is in economic terms. A ccording to him economic welfare can be measured like monetary welfare by means of using money as a yardstick. Thus economic welfare, in the Pigouvian sense is the utility satisfaction that a person derives from the use of goods and services which can be e xchanged amongst each other. The important aspect of this theory was that to maximize the welfare through the means of distribution of national income. Now, we also need to understand a term called externality. It comes into action when an individual X affects Y in a reckless manner without taking Y‟s gains or losses into account. This leads to a situation called externality. Therefore, in an economy, the Government intervention becomes important to address these externalities. Considering this example given by Pigou himself: If a person is running the business of manufacturing alcohol, there is a specific and substantial social impact of this product. This can be, increase in crimes, increased cost of police staff and prisons, the long time and resources investment of the judiciary etc, which exceeds the net private product, the alcohol. To counter this, the alcohol production will have to be increased by the manufacturer. To deal with this overproduction the Government would have to impose a tax on the manu facturers. This tax would be to equate the private cost (of the manufacturer) and the social cost. The above explanation was necessary to understand the Public Choice theory in a rather detailed manner. Before this theory was proposed, economists and other subject matter experts considered State or the Government to be an 26 agent beyond the realms of economic theories. The state functioned on different drivers than economy and it was an accepted fact. However, the Public Choice theory challenged this very fact and proposed the use of economic yardstick to evaluate the resource allocation in the public sector and economic analysis to identify the inefficiencies in the Government policy and decision making processes. It also makes a premise that the bureaucrats and politicians work on a model to increase their own power and influence and end up formulating policies which may be against the larger public interest. Not, that we needed a theory to prove that however, it got a thumbs up from many authors and subject matter experts. This theory also brought in a more consumer centric approach in the formulation of policies and the manner in which the government machinery should function. There was a clear inclination towards democratic administration from bureaucracy and an important aspect was emphasized that the government action needs to be in sync with the values, needs and wants of the citizens. 1.6.9: Structural Functional Approach to Public Administration The structural functional approach to public administratio n is a term adapted from sociology and anthropology which interprets society as a structure with interrelated parts. This approach was developed by the celebrated anthropologist Malinowski and Radcliff Brown. So, according to them, each society has a structure and functions. These functions are norms, customs, traditions and institutions and can be analogized as organs of a body, as explained by Herbert Spencer. All these functions need to work together to make the body function as a whole. Having explained the broader meaning of the term; it makes more sense for us to understand it from the perspective of public administration which would guide our further analysis of the topic. During his period as a Researcher at the Foreign Policy Association in USA, Fred Riggs came across an interesting phenomenon regarding the American Public Administration. He found them to be extremely self-absorbed in their approach which believed that the American way of administration was unique without any complements elsewhere in the world and that it was capable of answering all the administrative problems emerging in the new developing countries. However, in order to explore the consequences of 27 intermingling of contrasting systems in the developing countries, he looked at the structural functional approach of the social sciences. This approach provides a mechanism to understand social processes. The function is the consequence of patterns of actions while the structure is the resultant institution and the patt ern of action itself. It reads complicated but the theory in itself is not that difficult to understand. Social structures can be concrete such as Government department and Bureaus or even specific societies held together by shared beliefs, customs and morals and also analytic like structure of power or authority.These structures perform certain functions and in terms of structural functional approach, these functions have an interdependent pattern between structures. So the first step would be to view bureaucracy as a structure which has administrative system with characteristics like hierarchy, specialization etc. The behavioral characteristics can be rationality, neutrality, professionalism and rule orientation. Then, one can proceed to examine the functions of bureaucracy. There may be a question such as „Do the similar kinds of structures perform the same functions? The structural functionalists say a big Nay to that, which means that a structure can perform multiple functions and vice versa i.e. one function can be performed by multiple structures. According to Riggs, there are five functional requisites of a society: Economic, Socio-communicational, Symbolic, Political. While talking about Riggs explanation of the concept and contribution to this approach, we cannot proceed further without mentioning his Prismatic Model. This model uses a common phenomenon as an analogy, when white light passes through a prism it breaks into seven colors of different wavelength. As per Riggs, the white light is the fused structure of traditional society. The rainbow represents the diffracted (or refracted) structures of an industrialized society. Inside the prism the society was in transition. Prismatic Model Riggs challenged the traditional approaches of public ad ministration implying that basic principles of administration have universal application. It also contributed to the comparative study of public administration by providing a 28 