Operating Systems PDF

In multiprogramming, OS decides which process will get memory when and OPERATING SYSTEMS how much. Allocates the memory when the process requests it to...

In multiprogramming, OS decides which process will get memory when and OPERATING SYSTEMS how much. Allocates the memory when the process requests it to do so. Chapter 1: Operating System De-allocates the memory when the process no longer needs it or has been What is an Operating System terminated. Computer System Structure Processor Management Four Components of a Computer System In multiprogramming environment, OS decides which process gets the Functions of Operating System processor when and how much time. Types of Operating Systems o Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. Program responsible for Operating System Services this task is known as traffic controller. Operating System Properties o Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process. Exercise o De-allocates processor when processor is no longer required What is an Operating System? A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the Device Management computer hardware OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It is a program that manages hardware resources. Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known It provides services to application programs. as the I/O controller. Operating system goals: Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time. Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier Allocates the device in the efficient way. Make the computer system convenient to use De-allocates devices. Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner Computer System Structure File Management Computer system can be divided into four components A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and Hardware - provides basic computing resources CPU, memory, I/O devices usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. Operating system- Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various o Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective applications and users facilities are often known as file system. Application programs - define the ways in which the system resources are o Decides who gets the resources. used to solve the computing problems of the users: Word processors, o Allocates the resources. compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games o De-allocates the resources. Users- People, machines, other computers Other Important Activities Functions of Operating System Security- By means of password and similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to programs and data. Memory Management Control over system performance- Recording delays between request for a Main memory provides a fast storage that can be access directly by the CPU. service and response from the system. Keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it are in use by whom, what Job accounting- Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs part are not in use. and users. Error detecting aids- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging gaids. and error detecting  Coordination between other software and usersCoordination and Disadvantages: assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the If a job doesn't work, the other jobs will have to wait for a time that isn't various users of the computer systems known. Batch systems aren't always cheap. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS Hard to fix bugs in. 1. Batch Operating System 2. Real time Operating System Multi-processor Operating System 3. Multi-processor Operating System If you have more than one CPU, you may want to consider an OS designed 4. Client/Server Operating System for multiprocessors. Multi-processor systems typically use this operating 5. Multiprogramming Operating System system. 6. Multi-tasking Operating System Advantages: 7. Distributed Operating System It's what makes it possible for the computer to process several tasks at 8. Mobile Operating System once. 9. Time sharing Operating System Games, scientific calculations, and financial simulations are just a few 10. Network Operating System examples of tasks that can benefit from access to the whole processing power Is There More Than One Type of OS? Disadvantages: Generally, there are four types, based on the type of computer they control They cost more because they need more CPUs and memory units. and the sort of applications they support. Multiprogramming Operating System 1. Desktop Operating Systems (Windows and MacOS) A single processor computer can run more than one programs at the same 2. Server Operating Systems- are specifically tailored to run on servers, time. which are powerful computers that serve multiple clients. (Mainframe, Advantages: UNIX) Reduced reaction time is one of its benefits, 3. Embedded Operating Systems- RTOS are used to control machinery, The ability to perform multiple tasks within the same program at once scientific instruments, and industrial systems. There is typically very little could be useful user- interface capability. Multiple people can utilize the multiprogramming system simultaneously. 4. Mobile operating systems- are designed for smartphones, tablets, and Unlike longer-term projects, short-term tasks can be completed quickly. other mobile devices. Popular mobile operating systems include Android This has the potential to speed up the completion of temporary projects (developed by Google), iOS (developed by Apple), and Windows 10 Increased CPU utilization and zero downtime are the results. Mobile Smart use of resources is evident Batch Operating System Disadvantages: Users of a batch operating system don't have direct contact with the It's incredibly intricate and complex. computer. Computer processor scheduling is essential. Advantages: Operating systems require It can be used by more than one person at the same time. memory management since all tasks are kept in system memory. Cut down on how long it takes for the system to run all the programs. Managing everything is the more difficult task  Long wait times for permanent positions are to be expected if there are Friendly and user-friendly. several available positions Disadvantages: It utilizes numerous resources. Distributed Operating System Requires hardware with high specifications. A distributed OS can run on a group of computers at the same time. It has a dependability concern. Distributed systems are used to spread data and applications Distributed systerns are also used by computer networks to coordinate the A problem with the security and integrity of user data andprograms. parts of their hardware and software that are shared Probability of data transmission issues. Multiple computers share a single data link in this type of network Each system has its own computing power and storage space, which are Network Operating System not linked to each other. A network operating system, sometimes known as NOS, is software that Advantages: links several computers and devices to a network and enables those devices It is safer because if one computer fails, it won't affect the other to share the network's resources. computers or the whole system. Advantages: All computers can work on their own. It is easy to add new technology and hardware upgrades to the system. Since resources are shared, the overall cost is lower. The server can be accessed from different places and different kinds of As more resources are shared, the system runs more quickly. computers. The load on the host