The Psychology of Evolving Technology PDF

The Psychology of Evolving Technology How Social Media, Influencer Culture and New Technologies are Altering Society ― Rhoda Okunev The Psychology of Evolving Technology: How Social Media, Influencer Culture and New Technologies are Altering Society Rhoda Okunev Tamarac, FL, USA ISBN-13 (pbk): 978...

The Psychology of Evolving Technology How Social Media, Influencer Culture and New Technologies are Altering Society ― Rhoda Okunev The Psychology of Evolving Technology: How Social Media, Influencer Culture and New Technologies are Altering Society Rhoda Okunev Tamarac, FL, USA ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8685-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8686-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8686-9 Copyright © 2023 by Rhoda Okunev This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. 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Printed on acid-free paper CHAPTER 2 History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More This chapter will review the internet and the WWW, search engines, email, word processors, Wi-Fi and texting. After the invent of the computer many inventions were developed that made life easier while using them. The internet, WWW and Wi-Fi enabled computers to speak to each other and share information. Search engines allowed users to see details of facts and figures that were on the internet instead of having to search through encyclopedias. The word processor made writing, computing and editing simpler to manage than a typewriter. Email and texting allowed the user to relay messages without having to make a call. © Rhoda Okunev 2023 R. Okunev, The Psychology of Evolving Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8686-9_2 10 Chapter 2 | History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More The Internet and the WWW In October 1957, when the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first manmade satellite, into space, the United States panicked. Americans started to realize we needed more science and technology courses and majors at universities. The goal of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) was to develop more space-age technology such as rockets and computers to rival the Soviet threat. In the 1960s, during the Cold War, MIT, Rand, and others recommended building computers that could speak to each other to enable leaders to communicate even if the telephone system was destroyed. In 1968, Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPAnet) used a technique developed by MIT called packet switching. This technique was the start of computers communicating but did not work very well. It did lay the groundwork for the Internet, though. In 1974, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, considered the Fathers of the Internet, designed the architecture of the Internet and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which allows supercomputers and desktop PCs to share information across the Internet. The design allowed DARPA’s Packet Radio, Packet Satellite, and ARPANET networks to interconnect and interwork. In the 1980s, only researchers and scientists used TCP to transport files and data from computer to computer. In 2004, Cerf and Khan received the Turing Award for their pioneering work on the Internet and its advances. Then, in 1989, at CERN, a European particle-based psychics lab, Tim BernersLee created the World Wide Web. He developed the idea for the building blocks of the Web: the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Uniform Resource Locators (web addresses), and the Hypertext Transfer Protocols (HTTP). These tools have made the Internet more usable and accessible and are still in use today. Search Engines Search engines gained recognition in the 1990s. In 1989, Alan Emtage was a systems administrator in the information technology department at McGill University in Montreal. His job was to manually go through File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers to scour nameless files to find some that could be useful to students and faculty. His Internet connection was slow, and it was a tedious process and time-consuming to run the search process. This led to Emtage’s invention of the Archie search engine. Archie is named after “archive,” without the v. The Psychology of Evolving Technology The Archie search engine dialed the computer in the middle of the night when no one was using the link. That was the fastest way to get the job done. For Archie to search, the exact name of the file had to be typed, so users needed to know the exact title of the file they were looking for. Emtage did not patent his idea. Although there were many that came and went, one of the more well-known search engines was AltaVista, developed at Digital Equipment Corporation (known as Digital); it used a crawler system that sent out “spiders” to record websites and build searchable indexes. AltaVista automatically categorizes web pages by natural language. The spider determines the language of a web page at the time when it spiders. AltaVista’s name came from the scenic views in Palo Alto, where Digital was based. For the most part, Paul Flaherty developed the idea for AltaVista, while Louis Monier, a computer scientist at Digital’s Western Research Lab, created the web crawler tool named Scooter. In August 1995, Scooter completed its first complete web crawl by returning around 10 million pages to the primitive AltaVista index, written primarily by Michael Burrows. It was the first search engine to allow people to find images, video, and audio alongside text content. It was also the first tool that could translate entire websites to another language by using the BabelFish translator, which would later be used by Yahoo. AltaVista was officially launched in 1995 by Digital and later acquired