more relevant perspective; that not all systems work the same in all places, so o ne can take what one likes and leave the rest. 1.6.10: Public Policy Approach to Public Administration We remember reading about the Wilsonian philosophy of public administration and the famous dichotomy of politics and administration. After Wilson, there were many authors like Frank J Goodnow, L D White and F. W. Willoughby who elaborated on the topic and reaffirmed the need to separate the political functions and administrative functions of the government. Willoughby went to the extent of calling public administration as the fourth branch of Government after legislative, executive and judiciary. However, this politic-administration dichotomy theory lost it relevance after the Second World War. The writers, authors, academicians and subject matter experts finally awakened to the fact that administration of a government can never be free of political elements. They started protesting and writing against the separation of politics and administration as they could clearly see that both were horribly intertwined with one another and impossible to separate both in spirit and action. After the Second World War, there was a renewed interest in the aspects of administration because of the practical encounters and alliances formed during the war, creation of international organizations and emergence of the developing countries. Also, after the war, the Government reinvented itself from a peace keeper and provider of services to become a Welfare State. The public expenditure in most parts of the world increased greatly after 1945 as the Governments started taking more and more initiatives for the welfare of the society. A lot of reforms were carried out in areas not just regarding the content of public policy but also the ways in which they were formulated. This new approach gained momentum after 1970s when a lot of analysis started happening around the way the government policies affected the people. The Vietnam War and Watergate scandal in US, the Administrative Reforms Commission established in India in 1966, the initiative to reduce public expenditure in order to reduce direct taxation under Margaret Thatcher in 1979, 29 the creation of the Malaysian Administrative and Management Planning Unit in 1977 in Malaysia were to name a few. With changing times, the needs of the society have also changed and so has the role of the government and nature of its policies. The increase in the average age of the population has made the Government to look into the pension policies in the developed countries while the young illiterate pop ulation of the developing countries has forced their governments to come up with policies like Right to Education in India. The irony of this public policy approach is that it encompasses many aspects of government functioning. The spectrum has become so broad that; to a student of public administration, it appears confused and spread all over. The other approaches that have clear segregation between the politics and administration were clearly distinguishable and easy to understand. Many readers may also get dissuaded to realize that politics influence the policy making as well as the administration aspects of the way a Government functions. However with increasing number of stakeholders and pressure groups, the politics can be kept in check and the role of politician comes under scanner to dissuade any kind of strategic policy making to benefit only a few. 1.6.11: Marxian Traditions and their Approach to Public Administration Karl Marx has often been cited as the most powerful personality in the history of human civilization. He was a philosopher while being an economist, a socialist who was also a journalist and a historian who proposed the materialist conception of history. His views regarding his areas of work and interests are collectively termed as Marxian.Karl Marx was a rebel in many ways which also contributed to his abilities to look and understand beyond the obvious. He firmly believed that the world cannot be changed just by generating ideas; changes can be brought in, only by real, physical activity. Even as s student Marx was deeply influenced by the work of German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel. It was Hegel who inspired Marx to switch from legal studies to philosophy; a fact Marx admitted in a letter to his father, justifying his decision. What is interesting is that, Hegel and his inspiration did not prevent Marx from comprehending the lacunae between the rational and the real in the philosophies of Hegel. One of his imp ortant works was his Critique of Hegel‟s Philosophy of the Right. It is advisable to the reader to do 30 a little background study about the philosophy and works of G.W.F. Hegel, to understand the above discussion in a better light. It would only make sense to point out to the readers at this stage is that Marx wrote very little about bureaucracy as such, and mostly after 1843. However whatever little he wrote gives a clear understanding of his stand regarding the need and relevance of bureaucracy in a modern State. Marx believed that understanding the functionalism and structuralism of bureaucracy was critical because it is the political expression of the division of labor. In his „The Eighteenth Brumaire‟ Marx calls France as the abode to bureaucracy as opposed to Germany which in his opinion, up until then was the supreme example of oppressive bureaucratic conditions in the states. He suggests that bureaucracy create conditions which subjects people to gross manipulations. Another important deviation from the Hegel influence can be viewed in the manner Marx and Hegel understood bureaucracy. According to Hegel public administration was a bridge between the State and civil societies. The state through bureaucracy joined various particular interest to arrive at o ne general interest.On the other hand Marx viewed that the State did not represent the general interest but the interests of the ruling or the dominant class. And obvious enough, this class was a part of the civil society. He went on to say that in a capitalist economy, the bureaucracy is aligned with the dominant class and it masquerades the interests of this dominant class as the general interest which is subsequently forced on the society. While reading Marx on bureaucracy one can visualize it as an oppressive, mysterious system beyond the understanding or control of common people. It has certain symbols and secret ways of working and staunch traditions which makes it inherently incompetent in so many ways. Lenin was a follower of Marxian approach on bureaucracy and had ruled out any scope of it when the capitalism would be thrown out of Russian. But, after 1917, when he came into power, he could not help but rely on bureaucracy to help him run the State. Marx was never oblivious to the growing popularity of bureaucracy and the need of public administration as an aspect of Government functioning, around the world. Nevertheless, this promulgation of bureaucracy did not prevent him to see the dangerous loopholes it carried. 