system is lower. The server in the middle is very stable. It is easy to add computers to the system. The server is in charge of security Disadvantages: Disadvantages: High Setup cost. Most things have to do with the central location. The whole system will fail if the server fails. It costs a lot of money to buy and run servers. Such a system uses software with a lot of moving parts. It needs to be looked after and updated regularly. Time sharing Operating System A time-sharing operating system is a programs that allows numerous Mobile Operating System concurrent users with a shared user interface. Mobile operating systems are a subset of operating systems (OS) developed It enables concurrent access to the same resources, such as files and specifically to run on mobile devices such as smart phones, tablets, and applications, by several users who are simultaneously logged in. wearable technology include smart watches and smart glasses. This operating system is most prevalent in businesses, particularly those Advantages: with many concurrent users The ability to do multiple tasks. Time-sharing operating systems allow users to complete their tasks Stability and assurance of protection concurrently. Utilizing mobility software to provide a great experience for users. Advantages: Capability of living up to the standards set by users. It delivers a speedy response. Secure mobile data access. Reduces idle CPU time. Improve departmental communications. Each task is assigned a set duration of time. Aid for the labor force Less likelihood of duplicate software. Mobile Operating System (Cont.) Improves response time. Disadvantages: Client-server systems can swiftly adapt to changing business needs Apps keep running even when you're not using them. Dedicated server solutions are less stable and harder to maintain. Things are hard for developers. Cheaper operations. Smartphones with low specs run slowly. More stable and manageable than dedicated server systems. Defense From Viruses. Disadvantages: There are a lot of ads in apps. These operating systems require more sophisticated management and It doesn't help older people. networking technology, longer start up times, and increased attack You need a Google account. susceptibility, Software that has bad content. Less secure than systems with dedicated servers. More difficult to scale than standalone server systems. Multi-tasking Operating System Operating systems that support multi-tasking are built with the intention of Real time Operating System allowing numerous applications to execute at the same time. A real-time operating system is an OS for real-time applications that Operating systems that support multitasking make it possible for numerous need to process data and events in a very specific amount of time Hard people to collaborate simultaneously on the same document or programs real-time systems Advantages: Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time Better response. Soft real-time systems- Soft real time systems are less restrictive Each task gets an equal opportunity. Advantages: CPU idle time decreases which boosts the performance. Utilization of technology and resources to their fullest extent. Disadvantages: This system is nearly error-free. Since a single processor will be running multiple tasks, the CPU will be Disadvantages: busy and may get hot. Real-time Operating System employs very complicated algorithms. Memory Boundation: During multitasking, the main memory (RAM) has Limited duties. to hold more than one process. 50 there could be a memory limit Use Significant System resources. Client/Server Operating System Operating System Services Client/server network operating systems refer to networks with two types An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the of nodes, namely servers and clients. programs. Both the server and client computers in a client/server system must have It provides programs, an environment to execute. particular software installed in order to communicate safely across a It provides users, services to execute the programs in a convenient network connection. manner. The servers are the computers that deliver network services. Program execution Client/server networks are typically employed in corporate and government o Loads a program into memory. applications. o Executes the program. Advantages o Handles program's execution. Allows companies to boost computing resources without buying new o Provides a mechanism for process synchronization. hardware. o Provides a mechanism for process communication. o Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling  I/O Operation Operating System Properties o I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any Batch processing specific I/O device. o OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, o Program may require any I/O device while running. programs and data as a single unit. o Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device o OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without when required. any manual information. o Operating System Services (Cont.) o File system manipulation o Jobs are processed in the order of submission i.e. first come first o Program needs to read a file or write a file. served fashion. o The operating system gives the permission to the program for o When job completes its execution, its memory is released and the operation on file. output for the job gets copied into an output spool for later printing o Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on. or processing. o Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete Multitasking files. o The user gives instructions to the operating system to a program o Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directly, and receives an immediate response or directories. o Operating System handles multitasking in the way that it can o Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file handle multiple operations/executes multiple programs at a time. system. o Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing Communication systems. o Two processes often require data to be transferred between them. o These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive o The both processes can be on the one computer or on different use of a computer system at a reasonable Cost computer but are connected through computer network. o A time-shared operating system uses concept of CPU scheduling o Communication may be implemented by two methods either by and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of Shared Memory or by Message Passing. a time-shared CPU Error handling o Each user has at least one separate program in memory. o OS constantly remains aware of possible errors. o OS takes the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent o A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is computing. commonly referred to as a process. Resource Management o When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very re it o OS manages all kind of resources using schedulers. either finishes or needs to perform short time I/O. o CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU. o Since interactive I/O typically runs at people speeds, it may take a Protection long time to complete. During this time a CPU can be utilized by o OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled. another process. o OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid o Operating system allows the users to share the computer access attempts. simultaneously. Since each action or command in a time-shared o OS provides authentication feature for each user by means of a system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each password. user o As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own  CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many users. Multiprogramming o The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time. o This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool. o The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the job in the memory. o Multiprogramming operating system monitors the state of all active programs and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle unless there are no jobs Interactivity o OS provides user an interface to interact with system. o OS managers input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard. o OS manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor. o OS Response time needs to be short since the user submits and waits for the result. Real Time System o In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data. o The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct performance.  