by Yahoo in 2003. In early 1994, Yahoo was started and founded at Stanford University by Jerry Yang and David Filo, who were electrical engineering graduate students. The name was first “Jerry and David’s Guide to the World Wide Web.” This was a directory of other websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In April 1994, the guide was renamed Yahoo. The word yahoo is an acronym for Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle or Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle. This paved the way for the yahoo. com domain, which was created in 1995. Sometimes creations just happen by chance, and the Google story is one of these situations. In 1995 at Stanford University Larry Page toured Stanford for graduate school, and Sergey Brin, a student there, was assigned to show him around. During the tour, they argued; however, later they struck up a partnership and built Google in their dorm rooms at Stanford. At first, Page and Brin called it Backrub; they later renamed it to Google. The name was based on a mathematical expression called googol, which is the number 1 followed by 100 zeros. Their motto was “to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.” In 1997, Larry and Seregey registered the domain name incorrectly, and instead of writing googol they wrote google. By the time they realized what they did, it was too late. 11 12 Chapter 2 | History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More At that time, search engines were based on keywords and would process those keywords to unload their information from the WWW to the user. Brin and Page’s idea returned lists of websites ranked by how often a search phrase appeared on them. They did this by embedding the number of links each website had into the search function crawlers. For instance, a website that had thousands of links would logically be more valuable than a website with just a few links. A heavily linked site was higher on the list and deemed more valuable for possible results. This technique gave the user more valuable information. In 1998 Brin and Page received financing for Google from Andy Bechtolsheim, the president of Cisco Systems. This helped them tremendously, and in 1998 Google Inc. became a company. Its popularity ballooned very fast, with people even using google as verb. Google reorganized itself in August 2015 to become a subsidiary of the holding company Alphabet Inc., with Page as CEO of Alphabet and Brin as president. In 2004 Google began offering a free web-based email account. Google developed a wide variety of products such as a word processor, spreadsheet, instant messaging tools, and more. Emails Electronic mail (email) is a method of sending messages between individuals electronically. In the early 1960s, email could be sent only if it was on the same computer. Not until Ray Tomlinson invented network email in 1971 was a system able to send an email to a different host user across the ARPANET at the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). He used the @ sign to link the user with a destination server, which is still used today. The address became username@name-of-computer-destination-server. Larry Roberts, also at ARPANET, wrote emails in 1972 that were based on the store-and-forward model where the server for the email accepts, forwards, delivers, and stores messages. This meant the receiver did not need to be online to receive the mail. To get the mail, the receiver only needed to log on to a mail server or webmail interface. Eric Schmidt, for his master’s thesis in 1979, wrote Berkley’s Network, which was an early intranet service offering serial connections between the campus computer center and certain computing departments. Schmidt later went on to become the CEO of Google. The first junk email—named Scientifically Processed Animal Matter (SPAM)— was sent by a man named Gary Thuerk in May 1978. By 1990, SPAM hit users across the Internet with a force that we still feel today. The Psychology of Evolving Technology In 1993, AOL developed the first version of Microsoft’s Outlook as part of an Exchange Server 5.5. Hotmail was launched in 1996 by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith. At that time, it was called HoTMaiL, and it was the first email webmail service. Later, it was bought by Microsoft in 1997 and rebranded MSN Hotmail, and in 2013 it replaced by Outlook.com. Elwood Edwards' voice helped the masses get hooked on checking email with the message “You’ve got mail.” Even though SPAM was already a problem, it was not until 2002 that the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communication was written in the European Union to address this problem. It included a section on SPAM that made it illegal to send unsolicited communications for direct marketing purposes without prior consent of the recipient. The United States followed with a similar law. Neither law has been effectively enforced, and they have not reduced the amount of SPAM in mailboxes. In 2004 Gmail launched as an internal mail for Google employees through an invite-only system, and a few years later it was released to the public. Its lead creator was Paul Buchheit. One of the main benefits of Gmail was that it gave users an email address that was independent of any particular Internet service provider (ISP). This made it easier for the user to maintain a permanent address. In addition, the service gave free email storage space for users to store files. Apple around this time introduced email to the iPhone user. This iPhone technology started email use for the consumer masses. iPhones, which will be discussed soon, use a user interface built around a multitouch screen. The phone is connected to the Wi-Fi, and it can make calls, browse the Web, take pictures, play music, and send and receive emails and text messages. Word Processors In 1975, Michael