31 1.7: Public and Private Administration Public Administration refers to the administration which functions in the governmental surroundings. The private administration on the other hand, refers to the administration which functions in the non-governmental surroundings such as the business enterprises. So Public Administration is „Governmental Administration‟ and private administration is known as „business administration‟. The expansion of public sector into industrial enterprises has been into practice for quite some time, a little over half a century now. The public sector organizations in order to function efficiently are borrowing heavily from the business knowledge, administration and process orientation of the private organizations. However, there still remains a considerable difference between these two administrative practices. It would be interesting to learn about both similarities and differences between these two to arrive at a better understanding. So it is necessary to deal with the questions such as is public Administration similar to, or different from private administration?. There is one school of thought which is of the opinion that there is no difference between the two and that the administrative activities and technics are similar in all types of organizations, whether they be public or private. Let us first understand the differences and see what the authors and subject matter experts have to say about it. Differences: Public Administration is different from private administration in terms of the working environment i.e the institutional settings in which it functions. Paul H. Appleby was the prominent supporter of this view. In his book titled “Big Democracy” he observed „In broad terms the governmental function and attitude have at least three complementary aspects, th ey are (A) The first is the political character (B) The second is the breadth of scope, impact and consideration (C) The public accountability‟. 32 John Gaus of Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration regarded government activities as “different from that of private organizations almost in kind as well as in scope”. Josia Stamp went a step further and identified four aspects of difference s of which the only one similar to that of Appleby‟s is that of public accountability or public responsibility as Stamp identifies it. The other three are: (i) Principle of uniformity (ii) Principle of external financial control (iii) Principle of service motive Herbert Simonhad explained the very practical differences based on popular beliefs and imagination and therefore might seem more appealing. He said “Public Administration is bureaucratic while private administration is business like. Public administration is political while private administr ation is apolitical. And finally; the aspect most of us would swear by that public administration is characterized by red tape while the private administration is free of it.The management Guru Peter Drucker sums up the difference in more comprehensive manner. He says that the very intuition which governs both kinds of administration is different from each other. While the public administration functions on service intuition the private administration follows the business intuition. They also have different purposes to serve, with different needs, values and objectives. Both of them make different kind of contribution to the society as well. The way the performance and results are measured is different in a public administration than that of private one. However, the major differences between the two are as follows. (i)High prestige and Social status: In comparison to private administration, public administration enjoys high degree of status and prestige. It is because of the supreme power lies on the governmental machinery.Public Administration rendering more service to the public than private organization. (ii) Subjected to Political direction: Public Administration is subjected to political orientation and direction as under the policies the bureaucrats im plement the policy whereas the private administration does not have any political 33 direction. The ends the private administration follows are of its own decision and choice. Their objectives do not depend upon the political decision makers. But the administrator under public administration follows the orders of the executive authorities with little option of his own. (iii) Service oriented and Profit motive: The principal feature of public Administration is service oriented and profit motive. Its objective is to rendered service to the public and stimulate community welfar. The Private administration on the other hand is characterized by profit motive or profit making organization, but not social service organization. Its main objective is to maximize profit. In the words of Ludwig Von Mises “Business management or profit management is management directed by the profit motive. The objective of business management is to make a profit. The objectives of Public administration cannot be measured in money terms and cannot checked by accountancy method. ” (iv) Principle of Uniformity: The principles of Public administration is based on the principle of uniformity. According to this principle there is no concept like favour and disfavor. All are equal under the banner of public administration.it ios generally consistent in procedure and maintains uniformity while dealing with the public, as is the case of private administration. The private administration need not worry about the uniformity in treatment. The public administration believes in the principle of „First come, first serve motto‟. Rechard Warner while discussing the features of business administration or private administration said‟Business need not worry over much about uniformity in treatmen t.