UBUNTU Security: Strong security features and regular patches. Ubuntu is named after an ancient African word meaning "humanity to others," Customization: Highly customizable desktop environment. emphasizing community and shared success. Compatibility: Supports a wide range of hardware and software. Origins Key Functionalities: Founded in 2004 by Mark Shuttleworth and a team of Debian Software Center: Easily find, install, and manage applications. developers at Canonical. Built-in Office Suite: Comes with LibreOffice, compatible with Goal: Create an accessible and easy-to-use Linux desktop. Microsoft Office. Mission Developer-Friendly: Supports various programming languages and Social: Provide free software to everyone globally. tools. Economic: Lower costs for professional services through Canonical’s Virtualization: Supports tools like VirtualBox and KVM. support and management services. Snap Packages: Easy installation and automatic updates of software. Releases Cloud Integration: Offers cloud services and integration. Regular Cadence: New versions every six months since October make it more shorter 2004. Pros: Long-Term Support (LTS): Every two years, ensuring stability and User-Friendly: Intuitive interface, easy for beginners. support for large deployments. Open Source: Free to use, modify, and share. Governance Regular Updates: Frequent new versions and security patches. Canonical: Publisher of Ubuntu, leading areas like the kernel and Security: Strong features and regular updates. security. Large Software Repository: Vast collection of software packages. Community: Volunteer leaders worldwide manage critical project Customization: Highly customizable desktop environment. elements, with Mark Shuttleworth nominating candidates for the Compatibility: Supports a wide range of hardware and software. Community Council and Technical Board. Community Support: Large, active community for help and Ubuntu Today resources. First Release: Version 4.10 "Warty Warthog" launched in October Cons: 2004. Learning Curve: Some adjustment for new users. Diverse Editions: Multiple flavors and specialized versions for Limited Proprietary Software: Not all apps available. desktops, servers, clouds, and connected devices. Gaming Support: Less robust compared to Windows. Widespread Use: Most widely used Linux desktop, popular for Hardware Compatibility: Occasional issues with new/less common servers, cloud environments, and pre-installed on major hardware devices. brands like Dell, HP, and Lenovo. Software Updates: Some software may not be the latest version. Ubuntu combines ease of use, strong community support, and regular updates, CONCLUSION: making it a leading platform in the Linux ecosystem and suitable for a wide Ubuntu stands out as a versatile and user-friendly Linux distribution, range of uses from personal computing to enterprise environments. embodying the principles of accessibility, collaboration, and innovation. Since Here are the most important features and functionalities of Ubuntu: its launch in 2004, it has grown into a powerful operating system used globally Key Features: across desktops, servers, and cloud environments. With its commitment to User-Friendliness: Easy to use with an intuitive interface. regular updates, long-term support versions, and robust security features, Open Source: Free to use and contribute to. Ubuntu caters to both individual users and large enterprises. Its open-source Regular Updates: Frequent updates and Long-Term Support (LTS) nature, customizable interface, and active community make it a preferred versions. choice for developers, businesses, and technology enthusiasts alike. As Ubuntu continues to evolve, it remains a testament to the spirit of open-source o Frequently used in web hosting, database management, and collaboration and its ability to adapt to diverse computing needs. network services. Educational Institutions: DEBIAN o Used in computer labs for teaching Linux-based systems. Debian is a free and open-source operating system (OS) built around the Linux o Popular for running scientific research platforms and kernel. It was initially developed by Ian Murdock in 1993 and has since simulations. evolved into one of the most stable and versatile Linux distributions, renowned General Users: for its extensive software repository and active community-driven o Ideal for individuals seeking a customizable and free development. operating system for personal or professional use. Key Features: Advantages: Package Management: Debian's APT (Advanced Package Tool) 1. Stability and Reliability simplifies software installation, upgrades, and management. o Debian is renowned for its stability, making it an excellent Stability: Rigorous testing ensures system reliability, making Debian choice for critical applications like servers and long-term a go-to for critical environments. deployments. Portability: Supports a wide range of hardware architectures. o Packages undergo rigorous testing before being included in Community-Driven: Managed by a global network of developers stable releases. without commercial oversight. 2. Extensive Package Repository Security: Regular updates and a dedicated security team. o Debian offers access to over 59,000 packages, providing System Requirements: software for almost every need. Hardware Requirements: o Easy access to open-source software and development tools. Minimum: 512 MB RAM, 1 GHz CPU, and 10 GB of disk space. 3. Security Recommended: 2 GB RAM, multi-core processor, and 20 GB disk space for o Focuses on security with regular updates and strong policies optimal performance. for package inclusion. Software Dependencies: o Vulnerability fixes are promptly backported to stable Core utilities, libraries, and a Linux kernel are included. Additional software versions. depends on the specific use case or desktop environment. 4. Customizability Usage Scenarios: o Highly customizable, allowing users to build their system 1. Target Audience and Typical Use Cases according to specific needs. Debian is a highly versatile Linux distribution known for its stability, security, o Works across multiple architectures, including ARM, x86, and extensive package repository. It serves a diverse audience: and more. Developers: 5. Community Support o Ideal for software development, as it supports a wide range of o A vast and active community provides comprehensive programming languages and development tools. documentation, forums, and mailing lists. o Developers often use it for creating applications, testing, and o Free access to support without relying on paid subscriptions. deploying environments. 