Indian Philosophy (Orthodox Schools of Thought) PDF

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ( O r tho dox Scho o l s o f Tho ught) BUKIDNON STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES – PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT TOPICS SANKHYA/SAMKHYA YOGA NYAYA VAISESIKA VEDANTA PURVA MIMAMSA  VEDANTA: The Overview Vedanta expl...

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ( O r tho dox Scho o l s o f Tho ught) BUKIDNON STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES – PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT TOPICS SANKHYA/SAMKHYA YOGA NYAYA VAISESIKA VEDANTA PURVA MIMAMSA  VEDANTA: The Overview Vedanta explains reality on three bases. A. Brahman or Ishwara, the ultimate reality B. Atman or Jivatman, the individual soul C. Prakriti or Jagat, the visible and forever changing universe and reality The term "Vedanta" is a combination of two Sanskrit words: "Veda," which means knowledge, and "anta," which means end or culmination. Vedanta is often considered the culmination of Vedic thought. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: BRAHMAN (The Ultimate Reality) According to Vedanta, God or Brahman is infinite existence, infinite consciousness, and infinite bliss. Though the brahman has all the power and strength that could possibly exist in the universe, it has been gracious enough to provide us with free will. However, Vedanta takes a more personal approach to god. According to Vedanta, God dwells within us as atman or soul. Atman is never born, and it will never die. It is not tainted by our emotions and fluctuations of mind and body. Thus, atman is one with Brahman, and the purpose of Vedanta is a discovery of god within oneself. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: THE CYCLE OF AKASHA AND PRANA All the matter in the universe is the outcome of one primordial matter called akasha. All the forces of the universe, attractive or repulsive, are the outcome of one primordial force or energy called prana. Prana acting on Akasha is what creates and balances the universe. At the beginning of time, akasha is motionless and unmanifested. When prana acts on akasha, it creates complex animate and inanimate things in the universe. Aksha and prana can be resolved into a third thing called Mahat – the Universal Cosmic mind or Brahman. Thus, akasha and prana are not part of the cosmic mind but can be transformed into it. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: Schools of Vedanta Advaita Vedanta (Principle of Non-Dualism) Advaita Vedanta is essentially monism, and the concept dates back to the Vedas and the Upanishads. According to Advaita philosophy, the ultimate, transcendent god manifests as the universe because of its creative energy – Maya. Maya is that which appears to be real at the time of experience but does not have infinite existence. The experiencing self (Jiva) and the untainted transcendental self of the universe (atman) are the same (both are brahman). Advaita Vedanta talks about different planes of consciousness and often denounces the matters of the lived world. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department VEDANTA: Schools of Vedanta Advaita Vedanta (Principle of Non-Dualism) Brahman as the Dreamer. The dreamer is the source and essence of the dream world. Maya as the Dream or the creative energy that veils the true nature of Brahman, is akin to the dream itself. It is the power that projects a seemingly real and diverse world within the dream. The dream is an illusion—temporary, ever-changing, and not fundamentally real. Jiva as the Dream Character (You in the Dream). The individual self, Jiva, corresponds to the "you" experiencing and navigating the dream. Atman as the Dreamer's True Identity. Atman, the true self or soul that transcends the individualized identity of the Jiva, is analogous to the true identity of the dreamer behind the various roles played in the dream. The dreamer's true identity is not confined to any specific character in the dream but encompasses the entirety of the dream experience. Waking State as Awakening from the Dream. Just as one wakes up from a dream and realizes the dream was not fundamentally real, the realization of Advaita Vedanta is like waking up from the illusion of the material world created by Maya. Through self-inquiry and understanding, the individual can recognize the oneness of Jiva and Atman, realizing that both are expressions of the ultimate reality, Brahman. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: Schools of Vedanta Dvaita Vedanta (Principle of Dualism) Dvaita Vedanta regards brahman as a separate entity from atman. Brahman itself created the material world, but it is not a part of brahman as it is in Advaita Vedanta. Most of the followers of Dvaita Vedanta follow Vaishnavism and worship one god, most often in the form of Vishnu or Krishna (as Brahman). Here Vishnu is not regarded as one of the Trimurti but as a supreme reality/Brahman itself. Mostly in Dvaita Vedanta, the path to moksha or salvation is through a prayer of god. Atman can transcend to higher or lower forms based on their deeds, but brahman is the only one in which form does not change and is not subject to death and cycles of the universe. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: Schools of Vedanta Visisthadvaita Vedanta Visisthadvaita means Advaita with uniqueness. Here Brahman is eternal but exists in various forms as atman. The universe is not considered an illusion but a part of brahman’s nature. Introduces the concept of "qualified non-duality" or "qualified monism." Brahman, while being the ultimate reality, is also characterized by divine attributes. There is a qualified oneness where Brahman is understood as having infinite divine qualities (Vishnu, Narayana) but still maintaining a unity. Visisthadvaita maintains a distinction between the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). While Atman and Brahman are interconnected, they are not considered identical. The individual souls exist within Brahman and are eternally related to it. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  TAKE NOTE Vedanta is the most influential school of theology in Hinduism all over the world. The concept of Vedanta is both religious as well as philosophical. Here religion is just a path to reaching closer and becoming one with the Brahman. Governed by Vedas, Vedanta is a way of life, and it teaches us to be in harmony with others and, most importantly, with the true self or atman. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VEDANTA: PATH TO LIBERATION Vedanta recognizes three main paths to spiritual realization, known as the three yogas: Jnana Yoga: The path of knowledge, focusing on understanding the nature of reality and the self. Bhakti Yoga: The path of devotion, emphasizing love and surrender to a personal deity (often identified with Brahman). Karma Yoga: The path of selfless action, promoting the idea of performing one's duties without attachment to the results. Liberation (Moksha) The ultimate goal in Vedanta is moksha, liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). This liberation is attained through self-realization, recognizing the identity of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman). Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: The Overview The word Mimamsa is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root मन् to know and its derivative (desiderative) root मममं स – the desire to know. Mimamsa means critical inquiry or exegesis. Purva Mimamsa (PM) means earlier inquiry. This is in contrast to Uttara Mimamsa or later inquiry. Purva Mimamsa is also known as Dharma Mimamsa and Karma Mimamsa; it strongly defends Vedic ritualism. As these names indicate, this philosophy is highly ritualistic at root. It is the most religious of the Darshanas. Vedic ritualism was regarded as a stepping stone to knowing the transcendent Brahman. The founder of the Mimansa School is Jaimini. He is the author of Mimansa Sutra followed by two chief commentators, Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Mishra out of many. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY admits Knowledge as being self evident and accepts 6 ways of obtaining it. Knowledge is of two kinds – immediate and mediate. The six means are Sense perception, Comparison, Inference, Testimony, Postulation and non-perception. The Prabhakara School does not accept non-perception as an independent means of knowledge. Broadly speaking, PM epistemology is in general agreement with Nyaya and the Advaita Vedanta have adopted all 6 means of PM into their epistemology. Valid knowledge, according to PM, should yield hitherto unknown data which is not contradicted by other means of knowledge and not arising out of defective circumstances such as defective senses or the environment that generates such knowledge. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY The term epistemology deals with knowledge of an object. When we cognize an object we possess knowledge of that object. To verify whether our knowledge of that object is correct or not, we have to consider the below four conditions. These are; i) It must not arise from defective causes. ii) It must be free from contradiction. This implies it must be self-consistent and should not be contradicted by subsequent knowledge. iii) It provides the experience of an object which has not experienced earlier. In short, it provides experience of an unknown object. iv) It must represent the object. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY Kumarila Bhatta recognizes six pramanas. These are; i) Perception ii) Inference iii) Comparison iv) Verbal testimony v) Postulation (Arthapati) vi) Non- apprehension (Anupalabdhi) Prabhakara rejects non-apprehension (anupalabdhi) as a source of valid knowledge. He states that negation can’t be an independent pramana. The reason he gives, it is a disagreement with positive facts or phenomena which are found in other pramanas. Thus, he accepts five pramanas. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Perception) Pratyaksha – Sense Perception - It is immediate knowledge that arises from the contact of the senses with a real object through the mediation of the mind. - The mind interprets the impressions of sense perception from past experiences. This knowledge is processed in two steps: a. First, there is a general awareness of the existence of the object without grasping the details and such perception is called Nirvikalpaka. a. Subsequently, the object is grasped in its totality with its characteristics and this perception is termed Savikalpaka. In the Savikalpaka state, the object is grasped for what it is and one is able to say it is such-and- such. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Inference) Anumana – Inference Inference is a kind of knowledge, which is based on previous cognition. In perception we have direct knowledge of an object because there is a direct presentation of an object before our sense organs. Therefore, perceptual knowledge is immediate or prataksa. In anumana, there is no such direct presentation of the object and therefore it is called paroksa jnana or mediate knowledge. In anumana, an object is inferred to be present in a particular case because it has been invariably perceived to be present in all such similar cases. Thus in anumana, the cognition of an object is based on our prior knowledge of it. For example, we see smoke in a distant hill. From the presence of smoke, we at-once infer that these must be fire in the distant hill. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Comparison) Upamana - comparison is a pramana recognized by the Mimansikas as similar to Nyayikas’ views. In upamana, knowledge of an object is determined by comparing it form other similar kinds of objects. Thus roughly it is treated as analogy. For example, assume a situation where a man has not seen a gavaya or a wild cow and doesn’t know what it is. A forester told him that a wild cow is an animal like a country cow but she is more furious and has big horn in her forehead. In a later period he comes across a wild cow in a forest and recognizes it as the wild cow by compairing the descriptions made by the forester. This knowledge is possible due to the upamana or comparison. Thus, upamana is the knowledge of the relation between a name and the object it denotes by that name. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Testimony) Testimony is a reliable statement uttered by a trust worthy person similar to Nyaya Philosophy. On the account of Mimansikas, sabda must be based on the verbal assertion of a trust worthy person who knows the truth and desires to speak the truth for the guidance of others. Verbal testimony is used as meaningful words or sentences. The mere combination of letters or the words don’t provide a valid knowledge. Therefore, words and sentences must be used in a specific sense whose meaning will be clear, as a result, it would be treated as a valid pramana. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Postulation) Postulation (Arthapati) This is a unique source of valid knowledge upholds by the Mimansikas. In other words, the Mimansikas expressed arthapati as a valid method of cognition. The expression “arthapati” is a combination of two words namely ‘artha’ and ‘apatti’. The term artha means fact and apatti means ‘kalpana’ which is understood as ‘supposition’ in English. Thus, etymologically speaking, arthapati is that knowledge which resolves the conflict between two facts. It entails a presupposition which solves the problem that occurred between two facts. Arthapati is the assumption of an unperceived fact in order to reconcile two apparently inconsistent perceived facts. When a known fact can’t be accounted without another fact, we have to postulate the existence of third fact. The valid and justified knowledge of the third fact is known as arthapati. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  QUESTION What is the apparent contradiction in this statement? "Sarah is constantly tired despite getting enough sleep." ANSWER: The apparent contradiction is that someone who gets sufficient sleep should not be consistently tired. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  QUESTION How do we resolve the apparent contradiction that someone who gets sufficient sleep should not be consistently tired? ANSWER: We could POSTULATE or presume that Sarah might be dealing with an underlying health issue, such as insomnia or sleep apnea, which affects the quality of her sleep. This postulation helps resolve the inconsistency and highlights the idea that additional factors beyond the obvious ones may contribute to the observed situation. In this way, postulation or presumption becomes a valid source of knowledge to understand and explain the situation more comprehensively. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Testimony) Postulation (Arthapati) Another example, “John is living and who is not in home”. The problem observed here is how John is alive and is not found in his home. To resolve this conflict, we postulate the fact, i.e. he may be staying in a rented house outside his home. Thus, postulation or presumption is a valid source of knowledge. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Non-apprehension) NON-APPREHENSION is the immediate knowledge of the non-existence of an object. An object doesn’t exist in a particular place and a particular time. But it exists elsewhere. To perceive the non-existent of that particular object in a given situation/place is known as anupalabdhi. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Non-apprehension) For example, ‘there is no book on the table”. Can we use our perception on this? Here, an individual does not perceive the book directly through his/her sense organs. But the knowledge of the absence or non existence of the book on the table arises because of the non-perception of the perceivable object. The absence of an object from the situation in which it should be available is said to be its non- existence. And, to possess the knowledge of non existence of objects in an existence form is called as anupalabdhi. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) THEORIES OF ERROR (Khyativada) The theory of error is called as ‘khyativada’. It is opposed to the theory ‘pramanyavada’ (validity of knowledge). The term ‘khyativada’ is associated with invalid or erroneous knowledge. Error (viparyaya) - is reverse of valid knowledge (prama). In the case of valid knowledge the presentation of object is found what it really is, but in case of error, it is found in inverse mode. In case of error, we cognize object what it is not. In error, an object is cognized as having certain characteristics that really fall outside of its being. Thus, it is a wrong apprehension in which the object is taken for what it is not. All error is subjective in their nature. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) 1. Akhyativada This theory of error is advocated by Prabhakara school of Mimansa. It is also called as ‘viveka khyati’. According to Prabhaka School of Mimansa, there is no invalid cognition. A particular cognition may be less than true but it can never be untrue. They recognize two fold classification of cognition. These are; i) Valid cognition ii) Memory But they did not acknowledge delusive cognition as a third class. This is so because delusive cognition generates out of the above two cognitions. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) For example: Imagine someone picking up an object from a distance and saying, "That's my friend's phone." The "that" in this statement is perceptually cognized, as the person sees an object from a distance. However, the identification of the object as "my friend's phone" is based on memory, as the person recalls what their friend's phone looks like. In this scenario, the observer fails to clearly distinguish between the perceptual aspect (seeing an object) and the remembered aspect (identifying it as their friend's phone). Due to this lack of demarcation, there is a potential for error. It's possible that the object is similar to their friend's phone but not actually the same. Therefore, the knowledge about the object is treated as potentially erroneous, as it relies on a combination of perception and memory without a clear distinction between the two. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) Anirvacaniya Khyativada This theory of error is proposed by Advaita Vedantins. It states that something is presented to our senses because of avidya or ignorance. Due to avidya the cognizer cognizes an object something different from what it is. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) For example: Imagine a person walking in a misty forest and seeing a silhouette in the distance. They hastily conclude that it's a wild animal, perhaps a bear. The fear and urgency arise from the assumption that there is a threat in the vicinity. As they approach, the mist clears, and they realize that what they thought was a bear is actually a large rock covered with moss and shadows. In this case, the initial knowledge of a potential danger (wild animal) is superimposed on the object, which is, in reality, an innocuous rock. This example reflects the concept that our interpretations and cognitions can be influenced by initial perceptions, assumptions, or biases, leading to the imposition of subjective knowledge on the objective reality. The recognition of the true nature of the object, as seen when the mist clears, parallels the philosophical idea that a deeper understanding may reveal a more accurate perception of reality. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: EPISTEMOLOGY (Theories of Error) Viparita Khytivada In regard to the theory of error, Bhatta School of Mimansa proposed a new theory known as ‘viparita khyativada’. On their view, error lies because of the wrong relation between the object and sense organs, but it is not due to the objects which are real. For example, people belong to different parts of the world seeing one and the same moon but wrongly claim that they are seeing different moon. This theory of error is reversal of right behavior towards an object. In simple terms, the Bhatta School is saying that errors occur not because things are fake, but because our senses sometimes get mixed up, causing us to misunderstand what's actually happening. It's like a little mix-up in how we see and understand things, making us think we're seeing something different from what's really there. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS The Mimansa Philosophy believes in the existence of eternal world and the innumerable individual souls within it. They also admit the existence (presence) of other eternal and infinite substances in the earth. They viewed that the world is constituted of three types of elements. These are; body, sense organs and eternal things. The self in the body enjoys the fruit of its actions. Sense organs used as the means to experience pleasure and pain. External things are meant for enjoyment. Apart from all these realities they also believe in many other realities like, the existence of heaven, hell, etc. although these are not perceivable. Thus, Mimansikas are treated as pluralistic realist. The Mimansikas agreed upon the view that the creation and destruction of the world is based on our karmas. Hence, they ruled out the existence of God behind the creation of the world. For them, God is an unseen power who guides/ instructs us to do certain karmas in certain time/period. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS (Theory of Causation) According to the Mimamsa philosophy, theory of causation is explained through ‘theory of energy’. They explained that there are potent energies found in the cause. As a result, a particular cause produces a particular effect and that has been observed or known by us (human beings). Thus each phenomenon can be explained only by the theory of potent energy in the cause. If the potent energy is absent, no effect would be observed. For example: If we fry a seed and sown in the soil, it won’t sprout out. The reason is the potent energy of the seed is consumed in the process of burning it. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS (Nature of Self) Mimansikas admit that there are innumerable selves exist in the world. For them, souls are of two sorts. One is liberated soul and other is living soul (individuals of the earth). This implies every living being possesses a distinct self or soul. For Mimansikas, the self is eternal and imperishable substance. When a living animal dies, it won’t die with it. It continues to live to reap the fruits of its deeds. According to Mimansikas, ‘consciousness’ is not the essential attribute of the self. Rather, it is considered as an adventitious quality that emerges in particular situations. For example, while in deep sleep, consciousness is not found in the self. This is so because in this stage there will be no contact between sense organs with objects. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS (Nature of Self) Kumarila says that there is no knowledge of self as we have the knowledge of external objects like, tree, grass, bird, etc. Thus, for him, self is the object of self consciousness. Further, he states that when we concentrate on self we realize ‘I exist’. Refuting this view Prabhakara Mimansa expresses that the self can’t be the subject and object of the same knowledge. This is so because one thing can’t be both the ‘doer’ and the ‘deed’ at the same time, and in addition to that the function of the doer and the deed are opposite/contrast to each other. Thus, on the account of prabhakara, an objective knowledge constitutes of three constituents; the knower, the known, and the knowledge. All these three constituents are known simultaneously for acquiring the knowledge of an object. For example, “I know this table”. Here, the knower is “I”, the known is ‘table’ and the knowledge that acquires is about the object ‘table’. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS (God and Liberation) The Mimansa Philosophy has given much importance to the Veda than the God. The Vedas prescribe eternal principles to do one’s own duties and possess a good and healthy life in the cosmic world. God becomes only the name to offer flower while performing the rituals. They consider ‘yajna’ is the highest sacrifice to achieve summum bonum in one’s life. Yajna is not for the worship to Gods or propitiation of Gods but purification of one’s own soul. There are two sorts of actions performed by living soul in this earth. One; actions are performed to achieve certain worldly pleasures. Second; actions are to be performed because the Gita prescribes it. In short, the former action is known as duty for duty sake and later is known as duty for deity. Since, there are actions, there are attachment with worldly objects, hence arouses sufferings and pains. To detract from (get rid of) all sorts of sufferings, one needs to get liberation.. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  PURVA MIMAMSA: METAPHYSICS (God and Liberation) In this regard, Mimansikas state that the self moves in the cycle of birth and death because of its action and attachment towards worldly pleasures. The state of liberation can be attained only when the self gets emancipation from the bondages of mind, body, sense organs and objects of the world. This helps the self to remain free form the cycle of birth and death. In the state of liberation, the self cannot enjoy the experience of pleasure and pain because it is devoid of consciousness. Thus, for Mimansikas, liberation is not a state of bliss. It is a state where the self achieves its real nature and dissociated from worldly pleasure and pain. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department REFERENCES: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisheshika Vaisheshika - Six Different type of Objects of Experience (vedicfeed.com) Microsoft Word - B-1,Unit-5 (egyankosh.ac.in) Mimamsa | Vedic Rituals, Dharma & Nyaya | Britannica Purva Mimamsa Philosophy | Sringeri Vidya Bharati Foundation Inc., USA (svbf.org) Vedanta Philosophy - One of the Oldest Spiritual Philosophies (vedicfeed.com) QUESTIONS?