‟ (v) Establishing Public Relation: The Public and Private Administration also differs on the ground of establishing their public relation. There is a huge gap in the establishment of public relationship between the public and private administrations. It is the public organization who gives more importance to the people rather than the business or private organization. But the business or private organizations gives more importance on business which is more profit motive in nature. While in the private organizations the relation is employed to win customers by window displaying, free samples and design and colour of levels but in the public organizations it is not the source of relation. 34 (vi) The matters of Efficiencies and effectiveness. In the matters of efficiency, the private organizations are much superior then the public. In private organization efficiency is measured in terms of resources they use. In this organization the performance of the employees are important which matters the input- output relationship. Efficiency of the employees is calculated as „profit earning‟ in the organizations. But if one takes profit as the indicator in the public organization, it will be a narrow view of the role of this sector. Effectiveness refers to the successful achievement of specific goals. For example in the emergency situations the government, rather calculating the costs of operation to reduce expenditure, tries to relief rather than minimum cost weighs. (vii) Different in the principle of organization The principle of organization is significant to both public and private administration. But while analyzing the sphere of public administration and the realm of private administration, the faults in the public sphere does more harm rather than the private enterprise. For example Huxley said „The state lives in a glass house, we see what it tries to do, and all its failures, partial or total, are made the most of. But. But private organization is sheltered under opaque bricks and mortar. ‟ (viii)The nature of Monopoly The Public Administration is generally monopolistic by its nature. It does not give enough scope to the private parties to compete with it. The governmental organizations are not allowed to run by the individual or a group of individuals but run by the government itself. This is not in case of private administration. They are free to compete without any restrictions with other private organizations. According to Glenn Stahl “The services performed by the state are generally of a monopolistic or semi-monopolistic character, a fact which springs from the very urgency of the functions undertaken. Because of this fact it is much more difficult to gauge the efficiency of the conduct of public business than of ordinary private business, which is subject to competition and forced to balance its books from year to year.” 35 (ix) The matter of Public Responsibility Public responsibility is one of the important pillar of Public Administration. Because the public is the main source of administration. So public scrutiny, accountability and transparency are the important characteristics of Public Administration. It has also faces the criticism from the public, the press and from the political parties. When the question of private administration comes, it does not have any great responsibility towards the public. In the words of P.H. Appleby “Government administration differs from all other administrative works to a degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and public outcry. An administrator coming into government is struck at once and continually thereafter, by the press and public interest in every detail of his life, personality and conduct…..every government executive lives and moves and has his being in the presence of public dynamite. ” (x) Extensive Financial control Public Administration is exposed to very extensive financial control. The legislature passes the financial bill and the executive authorities spend the money. In case of India the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) controls the total finance and reports to the Parliament of India. Using different means a nd methods, the Parliament of India controls the national finance. But in Private administration this type of financial control is not found. (xi) Different psychological attitude There is a great difference in the psychological attitude between the private and public administration. According to Simon public and private administrations are different from each other under the three following ways (i) Public administration is bureaucratic, whereas private administration business like. (ii) Public administration is political whereas private administration is non -political. (iii) Public administration is characterized by red-tape, whereas private administration is free from it. 36 Similarities Thereare many similarities between the ways in which a public a nd a private administration functions. The similarities are so much that some subject matter experts and authors like Henry Fayol, M P Follet, LyndallUrvick do not treat them as different. Fayol said that all kinds of administration function on some general principle irrespective of them being public or private. The planning, organizing, commanding and controlling are similar for all administrations.The above arguments and several other points suggested and illustrated by other authors as well clearly point out that there are more similarities between the two administrations than what we see and understand.The managerial aspects of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling are the same for public and private administration. The accounting aspects like maintenance of accounts, filing, statistics and stocking are the same. Both of them have a hierarchical chain of command or reporting as the organizational structure. Both get influenced, adopt and reform their own practices in the light of best practi ces of the other. They also share the same pool of manpower. And lastly they share similar kinds of personnel and financial problems. However there are number of similarities between the two are given below. (i)Common skill and technique Both the public and private administration possesses various common skills and techniques. The accounting management, statistics, office management, stocking, purchase and disposal are the same procedures followed by both the administrations. (ii) Profound influence upon each other In official management and running of commercial organizations, it is necessary to create a relationship between the organizations as they are the parts of the society as a whole. The traditional governmental administrations have an influence over the modern administration. Likewise in case of the privateenterprises the big privates enterprises influences on the small enterprises. 