6. Open Source and Cost-Effective System Administrators: o Entirely free to use, making it a cost-effective solution for o Preferred for server management due to its robustness and businesses and individuals. long-term support for releases. 7. Wide Hardware Compatibility  o Can run on older and less powerful hardware, as well as for a wide range of use cases, from personal desktops to enterprise servers and cutting-edge systems. embedded systems. o Useful for embedded systems and IoT devices. FEDORA Disadvantages: What is Open Source Software? 1. Outdated Software in Stable Release o Due to its focus on stability, Debian stable often includes older The freedom to run the program, for any purpose versions of software, which may lack the latest features. The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your o Users needing cutting-edge software may need to switch to needs. the testing or unstable branch, which sacrifices some stability. The freedom to redistribute 2. Steeper Learning Curve for Beginners The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements o Debian is less beginner-friendly compared to distributions to the public, so that the whole community benefits. like Ubuntu or Linux Mint. History o Requires some technical knowledge for installation and Objective system management. To provide a free and open-source OS that integrates the latest software 3. Manual Configuration innovations. o Often requires manual intervention and configuration, Evaluation especially during initial setup. Fedora has evolved through multiple versions, consistently enhancing its o May be time-consuming for new users. modularity, security, and usability. 4. Lack of Proprietary Software by Default Development o Debian’s commitment to open-source principles means fedora was developed by the fedora project, which is a community -driven proprietary drivers or codecs (e.g., for graphics cards or initiatives backed by red hat. multimedia) are not included by default. Initial Release o Users may need to manually install and configure these, which November 6 , 2003 can be a hurdle. Key Features 5. Software Ecosystem for Non-Developers Latest Software o While excellent for servers and developers, Debian may feel Package Management over-engineered for casual users who prefer more plug-and- Multiple Edition play systems. Security Features 6. Release Cycle Development Tools o The release cycle for stable versions is relatively slow User-Friendly Interface (approximately every two years). Pre-Installed Application o Organizations needing frequent updates and rapid innovation Unique Selling point may find this limiting. Community-driven development ensures innovation and transparency. First-class container support (e.g., Docker, Kubernetes). CONCLUSION: Lightweight and efficient, with extensive customization options. Debian is a robust, versatile, and highly stable operating system, making it a SYSTEM REQUIRMENTS preferred choice for servers, developers, and advanced users. Its extensive PROCESSOR software repositories, open-source philosophy, and flexibility make it suitable o 64-bit Intel/AMD (x86_64 architecture). o 32-bit versions are available but deprecated.  STORAGE INDUSTRIAL OR SECTOR o Minimum: 15 GB free space Cloud computing and hosting services o Recommended: 20 GB or more for better usability. Telecommunications and IoT. GRAPHICS Education and research. o Mastar and graphics card supporting1024x768 resolution Technology (software development, DevOps). (minimum) ADVANTAGES o For 3D acceleration, a compatible graphics card is Free and open-source with a strong community. recommended. Cutting-edge tools for developers. RAM High security via SELinux and other technologies. o Minimum: 2 GB Modular and customizable o Recommended: 4 GB or more. DISADVANTAGES NETWORK Short sappart cycle (13 months per release). o Wired or wireless network Steeper learning curve for beginners. o interface required Limited compatibility with some proprietary software SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS CONCLUSION: GNOME Desktop Environment (default). Fedora is a robust, community-driven Linux OS that caters to developers, RPM and DNF for package management. enterprises, and general users. It stands out for its rapid updates, security Flatpak for containerized applications. features, and modular architecture. Fedora's focus on innovation and security makes it an excellent choice for USER INTERFACE developers and IT professionals. While its short support cycle may deter some DESCRIPTION OF THE GUI users, its cutting-edge tools and lightweight nature are ideal for those who Default desktop: GNOME, with an intuitive and clean interface. value customization and performance. For beginners willing to learn, Fedora Features a centralized "Activities Overview" for multitasking. offers an enriching experience in the Linux ecosystem. Supports alternative desktops like KDE Plasma and XFCE through Spins. NAVIGATION AND USABILITY Efficient layout with search functionality. Multiple virtual desktops for better task organization. Easy access to settings, applications, and system information. USAGE SCENARIOS DEVELOPERS o Coding, testing, and deploying software. STUDENTS o Learning programming and IT skills. ENTERPRISES o Server management and containerized applications GENERAL USERS o Secure customizable desktops  KALI LINUX 9. Custom Tool Development Kali Linux is a special type of operating system designed mainly for 10. Network Monitoring cybersecurity professionals and ethical hackers. It was developed by Mati Aharoni and Devon Kearns from Offensive COMMONLY USED: Security. Kali Linux is widely utilized in industries and sectors that prioritize It was first released in March 2013. cybersecurity, digital forensics, and IT infrastructure security. KEY FEATURES 1. Cybersecurity Industry 1. Extensive Toolset- It comes with over 600 pre-installed applications 2. Government and Defense that cater to various aspects of cybersecurity. 3. Technology and IT Companies 2. Open Source- It is a open source software, meaning anyone can 4. Finance and Banking download, use, and modify it for free 5. Healthcare 3. Multi-platform Support- It can run on various platforms such as 6. Education and Research desktop computers, and virtual machines 7. E-commerce and Retail UNIQUE SELLING POINTS: 8. Telecommunications 1. Focus on Security- Unlike general-purpose operating systems like 9. Energy and Utilities Windows or MacOS, Kali is specifically designed for security tasks. 2. Regular Updates- The developers of Kali Linux frequently update the ADVANTAGES system with new tools and features. 1. More than 600 penetration tools included 3. Community Support- Being popular in the cybersecurity field means 2. Free and always will be that there is a large community of users who share knowledge, 3. Multiple-language support tutorials, and support online. 4. Portability TARGET AUDIENCE: 5. Regular Updates Kali Linux is designed primarily for professionals and enthusiasts in the field 6. Completely customizable of cybersecurity and information technology. DISADVANTAGES 1. Penetration Testers 1. Not Beginner-Friendly 2. Security Analysts 2. Resource Intensive 3. Ethical Hackers 3. Security Risks 4. IT Security Administrators 4. Limited Software for General Use 5. Forensic Analysts 5. Requires Root Access 6. Cybersecurity Students and Enthusiasts 6. Network Susceptibility TYPICAL USES: 7. Legal Implications 1. Penetration Testing CONCLUSION: 2. Digital Forensics Kali Linux is best suited for those specializing in penetration testing, 3. Wireless Network Auditing ethical hacking, and cybersecurity research. It is a professional-grade OS that 4. Password Cracking delivers power, stability, and reliability for dedicated users. 