Shrayer, a semiretired New York filmmaker, moved to California. He bought an Altair computer and believed that he would be able to use the computer instead of a typewriter to write. During this time, he developed the first word processor software for Altair and called it Electric Pencil in 1976. Altair was one of the first commercial personal computers, and it was sold by mail order. The word processor software could word wrap, insert, and delete. The company lasted until the 1980s. Soon after, in 1978, WordStar Processor for the computer was created. WordStar was the first commercially successful word processing software program produced for personal computer. It became the best-selling software program of the early 1980s. Seymour Rubenstein and Rob Barnaby invented it. Rubenstein was the director of marketing for IMS Associates, Inc. (IMSAI), a California-based computer company. He left that software company in 1978 to start his own. He convinced Barnaby, the chief programmer for IMSAI, to join him and to write the processing program. 13 14 Chapter 2 | History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More In 1979, Alan Ashton and Bruce Bastian created the WordPerfect processing software. They developed it for a Data General minicomputer system owned by the city of Orem, Utah. Bastian and Ashton retained ownership of the software and founded Satellite Software International Inc. so that they could sell WordPerfect to other Data General users. The first version was on an IBM PC released in 1982. Microsoft: Word and Excel In 1975 when most people used typewriters, childhood friends Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft. It was originally called Micro-Soft, for microprocessors and software. In 1978, Microsoft’s sales topped more than $1 million, and in 1979 the business moved its headquarters to near Seattle, Washington, where Gates and Allen grew up. Microsoft licensed the MS-DOS operating system to IBM for its first personal computer, which came out in 1981. In 1983, Allen departed Microsoft after being diagnosed with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. He was successfully treated for the disease and then went on to create and work at other companies. In 1981, Microsoft Word, the word processor software, was developed by Richard Brodie and Charles Simonyi who joined the Microsoft team. In 1983 Multi-Tool Word for computers was released, and it was in competition with WordStar and WordPerfect; both of those programs were released around a year earlier. Similar to WordStar and WordPerfect, Word was WYSIWYG, which means “what you see is what you get.” In other words, whatever a document looked like to a user on their computer screen was how it would look when printed. Excel was developed by Doug Klunder who became an attorney and privacy activist for the American Civil Liberties Union in Washington. In 1985, the first version of Excel was released for Apple Inc.’s Macintosh computer. It had graphics and fast processing features, which made it very popular. In 1987 the next version of Excel was for Microsoft’s Windows operating system. Microsoft has upgraded and improved this software every couple of years, and it is still quite popular. Apple: Pages and Numbers Apple in the early 21st century introduced the iWorks suite for the Mac computer, and it has pages for word processing, numbers for spreadsheets, and keynotes for presentations. This suite is in competition with the Microsoft suite of Word, Excel, and PowerPoint. The Psychology of Evolving Technology Google: Docs and Sheets Google bought Writely, a web-based text editing platform, in 2006 and made it the foundation of Google Docs. Writely was originally created in 1998 by Sam Schillace. Gmail was about a year or so old at the time and could barely support the code for Google Docs, which was not stable. The developers made a deliberate decision that users would want speed, convenience, and collaborative features more than richer functionality like rich formatting, margins, and pagination, which proved successful. Google Sheets was founded by Jonathan Rochelle and Farzad “Fuzzy” Khosrowshahi and originated from 2Web Technologies’ XL2Web, which was acquired by Google in 2006. Google Sheets was built as a cloud-based alternative to compete with Microsoft Excel. Google Sheets is accessible from your Gmail account, where all your files are accessible to the Google Drive. Wi-Fi and Its Importance Wi-Fi stands for “wireless fidelity,” and it was invented by mistake, as some of the most awesome discoveries are. Australian John O’Sullivan, a fan of Stephen Hawking’s theory of evaporating black holes and their subsequent radio waves, set out to prove the theory correct, but never did. Instead, while he was working on the problem, he realized that signals travel vast distances and could be very small and distorted by the gas and dust of space they passed through. In other words, their waveform altered from a sharp identifiable spike to a flattened curve. O’Sullivan created a tool that could identify and filter specific radio waves. In 1992, a team at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of Australian (CSIRO) with O’Sullivan worked on the technique for reducing multipath interference of radio signals transmitted for the use of computer networking, and it was patented in 1996. Vic Hayes has been called the “Father of Wi-Fi” in 1997 because he chaired the IEEE committee that created the 802.11 standards. These standards are the specifications for wireless local area networks (WLANS). Hayes created the standards and improvement to the bandwidth that were added to 802.11. Texting Friedhelm Hillebrand, a German engineer, and Bernard Ghillebaert, a French telecommunications engineer, businessman, and former chief executive of Orange UK, are the inventors of SMS. SMS means Short Message Service, or