37 (iii)Similarity in the principle of administrative set up The principles such as hierarchy, span of control, unity of command are quite same in boththe system of administration. Both of them have some kind of structure, working specification, specialized duties and responsibilities etc. but in both the cases the people are the sole authority to take decision to improve their own techniques and procedures. (iv)Sufficient scope for the research and improvement Bothe the public and private administrations create enough scope for improvement of the research capacity. In order to improve the procedure and techniques both the administrations try to their best. (v) Co-ordination and Public relation. Both public and private administration put much emphasis on establishing coordination, cooperation and public relations amon g the masses which is very vital for the smoth running of the administration of the country. If they fail to achieve this, administration is bound to be a failure one. Thus, in this regard there is a similarity between the two enterprises. (vi) Mutual exchange and rotation Whatever may be the organization I.e. public or private, mutual exchange and rotation is the primary and fundamental principle. It is because in every type of administration there is the division of labour and stratification of employees from top to bottom or vice versa. So it needs greater mutual exchange and rotation. By observing the above differences and similarities D. Waldo said “The generalization which distinguished public administration from priva te administration by special care for equality of treatment, Legal authorization of, and responsibility of action, public justification or justifiability of decision, financial probity and meticulousness, and so forth are of very limited applicability. In fact, public and private administration are the two species of the same genus, but they have special values and techniques of their own which give to each its distinctive character. ” 38 1.8: Role of Public Administration in developed countries The developed countries are well-known by certain factors like highly developed economy, bigger mechanical substructure, high Gross Domestic Product and net income per capita, growth of industrialization and the standard of living of the people. Development and modernization of a state has an obvious and significant impact on its politics, culture and society. Subsequently, these changes find their ways in several other important institutions like judiciary, executive and legislative. USA has been one of the nations, which have witnessed vast changes and reforms in its administrative history owing to the industrialization, two world wars and the various academic and experimental studies carried out in the areas of social and behavioral sciences. However, in developed countries the public administration plays a very limited role. As the infrastructure in these countries are developed and widespread, there is a high degree of private ownership and management. This creates a limit to the apparatuses and functioning of public administration. However, the role of public administration in developed countries is a restrained one. It also explains the existence of a unidentified, unspecified and unbiased civil service, performing devotedly the jobs allocated to it. The bureau cracy in these countries is very highly focused and professionalized. It is a large scale complex organization designed to perform complicated task. These countries have an ideal type of bureaucracy which is also known as the weberian type of bureaucracy. 1.8.1: Features of Public Administration in developed countries The important features of public administration in developed countries are as follows. (i)Task specialization- There is a high degree of task specialization in the developed countries. It shows that the specialized departments will function by their own sphere of job such as agricultural, transport, defence, fiscal planning etc. 39 (ii) Personal achievement-In developed countrieswhen the individual achieves something than it is because of his personal effort and labour but not for his social stats or family status. (iii) Rationality- The decision and law making process is largely rational in the developed countries. (iv)Responsibility of the governmental institutions- The government institutions are present in all spheres of the life of the citizens in the developed countries. As there is popular interest in public affairs, there is a direct relationship between political power and legitimacy. (v) Ira Sharkansky’ view – Ira Sharkansky explains three characteristics of bureaucracies in developed countries I,eBureaucracies are large having numerous sub units with specialized employees which reflects task specialization in wide range of governmental activities. Bureaucracy assets directio n from other legitimate branches of government. Bureaucracy is considered to be professional I,e a sign of specialization among bureaucrats. (vi) Ferrel Heady’s view – Farrel Heady viewed five characteristics regarding the role of public administration in developed countries. They are (a) in these countries the public administration is large scale, complex and instrumental. (b) The bureaucracy demonstrations a sense of specializations. (c)Highly specialized bureaucracy. (d) The political process is fairly clear and the political institutions are generally definite and accepted. (e) The bureaucracy is subject to effective political control by other specific political institutions. 