5. Reverse Engineering 6. Security Research 7. Compliance Testing 8. Education and Training  MACOS USER INTERFACE Mac OS is a series of graphical user interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. for their Macintosh line of computer system Description of the graphical user interface (GUI): macOS features a Mac OS was designed only to run on Apple Computers. straightforward GUI with a dock at the bottom of the screen for quick access In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh PC with the Macintosh to applications, a menu bar at the top, and a Finder for file management. The Operating system. overall design is clean, intuitive, and consistent across Apple devices. Apple names its OS as “MAc OS” , beginning in 1997 which was Navigation and usability aspects: Navigation is generally intuitive, with previously known as “System” drag-and-drop functionality, easy access to system settings, and a consistent The first Mac was introduced by Apple’s then chairman Steve Jobs user experience across different applications. was the first successful personal computer to feature a mouse and a USAGE SCENARIOS Graphical User Interface(GUI) The Mac OS could be easily distinguished from other Operating Target audience and typical use cases: macOS targets a broad audience, Systems because it was the only OS with a full GUI. from casual users to professional developers. Common use cases include web browsing, email, document creation, media editing, software development, These releases could only run one program at a time which could later run multiple programs. and graphic design. Industries or sectors where it is most commonly used: macOS finds use in KEY FEATURES: various sectors, including education, creative industries (graphic design, video editing), software development, business, and research. Main features and functionalities: macOS offers a user-friendly ADVANTAGES graphical interface, robust file management system, built-in applications (Pages, Numbers, Keynote, etc.), strong security features, User-Friendly: Intuitive and visually appealing interface. integration with other Apple devices (iPhones, iPads), and a vast Security: Built-in security features like Gatekeeper and File Vault. ecosystem of third-party applications. Integration: Seamlessly integrates with other Apple devices. Unique selling points: Its seamless integration within the Apple Performance: Optimized for Apple's hardware, ensuring efficiency. ecosystem, user-friendly design, and powerful underlying Unix App Ecosystem: High-quality, reliable apps from the Mac App Store. architecture differentiate it from other operating systems. The Unix-Based: Stable and powerful command-line tools. emphasis on user experience and a polished aesthetic are key selling points. DISADVANTAGES SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS Cost: Higher price for Apple hardware and upgrades. Hardware requirements: Minimum requirements vary depending on the Hardware Compatibility: Limited to Apple hardware. macOS version. Generally, a reasonably modern processor (Intel or Apple Closed Ecosystem: Less flexibility for customization. silicon), sufficient RAM (at least 8GB recommended), and a certain amount of storage space are needed. Specific requirements can be found on Apple's MACOS COMPARISON WITH WINDOWS: support website. Ease of Use: macOS offers a clean, intuitive interface; Windows is more Software dependencies: macOS itself doesn't have external software customizable and familiar for most users. dependencies. However, running specific applications might require additional Gaming: Windows is the go-to for gaming, with better hardware and game software or libraries. compatibility; macOS has limited options. Software: macOS excels in creative tools; Windows supports a broader range of applications, especially for business and gaming. Security: macOS is generally more secure with fewer vulnerabilities; snapshots, making it easy to roll back to previous system states if Windows is more targeted by malware but has improved security. something goes wrong. Cost: macOS comes with expensive Apple devices; Windows is available Unique Selling Points: Stability and Flexibility: The Leap edition is across devices at various price points. stable, designed for reliable, long-term use, while Tumbleweed offers CONCLUSION: the latest software updates for those who prefer cutting-edge Summary of key points: macOS is a powerful, user-friendly operating system technology. Community Support: Strong community backing provides with a strong focus on design and integration within the Apple ecosystem. It's OpenSUSE users with extensive documentation, forums, and support suitable for a wide range of users and industries. resources. Personal insights or opinions: (This section would include your own personal Security and Enterprise Readiness: Built with enterprise security in thoughts and experiences with macOS.) For example, you might mention its mind, OpenSUSE is suitable for business environments and often ease of use, the quality of its built-in applications, or any frustrations you've praised for its security configurations encountered. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Hardware Requirements: OPENSUSE Processor: Minimum 1 GHz processor, though 2 GHz or higher is OpenSUSE is a free, open-source Linux based operating system recommended. known for its stability, flexibility, and powerful suite of tools for RAM: 2 GB minimum for Leap and Tumbleweed; 4 GB or more is developers, system administrators, and casual users. It is widely recommended for better performance. recognized for being highly customizable and accessible, suitable for Disk Space: At least 10 GB for basic installation, though 20 GB or both personal use and enterprise environments more is ideal. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND Software Dependencies: OpenSUSE originated from SUSE Linux, one of the oldest and most Boot Loader: Requires a UEFI or BIOS boot system. Desktop respected Linux distributions, developed by SUSE GmbH. The Environment OpenSUSE project began in 2005 when SUSE Linux was opened to Dependencies: Depends on packages related to KDE or GNOME, the community, allowing developers worldwide to contribute. Since depending on the chosen desktop environment then, OpenSUSE has grown significantly and is available in two USER INTERFACE: primary editions: Leap, a stable release suitable for production Description of the Graphical User Interface (GUI): environments, and Tumbleweed, a rolling release providing the latest OpenSUSE’s GUI is user-friendly, visually appealing, and software updates customizable, especially in the KDE Plasma version. It features a polished, intuitive layout with a main taskbar, start menu, and system MAIN FEATURES AND FUNCTIONALITIES tray, making it easy to navigate applications and settings. YAST (Yet Another Setup Tool): OpenSUSE’s unique system Navigation and Usability: management tool, allowing users to easily configure software, With YAST and Zypper, system management is highly efficient and hardware, networking, and more. user friendly. The system menus are logically organized, and users can Zypper Package Manager: LA robust and fast package management quickly find tools for configuration, security, and updates. system that makes installing and updating software straightforward. OpenSUSE’s desktop environments make it easy for both new and Desktop Environments: Supports multiple desktop environments, advanced users to navigate and control their computing environment including KDE Plasma, GNOME, and others, providing a flexible user effectively experience. System Snapshots: Allows for the creation of system USAGE SCENARIOS, TARGET AUDIENCE AND USE CASES: Developers: Ideal for developers due to its stability, extensive libraries, and First Release: RHEL 2.1, codenamed Pensacola, was officially launched in support for various programming languages. 