Indian Philosophy (Orthodox Schools of Thought) PDF

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ( O r tho dox Scho o l s o f Tho ught) BUKIDNON STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES – PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT TOPICS SANKHYA/SAMKHYA YOGA NYAYA VAISESIKA VEDANTA PURVA MIMAMSA VAISESIKA: The Overview In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an...

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ( O r tho dox Scho o l s o f Tho ught) BUKIDNON STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES – PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT TOPICS SANKHYA/SAMKHYA YOGA NYAYA VAISESIKA VEDANTA PURVA MIMAMSA VAISESIKA: The Overview In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology (doctrine of salvation). Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyaya school, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: The Overview The Vaiśeṣika school is known for its insights in naturalism (a form of atomism in natural philosophy). It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. Although the Vaiśeṣika system developed independently from the Nyāya philosophy, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaiśeṣika school differed from the Nyāya in one crucial respect: where Nyāya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaiśeṣika accepted only two. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics All material objects of the universe are composed of parts that are divisible into smaller parts. Those smaller parts are further divisible into even smaller parts. The minutest particle of matter which cannot be further divided is eternal and partless. This particle is called paramanu (atom) and these are said to be spherical or globular in shape. Creation is the combination of atoms in different proportions, and destruction is the dissolution of such combinations. These combinations do not pre-exist in atoms nor form their essential nature. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Creation (Combination) When you make the fruit salad, you're creating something new by combining individual fruits. Destruction (Dissolution) When you eat the fruit salad, you're breaking down the combination of fruits into simpler components through digestion. The key idea here is that the combinations (fruit salad or atomic combinations) don't have a separate existence before they are created, and their essential nature is not predetermined. The act of combining and breaking down is what gives them their form and structure. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics (Principle of Causation) Acharya Kanada, the founder of the Vaishesika school, cited atoms as the material cause of the universe; God as an efficient cause. The Vaisesika is primarily a metaphysics system of thought which classifies all beings (All objects of experience) into six categories and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Vaiśeṣika adheres to the theory of Satkāryavāda, which asserts that the effect (kārya) preexists in a potential form within the cause (kāraṇa). In other words, the effect is not something entirely new that comes into existence at the moment of causation; rather, it is a transformation or manifestation of the cause. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department VAISESIKA: Metaphysics (Principle of Causation) For example: Imagine you have a seed (cause), and from that seed, a plant grows (effect). According to Satkāryavāda, the potentiality of the plant exists within the seed even before it starts growing. In other words, the effect (the plant) is not a completely new entity that suddenly appears; rather, it is already inherent in the cause (the seed). Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Padarthas" or “Categories of Existence" The relevance of these six categories lies in their collective ability to provide a comprehensive and systematic framework for analyzing the nature of reality. They offer a means of categorizing and understanding substances, qualities, activities, universals, particulars, and the inherent connections between them. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Six Categories (The Dravya) 1. Dravya (substance) It is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities inhere. It exists independently of all other categories. There are nine substances, five of which are physical substances (bhutas). 1. Prithvi (earth) 2. Ap (water) 3. Tejas (fire) 4. Vayu (air) 5. Akasa (ether/sky) 6. Kaala (time) 7. Dim (space) 8. Atman (self or soul) 9. Manas (mind) Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Six Categories (The Dravya) The first five are physical substances contribute to the causal process. They are often referred to as bhutas (elements): 1) Prithvi (Earth): Represents the solid state and possesses the quality of smell. 2) Ap (Water): Represents the liquid state and possesses the quality of taste. 3) Tejas (Fire): Represents the luminous state and possesses the quality of color. 4) Vayu (Air): Represents the gaseous state and possesses the quality of touch. 5) Akasa (Ether/Sky): Represents the space and possesses the quality of sound. However, Ether is not atomic; it is infinite and eternal. It serves as the medium in which the atomic elements combine with each other. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Six Categories (The Dravya) The other four substances (time, space, soul/self, and mind) are imperceptible, eternal, intact substances, partless and indivisible, but in ordinary discourse are spoken of as having parts and divisions. A. Time - is the cause of our perception of past, present, and future, and also of the concepts of “older” and “younger.” B. Space - is the cause of our perceptions of the relative location of things, such as “east” and “west,” “near” and “far,” “here” and “there.” C. Souls - are innumerable and each is an independent, all-pervading, eternal spiritual substance. D. Mind (manas) - is the internal sense (antarindriya) and is considered atomic, but it does not give rise to compound objects. The mind is also many, rather than a single substance, and each is eternal and imperceptible. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  Metaphysics Six Categories - Guna (quality or characteristics) 2. Guna (quality or characteristics) Guna is inherent in a substance and depends for its existence on that substance. It cannot exist independently and possesses no quality or action itself. Guna is considered an independent reality because it can be conceived of, thought of, and named independently of the substance where it inheres. Kanada identified seventeen qualities; another seven were added by Prashastapaada. They include spiritual as well as material qualities. Guna is a static and permanent feature of a substance College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Guna (quality or characteristics) Question: For example: What is one quality of fire that you can think of? Answer: Heat. It is inherent in the substance of fire. It is not something separate or distinct from fire but an integral part of its nature. When we think of fire, we automatically associate it with the quality of heat. The heat we feel is a result of the interaction of fire with its surroundings. It is an expression of the nature of fire. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Guna (quality or characteristics) The Vaisesika recognizes the following twenty-four qualities (including both mental and material properties) Rupa (Color) Sukha (pleasure) Rasa (taste) Dukha (pain) Gandha (smell) Iccha (desire) Sparsa (touch) Dvesha (aversion) Samkhya (number) Prayatna (effort) Parimana (size) Gurutva (heaviness) Prithaktva (individuality) Dravatva (fluidity) Samyoga (conjunction) Sneha (viscidity) Vibhaga (disjunction) Dharma (merit) Paratva (priority) Adharma (demerit) Aparatva (posterity) Sabda (sound) Buddhi (knowledge) Samskara (faculty). Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  Metaphysics 3. Karma (activity or action) Karma also belongs to a substance and cannot exist separately from it. While guna is static and permanent, karma is dynamic and transient. Karma is the cause of conjunction and disjunction. There are five kinds of karma: Utksepana (upward movement) Avaksepana (downward movement) Akunchana (contraction) Prasārana (expansion) Gamana (locomotion). College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Samanya (universality or generality) 4. Samanya (universality or generality) Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called samanya. The samanya reside in substances, qualities and actions. They are of two kinds, higher and lower, with the higher samanya referring to “being” (satta), which includes everything and is not included in anything. All other generalities are “lower” because they cover only a limited number of things. Only one universal inheres in all members of a class. A quality or action that pertains to only one individual is not considered a universal. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Six Categories - Samanya (universality or generality) Question: What is the common property shared by all these trees? Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Vishesha (Particularity or Individuality) 5. Vishesha (Particularity or Individuality) Vishesa allows us to perceive things as different from one another. Every individual is a particular, single, unique and different from all others. Vaisesika does not use this category to refer to the individuality of compound objects, which can be distinguished by the differences in their parts. The category of Vishesha is applied to the most basic, simple, ultimate substances, which would otherwise be perceived as alike. Each partless, ultimate substance, including atoms, souls, space, time, and mind, has an original peculiarity of its own, an underived uniqueness. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Samavaya (inherence) 6. Samavaya (inherence) Samavāya is one and eternal relationship between two things inseparably connected. It is defined by Kanada as “the relationship between cause and effect,” and by Prashastapaada as “the relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea this is in that. It is imperceptible and inferred from the relation of two things which are inseparably connected: The part and the whole; the quality and the substance; the action and the substance; the particular and the universal; the particularity and the eternal substance. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Samavaya (inherence) For example: According to Samavāya, there is an inseparable and eternal relationship between the quality (color) and the substance (rose). The color is not just an accidental attribute; it is an inherent and inseparable aspect of the rose. Samavāya serves as a logical foundation for understanding that the color and the rose are not two independent entities temporarily associated with each other. Instead, they are eternally linked, and the color is a quality that inheres in the substance of the rose. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Metaphysics Abhava (non-existence or absent) Abhava (non-existence or absent) Abhava theory came after Kanada. The Vaisesika believes that knowledge, though it necessarily points to an object, is different from the object known, and that object exists independently. Similarly, knowledge of negation points to an object which is negated and is different from that object. There are four kinds of abhava: Antecedent non-existence, the non-existence of a thing before its production; Subsequent non-existence, the non-existence of a thing after its destruction; Mutual non-existence, the non-existence of a thing as another thing which is different from it; and, Absolute non-existence, the complete and eternal absence of a relation between two things that by their very nature cannot co-exist, for example, a barren woman and her child. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Epistemology Vaiśeṣika epistemology considered only pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāna (inference) as reliable means of valid knowledge. Pratyakṣa (प्र ) means perception. It is of two types: external and internal. External perception results from the interaction between the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is identified as the perception of the inner sense, the mind. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Perception – External) Requirements for Correct Perception: Ancient and medieval texts in Indian Philosophy outline four requirements for correct perception according to Vaiśeṣika philosophy: A. Indriyarthasannikarsa (Direct Experience) Correct perception involves direct experience by one's sensory organs with the object under study. B. Avyapadesya (Non-Verbal) Correct perception is non-verbal and not based on hearsay. It relies on direct sensory experience rather than accepting or rejecting someone else's perception. C. Avyabhicara (Non-Wandering) Correct perception does not change and is not the result of deception. It remains steadfast and is not influenced by a drifting, defective, or suspect sensory organ or means of observation. D. Vyavasayatmaka (Definite) Correct perception is definite and excludes judgments of doubt. It is free from ambiguity, either due to incomplete observation, mixing inference with observation, or selective observation based on personal desires. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Perception – External) A. Indriyarthasannikarsa (Direct Experience) In biting into an apple, the taste, texture, and aroma you directly experience through your senses without any intermediaries represent the direct experience. B. Avyapadesya (Non-Verbal) If someone describes the taste of the apple to you without you tasting it yourself, that information is not part of your direct experience. Your correct perception of the apple is non-verbal and based on your personal interaction with it. C. Avyabhicara (Non-Wandering) Whether you observe the apple indoors, outdoors, or under different lighting conditions, your perception of the apple remains unwavering. It's not affected by drifting factors or defective sensory input. D. Vyavasayatmaka (Definite) When you bite into it, the sweetness, tartness, and texture are clear and definite. Your perception of the apple's taste is not ambiguous or open to doubt. It is a specific, well-defined experience, free from uncertainty. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Perception – Internal) Internal Perception Concepts Vaiśeṣika philosophy introduces internal perception concepts that include: A. Pratibha (Intuition) Considered a form of internal perception, pratibha refers to intuition, a direct apprehension of truth without the need for conscious reasoning. B. Samanyalaksanapratyaksa (Induction) This involves a form of induction, moving from the perception of specific instances to a universal understanding. C. Jnanalaksanapratyaksa (Perception of Prior Processes) This form of internal perception involves observing the current state of a studied subject and perceiving its prior processes and states. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Inference) Anumāna (अनुमान) - means inference. - It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. Example: Observing smoke and inferring fire. The method of inference is consisting of three parts: a. pratijna (hypothesis), a. must further be broken down into two parts: - sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and - paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). b. hetu (a reason), and c. drshtanta (examples). Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Inference) The inference is conditionally true if: Sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if Vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti - the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha. In simple terms, it means that Vyapti ensures that your reason (smoke) is not just true in one specific case but universally true in all situations. It must apply separately to both cases where there is smoke (sapaksha) and where there is no smoke (vipaksha). A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion). Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department VAISESIKA: Epistemology (Inference) LET’S BREAK IT DOWN! Hypothesis (Pratijna): Sadhya (What you're trying to prove or disprove): Someone took the cookies. Paksha (Object you're talking about): The cookie jar is empty. Reason (Hetu): You remember that cookies were there yesterday, and usually, when they're there, the cookie jar is not empty. Examples (Drshtanta): You recall times when the cookie jar was full, and there were cookies available. Positive Examples (Sapaksha): Your sister says she had cookies earlier today. Negative Examples (Vipaksha): You find no evidence that anyone else ate the cookies. Universal Application (Vyapti): You realize that whenever cookies are available, the jar is not empty. This has been true in various situations. Conclusion (Nigamana): You conclude that, based on your hypothesis and the positive examples, someone in the family probably took the cookies. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department Scenario: You enter your room, and you see your homework is missing. You decide to figure out what happened using the method of inference. Hypothesis (Pratijna): Sadhya (What you're trying to prove or disprove): Your homework is missing. Paksha (Object you're talking about): The spot where you usually keep your homework is empty. Reason (Hetu): You recall that you always keep your homework in that spot, and you had it there yesterday. Examples (Drshtanta): You remember instances when your homework was in that spot, and you successfully found it when needed. Positive Examples (Sapaksha): Your friend/roommate says they saw your homework there this morning. Negative Examples (Vipaksha): You check with others and find no evidence that someone else took or moved your homework. Universal Application (Vyapti): You recognize that every time your homework is in that spot, it's always there when you need it. Conclusion (Nigamana): Based on your hypothesis and the positive examples, you conclude that your homework is probably somewhere nearby, and you just need to look for it. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  QUESTION In Vaiśeṣika epistemology, do I need to use both pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāna (inference) as a means of gaining valid knowledge? ANSWER: Yes, in Vaiśeṣika epistemology, both Pratyakṣa (perception) and Anumāna (inference) are considered as valid means of knowledge, and they play complementary roles in the process of gaining understanding and valid knowledge. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  TAKE NOTE Both Pratyakṣa and Anumāna contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the world. However, it's essential to note that in certain situations, Pratyakṣa may be considered a more immediate and reliable source of knowledge, while Anumāna allows for extending knowledge beyond direct perception. The combination of these two methods enhances the reliability and depth of one's understanding in Vaiśeṣika epistemology. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department  TAKE NOTE Vaiśeṣika is primarily a philosophical and metaphysical system within Hinduism that focuses on the nature of reality, the classification of substances, and the concept of causation. Unlike some other schools of Hindu philosophy, Vaiśeṣika does not extensively address the concept of salvation (moksha) or liberation in the same detailed manner as, for example, Vedanta. In Vaiśeṣika, the primary emphasis is on understanding the fundamental building blocks of the material world (dravya) and the principles governing their interactions. The goal is not necessarily to provide a comprehensive view of salvation but rather to offer insights into the nature of the physical universe. Bukidnon State University College of Arts & Sciences – Philosophy Department