1.8.2: Problems of public administration of developed countries Thepublic administration of developed countries are facing problem which is because of the lack of coherence between numerous service providing agencies and regulatory bodies. The problem especially surfaces at the local levels where the authorities design their own programs and also run the programs funded by the national authorities. The other example can be dominance of politicians in the matters of specialized domains of bureaucracy.Most of the developed states, especially in most of the continental part of Europe are called Administrative States and their bureaucracies perform certain specific functions. RumkiBasu in 40 her book Public Administration: Concepts and Theories explains these functions. According to her, the public administration in these countries perf orms regulatory functions while ensuring the enforcement of law and order, collection of revenues and the national defense against aggression. Thus, the public administration provides a range of services like education, health, cultural, insurance, housing , unemployment benefits and communication and transport. They also play an important role in bringing about the economic growth of the country by operating industries, giving loans etc. Now a days, the challenges of the developed countries are primarily economic. The economic depression has put immense pressures on the services provided by the government. A lot of reforms have been proposed in which the state resources are being closely administered. The withdrawal of ce rtain benefits has left the public administration of the countries exposed to a lot of criticism and standard from the common people. The regulatory role of public bodies has also come under inspection for their failure to prevent major upheavals from taki ng place. As things improve, the role and challenges of public administration shall change once again. 1.9: Role of Public Administration in Developing countries Now a days the developing countries are confronting with the situation like poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, ill health condition, starvation, economic degradation, mal nutrition, corruption etc.in the different segments of the society and various stages of administration. So in the present situation, it is the public administration which has a vital role to play to eradicate all these problems and maladies by nation building and socio-economic developments. So it is not only the responsibility of thecentral government but also the prime duty of the state administrations to join hands for nation building. In order to bring changes in the above developmental measures, the government should engross in the following developmental activities. (i) Provide capital for economic and social development. (ii) Try to eradicate poverty, disease and social illne ss in the social sphere. 41 (iii) Building revitalizing in improving social institutions for the up -liftment and intellectual development of the society. Thus in the third world countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America , the Public Administration plays a crucial role in national progress. As these countries became economically and politically weak after colonial rule, so it is the principal duty of the public sector organization sto develop infrastructure for their progress. Though it is a great challenge before Public Administration, but the goal is not unattainable. The present century demands from the Public Administration that there should be institutional changes in the governmental organization and attitudinal changes in the individual set up. For the transformation of the society Public Administration should be reconstructed, renewed and strengthened. However, the problem of development and social change can only be moved by effective Public Administration. Public Administration is such a type of machinery which itself changes according to the changing environment. This is called modernization and development of administrative machinery. Viewing this situation, the Second United Nations Development Decade emphasized the following points. a. To bring changes in the socio-economic field there is the demand of „administrative revolution‟. b. Inapplicable administrative structure, systems and practices should be replaced by active and dynamic mechanism. c. There should be a commitment and capability of implementing plans, programs and projects of the Public Administration. According to Gerald Caiden „The crucial role of Public Administration in contemporary society assumes a. Preservation of the polity b. Maintenance of stability and order c. Institutionalization of socio-economic changes d. Management of large scale commercial services e. Ensuring growth and economic development f. Protection of the weaker section of the society g. Formation of public opinion 42 h. Influence of public policies and political trends. 1.10: Conclusion None can deny the fact that over the past days the responsibility of the governments and administration in developing countries has improved a lot. All the three organs of the government like the legislative, executive and judiciary are actively involving in the developmental process. Now a days, the Mass media, which is considered as the fourth pillar of democracy, is playing a vital role to bring about transparency and accountability in the administrative system.However, development has become a challenge, which needs the responsibility of the government as well as the people. Thus, the plans, policies, programmes which are implemented by the government must be transparent and accountable before the public. 1.11: Summary From the above, one may understand to summarize Public Administration as a. A co-operative group effort in Public settings. b. Covers all the three branches of the –executive, legislative and judicial and their interrelationships. c. Has an important role in the formulation of public policy and is thus a part of the political process. d. Is more important than and also different in significant ways from private administration e. As a field of study and practice has been much influenced in recen t years by the human relations approach. f. Is closely associated with the private groups and individuals of the community. g. Administration is the organization and direction of human and material resources to accomplish a purpose. h. Administration bears at least four different meanings. They are ; as a discipline; as a vocation; as a process; as a synonym for word executive or Government. 