2000. Industries and Sectors: OpenSUSE is popular in various sectors, including Transition: In 2003, Red Hat restructured its offerings, discontinuing the free IT, education, and scientific research. It’s widely used in businesses requiring Red Hat Linux distribution and introducing RHELfor enterprise use alongside secure, reliable systems and is a strong choice for developers and enterprises Fedora for the community. due to its security features and enterprise-ready support. General Desktop Users: Leap edition is suitable for everyday use due to its KEY FEATURES: reliability and comprehensive features. Main Features: ADVANTAGES: Enterprise-Class Security: SELinux, firewall, and extensive security Reliability: Known for its stability, especially in the Leap version. updates. Flexibility: Highly customizable, with options for multiple desktop Stability & Performance: Kernel optimization, extended lifecycle support. environments. Container Support: Integration with Docker and Kubernetes for Strong Package Management: Efficient software management with containerized applications. YAST and Zypper. High Availability: Support for clustering, failover, and load balancing. Security: Well-regarded for its robust security features. Unique Selling Points: DISADVANTAGES: Long-Term Support: RHEL provides up to 13 years of support with Learning Curve: The extensive configuration options may be predictable release cycles. overwhelming for new Linux users. Certified Ecosystem: Extensive certified hardware and software Hardware Compatibility: Occasionally, there may be compatibility compatibility. issues with newer hardware. Red Hat Subscription: Access to support and additional services through Update Frequency: Leap does not receive the latest software updates the subscription model. as quickly as rolling distributions, which might be limiting for some SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS users Hardware Requirements: Processor: 64-bit Intel/AMD architecture (x86_64). CONCLUSION: Memory: Minimum of 2 GB RAM (recommended 4 GB or more). Summary: OpenSUSE is a powerful, flexible Linux distribution with options Disk Space: Minimum of 10 GB for the basic installation (more depending for both stable and cutting edge use. With its robust package manager, on usage). customizable desktop environments, and strong community support, it’s ideal Software Dependencies: for developers, system administrators, and experienced users who need a RHEL runs on various architectures, including x86_64, ARM, and others. reliable system. It requires a compatible hardware platform and BIOS/UEFI support. USER INTERFACE: RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux) Graphical User Interface (GUI): Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a leading enterprise-grade Linux RHEL provides a user-friendly GUI based on GNOME by default, with distribution designed for performance, scalability, and security. Developed by options for KDE and other desktop environments. Red Hat, Inc , RHEL provides a robust and stable platform for servers, System Tools: GNOME Software, PackageKit, and system settings for workstations, and cloud environments. It’s known for its long-term support, configuration. extensive ecosystem, and enterprise-focused features. History and Background: Developer: Red Hat, Inc., founded by Bob Young and Marc Ewing in 1993. Navigation and Usability: CONCLUSION GNOME Desktop: Easy access to applications, system settings, and search. Red Hat Enterprise Linux is a powerful and secure operating system Terminal Usage: Powerful terminal interface for command-line tailored for enterprise use. management and scripting. With robust support, security, and performance features, RHEL is a go-to Ease of Use: Designed for both beginner and advanced users with solution for many industries, especially for critical applications. comprehensive help and documentation. RHEL’s subscription service and long-term support offer excellent value. USAGE SCENARIOS: However, the cost may not be suitable for every organization, especially Target Audience: smaller ones. Enterprise IT Professionals: System administrators, network engineers, and RHEL’s scalability, security, and integration with containers and cloud DevOps. platforms make it a top choice for modern IT infrastructures. Developers: Support for application development and deployment in cloud and on-premises environments. WINDOWS 11/10 Typical Use Cases: Windows Operating System: Web Servers: Hosting websites and applications. It was developed by Microsoft Corporation in 1985 and is also known as Database Servers: Running enterprise-level databases (e.g., MySQL, Microsoft Windows. Windows has dominated the Operating system market PostgreSQL). with around 75% of the total stake. The Windows operating system provides Cloud Infrastructure: Virtualization and cloud-based services, especially in many features due to which its popularity has increased exponentially. hybrid cloud environments. Windows Versions: Industries: Windows 1 was the first version of the Windows operating system Finance: Secure transaction processing. released by Microsoft. It was released on November 20, 1985. Healthcare: Data management and compliance. Windows 1 was designed such that it has great dependency on the Telecommunications: Network infrastructure management. mouse, the users can click, drop, drag, move and do a lot of activities ADVANTAGES: with the mouse. Security: Advanced security mechanisms, including SELinux, regular Windows 2 was released by Microsoft on December 9, 1987. It updates, and support for compliance standards. allowed the applications to overlap with each other. This version added desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved graphics Enterprise Support: Subscription model ensures 24/7 support from Red support Hat. Windows 3.0 was released in May, 1900 offering better icons, Scalability: Efficient resource management and scalability for large enterprises. performance and advanced graphics. Multitasking was supported in this version which was a major advancement. Extensive Documentation: Comprehensive manuals, guides, and Windows 3.1 was released on April 6, 1992. Was a 16-bit operating community forums. system that supported preemptive multitasking. DISADVANTAGES: Cost: Red Hat's subscription model can be expensive for smaller Windows 95 Initial release date: August 24, 1995. Windows 95 was a businesses. major upgrade to the Windows operating system. This OS was a significant advancement over its precursor, Windows 3.1. Learning Curve: Some users may find RHEL complex if they are Windows 98 Initial release date: June 25, 1998. It was built on the accustomed to other OS like Windows. Windows 95 platform and featured improved performance, better Limited Free Access: Unlike some Linux distros, RHEL requires a paid hardware compatibility, and enhanced support for Internet subscription for full access to updates and support. connectivity.  Windows 2000 Initial release date: June 19, 2000. Often abbreviated o Extensive Software Compatibility as “W2K,” Windows 2000 was an operating system for business o Regular Updates and Support desktop and laptop systems to run software applications, connect to o Gaming Experience Internet and intranet sites, and access files, printers, and network Windows 10 Disadvantages: resources. o Bloatware Windows XP was released in 2001. Windows XP had come with a o Privacy Concerns major Operating System security facelift for the Windows OS. It has o Performance Issues advanced portable PC support. It comes with AutoPlay and improved Windows11 Initial release date: October 5, 2021Though Microsoft security. The fast start-up and the better Graphical user Interface with claimed Windows 10 would be the last version of Windows ever, the support center played a great role in its success. Windows 11 came with a new visual design, updated apps, Windows Vista was released by Microsoft on January 30, 2007. It was touchscreen optimizations, and multitasking features. Microsoft also the first Operating system that used the DVD-ROM for installations. claims Windows 11 is the most secure release yet. Existing Windows It has also introduced the new Windows Defender which is the inbuilt 10 users will be able to upgrade to Windows 11 for free as long as their anti-spyware solution and protects the Operating System from PC meets the system requirements. unwanted or rogue software by blocking unauthorized functions. The Windows 11 Advantages: BitLocker was also introduced in this version which is for windows o Redesigned User Interface encryption. o Snap Layouts and Snap Groups Windows 7 was released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009. It was o Performance Improvements the most used operating system ever in the world and it was one of the o Enhanced Gaming Features best versions of the Windows operating system. Windows 7 was faster, Windows 11 Disadvantages: more stable, and easier to use as compared to the previous Microsoft o System Requirements OS. o Compatibility Issues Windows 8 was released by Microsoft on October 26, 2012. The o Mandatory Updates security changes done for this version were mostly hardware-based. KEY FEATURES OF WINDOWS 10 This OS works faster and more conveniently for graphic pad users Traditional start menu providing integration with different platforms like smartphones and Graphic pads. It also has advanced security features such as antivirus Virtual Desktops for multitasking capabilities and supports secure boot. Cortana digital assistant Windows 10 was released by Microsoft on July 29, 2015. It was Enhanced security (Windows Defender, BitLocker) designed to unify all Windows platforms across multiple devices, Microsoft Store with UWP & desktop apps including Windows Phones and tablets. the Windows Defender Garning support: DirectX 12, Xbox integration Credential Guard was introduced in the OS which isolates the credentials and only allows the authenticated users to access the KEY FEATURES OF WINDOWS 11 software system which made it harder for hackers to attack the Redesigned Start Menu (centered, no live tiles) Operating System. Cortana - The virtual assistant which ac perform Enhanced Snap Layouts & Snap Groups tasks such as setting alarms and reminders and answering questions Virtual Desktops with customization (wallpapers, etc.) for the users was also a new feature in the Windows 10 OS. DirectStorage for faster gaming performance Windows 10 Advantages: o Familiar User Interface TPM 2.0 & Secure Boot for better security  Microsoft Store with Android app support 2. Windows 10 Home and Windows 10 Pro require different UNIQUE SELLING POINTS OF WINDOWS 10 features, like BitLocker and Hyper-V, which are only long-term support available in Pro editions. well-established 2..NET Framework: Broad hardware compatibility 1..NET Framework 3.5 (includes.NET 2.0 and 3.0) is required UNIQUE SELLING POINTS OF WINDOWS 11 by some legacy applications. better productivity tools (Snap Groups, Virtual Desktops) 2..NET Framework 4.5 or higher is required by newer apps. higher security (TPM 2.0) 3. Drivers: 1. Updated drivers for devices (graphics card, printer, etc.) to focus on gaming (DirectStorage) ensure optimal compatibility with Windows 10 features like Modern interface Cortana, Touch, and Snap Assist. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS 4. Microsoft Store: Windows 10: 1. Windows 10 Home, Pro, or Education requires the Microsoft Processor: 1 GHz, 1 core (32-bit) / 2 cores (64-bit) Store app for downloading apps and updates. RAM: 1 GB (32-bit), 2 GB (64-bit) Graphics: DirectX 9/WDDM 1.0 Software Requirements for Windows 11 Storage: 16 GB (32-bit), 20 GB (64-bit) 1. Operating System: Firmware: UEFI or BIOS 1. Windows 10 (version 1507 or later) can be upgraded to TPM: Not required Windows 11. Display: 800 x 600 2. A clean installation of Windows 11 requires a compatible 64- Internet: Required for updates and some features bit processor and meeting other hardware requirements Version Upgrade:From Windows 7, 8, 8.1 (TPM 2.0, Secure Boot). Windows 11: 2..NET Framework: Processor: 1 GHz, 2 cores, 64-bit, newer models 1..NET Framework 4.8 or later is required for some legacy RAM: 4 GB or more apps and system features. Graphics: DirectX 12 / WDDM 2.x 2..NET 5+ might be required for modern Windows Store apps. Storage: 64 GB or more 3. Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL): Firmware: UEFI, Secure Boot required 1. If you plan to run Linux distros via WSL, you need WSL 2 TPM: TPM 2.0 required which requires virtualization enabled and is available for Display: 720p or higher Pro and Enterprise editions of Windows 11. 2. WSL 1 can run on Windows 11 Home but requires specific Internet: Required for setup and certain features setup. Version Upgrade: From Windows 10 (version 1507 or later) 4. Windows Updates: 1. Windows Update is required to receive security updates and Software Requirements for Windows 10 the latest features. 1. Operating System: 2. Windows 11 Home requires an internet connection to set up 1. Windows 7, Windows 8, or Windows 8.1 can be upgraded to and use certain features. Windows 10. 5. Microsoft Store: 1. Microsoft Store for downloading apps and updates.  6. DirectStorage: 3. GAMING ENTHUSIASTS- Gamers using the platform for PC gaming, 1. For better gaming performance, DirectStorage is required, thanks to its extensive game library and support for DirectX 12. which demands: 4. LEGACY USERS- Individuals or organizations requiring compatibility 1. A DirectStorage-enabled GPU. with older hardware or software. 2. NVMe SSD (PCIe 3.0 or better). TYPICAL USE OF WINDOWS 10: 7. Virtualization (Optional): 1. PERSONAL COMPUTING- Everyday tasks such as web 1. For features like Hyper-V, Windows Sandbox, and Virtual browsing,multimedia consumption and communication. Machines, hardware-based virtualization (e.g., Intel VT-x, 2. OFFICE WORK- Running productivity software, handling emails, AMD-V) is required. and managing data using Excel, Word, etc. 3. GAMING- Playing both modern and legacy games due to extensive Windows 10 GUI Description: hardware and software compatibility. 1. START MENU- Combines a traditional list-based menu with live 4. EDUCATION- E-learning platforms, assignments, and collaboration tiles for quick access to applications and updates. via tools like Microsoft Teams. 2. TASKBAR- Centralized taskbar with pinned applications, search 5. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT- Writing code, testing applications, bar and notification area. and running virtual environments 3. DESKTOP- Supports icons and backgrounds; features options for arranging and grouping shortcuts. COMMONLY USED IN INDUSTRY AND SECTOR OF WINDOWS 10: 4. ACTION CENTER-Provides a slide-out panel for notifications 1. EDUCATION-Widely used in schools and universities for teaching, and quick settings like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,and brightness. administrative tasks, and student learning. 5. WINDOW DESIGN- Focus on flat, minimalistic design with soft 2. GOVERNMENT-Trusted for its compatibility with legacy systerns shadows and adaptive accent colors. and robust secunty options 3. HEALTHCARE- Used in clinics and hospitals for managing patient Windows 10 Navigation: records and running diagnostic software. 1. START MENU SEARCH- Powerful search functionality to quickly 4. SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES- Preferred for cost- locate files, apps and settings. effective operations and compatibility with industry-specific software 2. TASK VIEW- Facilitates switching between open windows and 5. THE GAMING INDUSTRY- The go-to platform for game creating virtual desktops for organization. developers and players due to its broad hardware compatibility. 3. FILE EXPLORER- Traditional file navigation with quick access Windows 11 GUI Description: options and ribbon-style commands. 1. CENTERED START MENU- Redesigned with a cleaner, 4. CUSTOMIZATION- Offers options to pin apps to the Start Menu or minimalistic layout, featuring pinned apps at the top and a Taskbar for ease of access. recommended section below. 5. TOUCHSCREEN SUPPORT- Includes a tablet mode for touch- 2. TASKBAR-Central alignment for icons, including Start, Search and based navigation Task View buttons, with smoother animations. TARGET AUDIENCE OF WINDOWS 10: 3. SNAP LAYOUTS- Integrated snapping functionality for window 1. GENERAL USERS- Home users, students and individuals seeking a arrangement, enhancing multitasking. versatile OS 2. PROFESSIONAL USERS- Small business owners and professionals 4. ROUNDED CORNERS-Consistent use of rounded edges for relying on productivity tools like Microsoft Word. windows and UI elements for a modern aesthetic.  5. WIDGETS- Introduces a dedicated Widgets panel for personalized COMMONLY USED IN INDUSTRY AND SECTOR OF WINDOWS 11: news, weather and updates. 1. CORPORATE SECTOR- Adopted by businesses focusing on hybrid Windows 11 Navigation: work and collaboration tools 1. Streamlined Interface- Focuses on simplicity with fewer distractions 2. CREATIVE INDUSTRIES- Popular among media companies, digital and a decluttered Start Menu. marketing agencies, and content creators 2. Snap Assist- Automatically suggests layouts for snapping windows, 3. TECH STARTUPS- Chosen for its modern features, enhanced security, making multitasking intuitive. and Al- powered tools 3. Improved Settings App- Reorganized and categorized settings for 4. RETAIL AND E-COMMERCE- Used for managing inventories, running easier navigation. cloud-based applications, and offering seamless POS systems. 4. Virtual Desktops- Enhanced customization with separate wallpapers 5. THE GAMING INDUSTRY- Favored for its advanced gaming features, for different desktops. making it suitable for esports and professional gaming setups. 5. Touchscreen and Gesture Support- Improved touch gestures for CONCLUSION: tablets and hybrid devices Summary of Key Points: TARGET AUDIENCE OF WINDOWS 11: Windows 10: 1. MODERN CONSUMERS- Users looking for a sleek, minimalistic, o Released in 2015, offering broad hardware compatibility and a and visually appealing interface. familiar interface. 2. CREATIVE PROFESSIONAL- Designers, video editors, and o Ideal for legacy systems, businesses, and educational institutions. content creators leveraging high- resolution displays and creative o Offers features like Start Menu with live tiles, Cortana, and Task View. apps. o Regular updates ensure security, but some features feel outdated. 3. BUSINESS USERS- Organization adopting hybrid work Windows 11: environments and seeking improved collaboration tools. o Released in 2021, with a modernized interface and enhanced 4. TECH-SAVVY USERS- Individual drawn to the latest technologies multitasking. like DirectStorage, enhanced security, and Al-based features. o Offers better gaming performance with features like DirectStorage and Auto HDR. TYPICAL USE OF WINDOWS 11: o Optimized for newer hardware and includes features like widgets 1. ENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY- Multitasking with Snap Layouts, and Microsoft Teams integration. virtual desktops, and better integration with Microsoft 365. o Stricter hardware requirements (e.g., TPM 2.0, Secure Boot) could 2. REATIVE WORKFLOWS- Running resource-intensive design and limit upgrades. editing software. Final Thoughts: 3. HYBRID WORK-Leveraging Teams integration and better Windows 10 is great for stability and compatibility with older hardware. webcam/audio features for remote work. Windows 11 offers a more modern and optimized experience, with a focus 4. GAMING- Optimized for next-gen gaming with AutoHDR, on productivity and gaming. DirectStorage, and support for the latest hardware. The choice between Windows 10 and Windows 11 depends on hardware, 5. TOUCH AND GESTURE-BASED NAVIGATION- Suited for user needs, and preferences. devices like tablets and 2-in-1 laptops. UBUNTU SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS ✓ 2 GHz dual-core processor or better ✓ 4 GB system memory ✓ 25 GB of free hard drive space and Internet Access ✓ Either a USB port or a DVD drive for the installer media (8GB)  Ubuntu 24.04 GUI Overview Navigation and Usability Aspects User-Friendly GNOME Desktop Environment Ease of Access: The Activities Overview centralizes window Desktop Area: Main workspace for icons, applications, and background management and application launching. The Dock provides quick interaction. access to frequently used applications. Activities Overview: Access via "Activities" button or Super key; shows open Search Functionality: The search bar in the Activities Overview windows and includes a search bar. allows for quick searching of applications, files, and settings. Top Panel: Displays system status indicators (network, battery, sound, clock) Customization: Users can personalize the Dock, top panel, and and quick access buttons. system settings. Extensions and themes are available for further Dock: Vertical bar for quick access to frequently used applications; customization. customizable. Keyboard Shortcuts: Supports a range of shortcuts for faster Application Menu: Grid of installed applications; searchable and organizable. navigation, such as Super + A for the application menu and Super + System Settings: Centralized configuration for display, network, accounts; Tab for window switching. accessible from top panel or Activities Overview. User-Friendly Interface: Designed to be intuitive and Workspaces: Virtual desktops for organizing open windows and applications; straightforward for users of all levels. switchable from Activities Overview. Accessibility Features: Includes screen readers, magnifiers, and high- contrast themes to accommodate different user needs. Notification System: Alerts and notifications for system events and applications, appearing in the top-right corner.