texting. In 1985, Hillebrand became chairman of the nonvoice services 15 16 Chapter 2 | History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More committee of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard. He conducted experiments on random sentences on his teletypewriter where he found that most messages people sent were about 160 characters. This is how he determined that 160 characters were enough for a text message. The GSM group continued to work on this technology but it was not believed this technology would be popular when you could make a telephone call and not much was done to promote the software. On December 3, 1992, Neil Papworth, at 22 years old, was a test engineer and developer. He worked with a team to develop an SMS message at Sema Group Telecoms for its customers at Vodafone UK in Newbury, Berkshire. Neil sent the world’s first text message from a computer, which said “Merry Christmas” to Richard Jarvis, the director at Vodafone, who was enjoying his office Christmas party. Jarvis received the message on a big bulky handset used at that time. In 1993 Nokia, a Finnish company, was the first handset manufacturer that supported users sending SMS text messages with a full keyboard, which used the Global System for Mobile Communications network. In 1997, it became the first manufacturer to produce a mobile phone that could text. However, Apple took the lead with the iPhone soon after, and Nokia never caught up. In 2014, Nokia’s mobile phone business was sold to Microsoft. Now, texting is a popular technology we cannot imagine being without. Summary Some of the important uses of how computers and phones are used and enjoyed today include email, texting, and the word processor. Wi-Fi has allowed us to use our phones and computers in many places and in many ways. For the most part, we take these devices for granted because they are so ubiquitous, but each piece of technology was developed individually from brilliant and creative teams working together to enhance the technology and, at times, compete with another team of scientists. Ultimately, these technologies led to smart technology, a field that is growing in many ways today and will be discussed in the next chapter. 114 Bibliography Chapter 2: History of the Internet, Search Engines, and More 7. Spicer, D., “Raymond Tomlinson: Email Pioneer, Part 2” in IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 78-83, doi: 10.1109/MAHC.2016.41, July–Sept 2016. 8. Spink; Minsoo Park; B.J. Jansen; J. Pedersen, “Multitasking Web search on Alta Vista,” International Conference on Information Technology: Coding and Computing,” ITCC, 2004. 9. Ian H. Witten, et al., “Web Dragons: Inside the Myths of Search Engine Technology,” Elsevier Science & TechnologyProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebook central.proquest.com/lib/novasoutheastern/ detail.action?docID=285784, 2006. 10. Brian McCullough, How the Internet Happened: From Netscape to the iPhone, LiveRight Publishing Corp, 2018. 11. Anna Crowley Redding, Google It: A History of Google, Feiwel and Friends, 2018. 12. The Famous People, “Eric Schmidt Biography,” https:// www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/ericschmidt-6451.php. 13. Gina Smith, “Unsung innovators: Gary Thuerk, the father of spam,” Computerworld, Dec. 2007. 14. Federal Trade Commission, “Federal, State, and Local Law Enforcers Tackle Deceptive Spam and Internet Scams,” November 2002. 15. European Commission Information Society and Media, “Protecting privacy and fighting spam,” https:// ec.europa.eu/information_society/doc/ factsheets/024-privacy-and-spam-en.pdf, 2006. 16. Federal Trade Commission, “Federal, State, and Local Law Enforcers Tackle Deceptive Spam and Internet Scams,” https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/ press-releases/2002/11/federal-state-locallaw-enforcers-tackle-deceptive-spam-internetscams, 2002. 17. “Google Docs began as a hacked together experiment, says creator, Ellis Hamburger,” https://www.theverge. com/2013/7/3/4484000/sam-schillace-interviewgoogle-docs-creator-box, 2013. Bibliography 18. Alexandra Samuel, Meet Alan Emtage, the Black Technologist Who Invented ARCHIE, the First Internet Search Engine, https://daily.jstor.org/alanemtage-first-internet-search-engine/, 2017. 19. Seymour Rubenstein & Rob Barnaby, Inventors of the Modern Computer WordStar, http://www.landley. net/history/mirror/timelines/inventors/html/ aa030199.htm 20. Computer History Tracing the History of the Computer - WordPerfect Word Processor, http:// www.computernostalgia.net/articles/word Perfect.htm 21. Wikipedia, Paul Allen, https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Paul_Allen#:~:text=Paul%20Gardner%20 Allen%20(January%2021,of%20the%201970s%20 and%201980s, 2022. 22. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Microsoft Word”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2 Dec. 2022, https:// www.britannica.com/technology/Microsoft-Word. Accessed 18 December 2022. 23. Julie Fox, Here’s Why the Creator of Microsoft Excel Left a Software Career to Work in Civil Liberties, https://alum.mit.edu/slice/heres-why-creatormicrosoft-excel-left-software-career-workcivil-liberties, 2016. 24. Wikipedia, Google Sheets, https://www.wikiwand. com/en/Google_Sheets 25. Dr John O’Sullivan – The inventor of modern WiFi, https://www.pauseawards.com/dr-john-osullivanthe-inventor-of-modern-wifi/, 2022. 26. IEEE Computer Society, Victor Hayes, https://www. computer.org/profiles/victor-hayes, 2001. 27. Investor’s Business Daily, PATRICK SEITZ, LEADERS & SUCCESS: Hillebrand Made Mobile Text Messaging A Reality, https://www.investors.com/news/ management/leaders-and-success/friedhelmhillebrand-oversaw-the-development-of-shortmessage-service/, 2012. 28. #technicianjourney, Neil Papworth, https://technician journey.com/2019/08/29/neil-papworth/, 2019. 115