43 i. Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment and enforcement of Public Policy. j. Thus public administration is mainly concerned with the executing and implementing part of the government. 1.12: Possible Questions A. 1. Define Public Administration. Discuss its Nature and scope. 2. Distinguish between private and public administration. 3. Discuss Public administration as a discipline or a profession. 4. Explain the characteristics of Public Administration. 5. Discuss Public Administration as a Policy Science. 6. Write down the role and importance of Public Administration in a modern State. 7. Explain the role of Public Administration in developed and developing societies. 8. Critically analyze the Nature of Public Administration in third world countries. 9. Explain the various approaches to the study of Public Administration. 10. „Public Administration is better understood as the governmental administration‟:- Explain. 1.12: Further Reading  Simon, Smithberg and Thompson, Public Administration (New York, 1950).  L.D.White, Introduction to the study of Public Administration (Mac Millan,1955).  F.M. Marx, Ed., Elements of Public Administration(New Delhi, 1968), P4.  E.N. Gladen, An Introduction to Public Administration (London, 1949), P.17.  John M. Pfiffner, Public Administration (New York, 1946)P.6 44  D. Waldo, The Study of Public Administration (New York, 1955), P.2  J.S. Hodgen, Public Administration (Canada,1969), P.1  Felix A. Nigro, Modern Public Administration (New York, 1965), P.25.  RumkiBasu, Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (New Delhi, 1990), PP. 4-5.  M.P. Sharma, Public Administration in Theory and practice (Allahabad, 1987), PP.40-41.  F.Morsten Marx (Ed.), Elements of Public Administration (New Delhi, 1968), P.7.  J.D. White Dissertations and Publications in Public Administration, Public Administration Review, Vol.46, May/ June, 1986, p.223. 45 Unit-II 2.1: objectives After going through this unit you will be able to know  Learn meaning and definition of Organization  Learn the basic principles of formal and informal organizations  Understand the theories of Organization: Traditional Theory, Scientific Management Theory, Bureaucratic Theory and Human Relation Theory 2.2: Introduction to Organization Organization is the general outline. It is a co-operative effort of a group of people in pursuit of a common objective. It is necessary that the group should be organized in order to attend the desired objectives of the administration. It is formed in order to achieve certain goals by bringing the individuals together, to share the work and act, with proper understanding over a period of time. It is an essential element of administration. It facilitates the proper utilization of men, material and money for the fulfilment of the defined objectives. So administration without organization is meaningless. There are two dimensions of organization such as formal and informal. So Dimock and Dimock said “Organization is the basic tool by means of which the administrative process is kept operating.” Thus, organizations are important because a large number of people spend an immense portion of their time in them. 2.3: Meaning of Organization The term „Organization‟ is derived from the word „Organicism‟ which means an organized body of independent parts sharing common activity. The concise oxford Dictionary defines the word „Organization‟as to frame and put into working order. The term „Organization‟ lends to three different meanings such as a. Designing the administrative structure b. Both designing and building the structure and c. The structure itself. In a static sense, an organization is a structure manned by group of individuals who are working together towards the fulfilment of the common objective and goal. It is the method of division of work. In simple meaning firstly a job is to be done; secondly 46 division of work becomes essential if a group of person is engaged in undertaking the job. In the words of Gaus “ Organization is the relation of efforts and capacities of individuals and groups engaged upon a common task in such a way as to secure the desired objectives with the list friction and the most satisfaction for whom the task is done and those engaged in the enterprises.” The definition of Gaus highlights the human element in an organization. According to E.N. Gladden organization as “the pattern of relationship between persons in an enterprise, so contrived as to fulfil the enterpriser‟s functions.” In anactive sense organization is a process of connecting together a framework of positions which can be used as a management tool for the most effective pursuit of an enterprise. It is the process of determining, arranging, grouping and assigning the activities to be performed for the attainment of objectives. According to Haimann “organizing is the process of defining and grouping the activities of the enterprise and establishing the authority relationship among them.” This is a process of differentiation and interaction of activities.By differentiating it divides the work and by integrating it creates unity of effort among the various working units. 2.3.1: Definition of Organization According to Luther Gullick “Organization is the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined and coordinated for the defined objective.” According to Mooney “Organization is the form of every human association for the attainment of common purpose.” According to Gladden “Organization is concerned with the pattern of relationships between persons in an enterprise, so constructed as to fulfill the enterpriser‟s function.” According to Simon “ByOrganization we mean a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant has a recognized role to play and duties

Document Details

Tags

Related

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue