OB Chapter 3: Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace PDF

Values Is capital punishment right or wrong7 Is a person\'s desire for power good or bad7 The answers to these questions are value-laden. Values represent basic convictions that \"a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mod...

Values Is capital punishment right or wrong7 Is a person\'s desire for power good or bad7 The answers to these questions are value-laden. Values represent basic convictions that \"a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. \"2 They contain a judgmental element in that they carry an individual\'s ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute says a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity attribute specifies how important. it is. When we rank an individual\'s values in terms of their intensity, we discover that person\'s value system. All of us have a hierarchy of values according to the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality3 Values tend to be relatively stable and enduring4 Most of our values are formed in our early years- with input from parents, teachers, friends, and others. As children, we were told that certain behaviours or outcomes are always desirable or always undesirable. There were few grey areas. It is this absolute or \"black-or-white\" characteristic of values that more or less ensures their stability and endurance. If we question our values, they may change, but more often they are reinforced. There is also evidence linking personality to values, implying our values may be partly determined by genetically transmitted traits5 Open people, for example, may be more politically liberal, whereas conscientious people may place a greater value on safe and ethical conduct. Below we examine two frameworks for understanding values: Milton Rokeach\'s terminal and instrumental values, and Kent Hodgson\'s general moral principles. Rokeach Value Survey Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), which consists of two sets of values, each containing 18 individual value items. One set, called terminal values, refers to desirable end-states of existence. These are the goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime. They include A comfortable life (a prosperous life) An exciting life (a stimulating, active life) A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Happiness (contentedness) The other set, called instrumental values, refers to preferable modes of behaviour, or means for achieving the terminal values. They include Ambitious {hard-working, aspiring) Broad-minded (open-minded) Capable (competent, effective) Courageous (standing up for your beliefs) Imaginative (daring, creative) Honest (sincere, truthful)6 Each of us places value on both the ends (terminal values) and the means (instrumental values). A balance between the two is important, as well as an understanding of how to strike this balance. Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 83 Hodgson\'s General Moral Principles Ethics is the study of moral principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. Thus, ethical principles are related to moral judgments about right and wrong. 08 cTION In recent years, there has been concern that individuals are not grounded in moral principles. It is believed that this lack of moral roots has resulted in a number of business scandals, such as those at WorldCom, Enron, Hollinger International, and even in the sponsorship scandal of the Canadian government. We discuss the issue of ethics further in Chapter 12. The Magnificent Seven Principles -+ Dignity of human life. The lives of people are to be respected. -+ Autonomy. All persons are intrinsically valuable and have the right to self-determination. Management consultant Kent Hodgson has identified seven general moral principles that individuals should follow when making decisions. He calls these \"the Magnificent Seven and suggests that they are universal values that managers should use to make principled, appropriate, and defensible decisions? They are presented in OB in Action- The Magnificent Seven Principles. -+ Honesty. The truth should be told to those who have a right to know it. -+ Loyalty. Promises, contracts, and commitments should be honoured. -+ Fairness. People should be treated justly. Assessing Cultural Values -+ Humaneness. Our actions ought to accomplish good, and we should avoid doing evil. I As it develops its many workshops, ladies l earning Code is committed to recognizing the diversity of Canada9 ladies learning Code believes that \"girls, people with disabilities, Indigenous youth -+ Tile common good. Actions should accomplish the greatest good for the greatest number of people8 and newcomers \[should bel given equal opportunity to build our future.\" This belief reflects a dominant value of canada as a multicultural country. The approach to diversity is very different in the United States, which considers itself a melting pot with respect to different cultures. What do you know about the values of people from other countries? What values make canadians unique\' Unlike personality, which is largely genetically determined, values are learned. They are passed down through generations and vary by cultures. As researchers have sought to understand cultural value differences, two important framewo rks that have emerged are from Geert Hofstede and the GLOBE studies. Hofstede\'s Framework for Assessing Cultures One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures was developed in the late 1970s by Geert Hofstede. 10 He surveyed more than 116 000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-related values, and found that managers and employees vary on five value dimensions of national culture: Power disrance. Power distance describes the degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. A high rating on power distance means that large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that discourages upward mobility. A low power-distance rating characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity. Individualism vs. collectivism. Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in individual rights above all else. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Masculinity vs. femininity. Hofstede\'s construct of masculinity is the degree to which the culture favours traditional masculine roles, such as achievement, power, and control, as opposed to viewing men and women as equals. A f) Describe Hofstede\'s value dimensions for assessing cultures. ethics The study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. power distance A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. individualism A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. collectivism A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of 1\>Alich they are a part to look after them and protect them. masculinity A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favours traditional masculine l\'lllfk roles of achievemen\~ power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism. 84 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace femininity A national culture attribute that sees little \< Values in Today\'s Workforce Entered the Cohort Workforce Baby 1965-19B5 Boomers Generation 1985-2000 Xers Millennials 2000 to present Approximate Current Age Mid-40s to mid-60s Late 20s to early 40s Under 30 Dominant Worlt Values Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority; loyalty to career Work-life balance, team-oriented, dislike of rules; loyalty to relationships Confident, financial success, selfreliant but team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 87 When Robert Dutton, former president and CEO of Boucherville, Ouebec-based Rona, started working at the company, senior managers often were his grandfather\'s age, while he was a young Baby Boomer. After working over 30 years at Rona, Dutton noticed that Millennials were starting to make up a larger portion of Rona\'s dealers. Dutton started the group Young Rona Business Leaders to help develop the Millennia! talent that will be the future of Rona. 21 generations, and indicates when each entered the workforce. Because most people start working between the ages of 18 and 23, the eras also correlate closely with employee age. Generation Xers are squeezed in the workplace between the much larger Baby Boomer and Millennia! groups. With Millennials starting to climb the ladder in organizations, and Boomers continuing to hold on to their jobs rather than retire, the impact of having these two large generations- one younger and one older- in the workplace is gaining attention. Bear in mind that our discussion of these generations presents broad generalizations, and you should certainly avoid stereotyping individuals on the basis of these generalAre Millennials really difl\'erent from their elders\'! izations. There are individual differences in values. For instance, there is no Jaw that says a Baby Boomer cannot think like a Millennia!. Despite these limitations, values do change over generations22 We can gain some useful insights from analyzing values this way to understand how others might view things differently from ourselves, even when they are exposed to the same situation. The Point/Counterpoint on page 110 considers whether MilJennials have a more inflated view of themselves as compared with their parents. An understanding that individuals\' values differ but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behaviour. The change in the demographic composition of the workplace will definitely have an impact. Millennials edged out the Baby Boomers to become the largest cohort in the Canadian workplace in 201623 \[\[ij\]\] RESEARCH FINDINGS: Generational Differences Although it\'s fascinating to think about generational values, remember that these classifications Jack solid research support. Early research was plagued by methodological problems that made it difficult to assess whether differences actually 88 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace exist. Reviews suggest many of the generalizations are either overblown or incorrect24 Differences across generations often don\'t support popular conceptions of how generations differ. One study that used an appropriate longitudinal design did find the value placed on leisure has increased over generations from the Baby Boomers to the Millennials and work centrality has declined, but research did not find that Millennials had more altruistic work values25 Generational classifications may help us understand our own and other generations beller, but we must also appreciate their limits. A new generation will be coming to the workplace soon, and researchers suggest that this new generation may be the cause of revolution in the workplace. OB in the Street looks at Generation Z. 08 IN THE STREET Generation Z: Coming to Your Workplace Soon Will the next generation of employees be radically different from their older siblings? Ann Makosinski, just 16 years old and from Victoria, is already trying to start her own company26 A friend from the Philippines was having trouble getting homework done and fa iled a grade because she did not have access to electricity to study at night. Makosinski won Coogle\'s annual international science fair in 2013 with her bauery-free \"Hollow Flashlight: which is powered by body heat. Makosinski is part of Generation Z, the group that comes after the Millennials, and was born starling in 1995. The oldest are in their early 20s and just starling to enter the workplace. Makosinski\'s cohort is described by researchers as educated, industrious, collaborative and eager to build a better planet, exactly what she is already doing. Sparks & Honey, a New York City advertising agency, found that 60 percent of Gen Zers want jobs that have a social impact compared with 31 percent of Millennials. They are the first generation to have digital access from the crib, making them extremely comfortable in that world. While their parents feel anxious about how multitasking might affect thinking, Gen Zers see it as a natural action. It\'s probably too early to define where Gen Z will go, but Makosinski is representative of her generation thus far. \"I\'m just very glad I\'ve been able to inspire a few people, she says. \"I think that\'s what really changed my life. now I\'m more conscious of my actions and how I spend my time. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cultural Differences Canada is a multicultural country: In 2011, 20.6 percent of its population was foreignborn27 It is projected that in 2036 that number will be between 24.5 percent and 30 percent.28 This figure compares with 12.9 percent for the United States in 201329 In 2011, 46 percent ofToronto\'s population, 40 percent of Vancouver\'s population, and 22.6 percent of Montreal\'s population were made up of immigrants3 0 The 2011 Census found that 20 percent of Canada\'s population spoke a language other than the country\'s two official languages at home. This is expected to increase to between 26.1 percent and 30.6 percent in 2036. In Vancouver and Toronto, this rate was 31 percent and 32 percent, respectively, so nearly one-third of the population of those two cities does not speak either English or French as a first language31 In Canada, of those who speak other languages, the dominant languages are Punjabi, Chinese (not specified), Cantonese, and Spanish.32These figures indicate the very different cultures that are part of the Canadian fabric of life. Although we live in a multicultural society, some tension exists among people from different races and ethnic groups. In a recent poll, 25 percent of Canadians reported that they had experienced racism. Hate crimes directed mostly at Muslims, Arabs, and West Asians rose 5 percent between 2014 and 2015, with 1362 criminal incidents reported33 Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 8 9 Attitudes I The attitudes of management are reflected in how employees handle their jobs.34 The tech industry is hard on women, and at least at Uber, the sexist attitude of its CEO bubbled through the company. In an interview in 2014, then-CEO Travis Kalanick referred to Uber as \"Boob-er\" because it helped him attract women. It is therefore not surprising that many of his senior managers ignored women who complained about sexual harassment. Kalanick was forced to resign in June 2017. In this section we discuss how attitudes affect behaviour. Attitudes are evaluative statements- either positive or negative- about objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say, \"I like my job: I am expressing my attitude about work. Typically, researchers have assumed that attitudes have three components: cognition, affect, and behaviour3 5 Let\'s look at each. The statement My pay is low is the cognitive comp onent of an attitude- a description of or belief in the way things are. It seL\~ the stage for the more critical part of an attitude- its affective comp onent. Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude and is reflected in the statement \"I\'m angry over how little I\'m paid.\" Affect can lead to behavioural outcomes. The behaviour al component of an attitude describes an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something, as in \"I\'m going to look for another job that pays beuer.\" Viewing attitudes as having three components- cognition, affect, and behaviourhelps us understand their complexity and the potential relationship between attitudes and behaviour. For example, imagine that you realized someone has just treated you unfairly. You are likely to have feelings about that, occurring virtually instantaneously with the realization. Thus, cognition and affect are intertwined. Exhibit 3-3 illustrates how the three components of an attitude are related. In this example, an employee did not get a promotion he thought he deserved. The employee\'s attitude toward his supervisor is illustrated as follows: The employee thought he deserved the promotion (cognition), he strongly d islikes his supervisor (affect), and he has complained and taken action (behaviour). Although we often think cognition causes affect, which then causes behaviour, in reality these components are difficult to separate. EXHIBIT 3-3 The Components of an Attitude Cognitive = evaluation J My supervisor gave a promotion to a co-w orker who deserved it \'\'\"\"\'\"m\' M\' w\" \'w\' \'\'\"\"\'\'\'\' \~ Affective = feeling I dislike my supervisor! Behavioural = action I\'m looking for ot her work; I\'ve complained about my supervisor to anyone w ho would list en..... Negative attitude toward supervisor 8 Understand the three components of an attitude. r attitudes Positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or events. cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude. affective component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. behavioural component An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. 90 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace 0 Describe key attitudes that affect organizational performance. 0 Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction. job satisfaction A IJ(l5i1Ml feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. In organizations, atlitudes are important because they affect job behaviour36 Employees may believe, for example, that managers, auditors, and engineers are in a conspiracy to make them work harder for less money. This may then lead to a negative attitude toward management when an employee is asked to stay late to help on a special project Employees may also be negatively affected by the attitudes of their co-workers or clients. From Concepts Lo Skills on pages 114 US ook\~ at whether it\'s possible to change someone\'s attitude, and how that might happen in the workplace. A person can have thousands of attitudes, but OB focuses our altention on a limited number of work-related a!litudes that tap positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environments37 Next we consider five important altitudes that affect organizational performance: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement, perceived organizational support, and employee engagement. Job Satisfaction When people speak of employee attitudes, they usually mean job satisfaction, a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristicsJ8 A survey conducted by Hays Canada in 2016 found that Canadians are not all that satisfied: 47 percent said they were unhappy with their job39 A person with high job satisfaction holds positive feel ings about the work, while a person with low satisfaction holds negative feelings. Because OB researchers give job satisfaction high importance, we will review this attitude in detail. What Causes Job Satisfaction? Think about the best job you have ever had. What made it great? Chances are you liked the work you did and the people with whom you worked. Interesting jobs that provide training, variety, independence, and control satisfy most employees40 A recent European study indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with life satisfaction, in that your altitudes and experiences in life spill over into your job approaches and experiences41 Exhibit 3-4 shows what jobs people feel provide the worst job satisfaction. EXHIBIT 3-4 The Worst Jobs for Job Satisfaction\* Newspaper reporter Lumberj ack Enlisted military Actor Oil rig worker -\"\"\'!!!!!.,..!!!!!!!!\~1 What things affect your job satisfaction\'! Dairy farmer Meter reader Mail carrier Roofer Flight attendant \~\~==\~==\~\~\~\--\~\~\--\~ 0 I 0 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 \'Based on physical demands, work environment, income, stress, and hiring outlook. Sources: L. Weber, ·sest and Worst Jobs,\" Wall Street Journal, April11, 2012, In the GareerCast.oom Jobs Rated report, p. 86; and K. Kensing, \"The Worst Jobs of 2013,\" GareerCast.com, 2013, http:// www.careercast.oomfJC)bs-ratedlworst-jobs-2013. Cha pter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 9 1 EXHIBIT 3-5 Average Job Satisfaction Levels by Facet 100 90 80 \....\-\-\-\-\-- \~ 70 - t\-\-- ,\...\-\-\-\--.., \"\' 60 - f\-- - f\-- \~ c.. 50 \~ \....\-\-\-\-\-- - I\-- I\-- - t\-\--.t 40 - I\-- I\-- - t\-\-- 30 - I\-- I\-- - t\-\-- 20 - I\-- f\-- - f\-- 10 - I\-- f\-- I\-- f\-- - f\-- 0 Work Itself Pay Promotion Supervision Co-workers Overall The facets of job satisfaction levels can vary widely. As shown in Exhibit 3-5, people have typically been more satisfied with their jobs overall, the work itself, and their supervisors and co-workers than they have been with their pay and promotion opportunities. The reasons can differ greatly. Let\'s discuss some characteristics that likely influence job satisfaction, starting with job conditions. Job Conditions Generally, interesting jobs that provide training, variety, independence, and comrol satisfy most employees. Imerdependence, feedback, social support, and imeraction with co-workers outside the workplace are also strongly related to job satisfaction, even after accouming for characteristics of the work itself.42 As you may have guessed, managers also play a big role in employees\' job satisfaction. Employees who feel empowered by their leaders experience higher job satisfaction, one study of a large Hong Kong telecommunications corporation found 4 3 Research in Israel suggested that a manager\'s auemiveness, responsiveness, and support increase the employee\'s job satisfaction44 Thus, job conditions- especially the intrinsic nature of the work itself, social interactions, and supervision- are imponam predictors of job satisfaction. Although each is important and their relative value varies across employees, the intrinsic nature of the work is most important45 Personality As important as job conditions are to job satisfaction, personality also plays an important role. People who have positive core self-evaluations {CSEs)- who believe in their inner worth and basic competence- are more satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSEs. Additionally, in the context of career commitmem, CSE influences job satisfaction as people with high levels of both CSE and career commitment may rea lize particularly high job satisfaction4 6 Pay You have probably noticed that pay comes up often when people discuss job satisfaction. Pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness for many people, but the effect can be smaller once an individual reaches a standard level of comfortable living. Money does motivate people, as we will discover in Chapter 4. But what motivates us is not necessarily the same as what makes us happy. core self-evaluation (CSEJ Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence. and worth as a person. 92 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace f) Identify the main consequences of job satisfaction. organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee\'s formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Toronto-based Real Food for Real Kids makes food for 15 000 school-aged children each day. Co-founders Lulu Cohen-Farnell and David Farnell believe that making sure their employees connect w\~h the work that they do increases motivation and reduces tumover of the caterers. Job Satisfaction and Productivity As several studies have concluded, happy workers are more likely to be productive workers. Some researchers used to believe the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance was a myth. But a review of more than 300 studies suggested the correlation between job satisfaction and job performance is quite strong, even across international contexts47 Individuals with higher job satisfaction perform better, and organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than those with fewer. Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour In Chapter l, we defined organizational dt:iunship behaviour {OCB) as discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee\'s formal job requirements, and is not usually rewarded, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization. 48 It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee\'s OCB49 OCBs include people talking positively about their organizations, helping others, and going beyond the normal expectations of their jobs. Evidence suggests job satisfaction is moderately correlated with OCB; people who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviour. 5° Why does job satisfaction lead to OCB1 One reason is trust. Research in 18 countries suggests that managers reciprocate employees\' OCB with trusting behaviours of their own 5 1 Individuals who feel their co-workers support them are also more likely to engage in helpful behaviours than those who have antagonistic co-worker relationships52 Personality matters, too. Individuals with certain personality traits (agreeableness and conscientiousness, see Chapter 2} are more satisfied with their work, which in turn leads them to engage in more OCB53 Finally; individuals who receive positive feedback on their OCB from their peers are more likely to continue their citizenship activities54 Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction As we noted in Chapter l, employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Because service organization managers should be concerned with pleasing customers, it\'s reasonable to ask: Is employee satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes? Chapter 3 Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace 93 ADA@ Service firms like Air Canada understand that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. As front-line employees who have regular customer contact, the airline\'s ticket agents are friendly, upbeat, and responsive while greeting passengers and helping them with luggage check-in and seat assignments. For front-line employees who have regular contact with customers, the answer is yes. Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyaJty.S5 A number of companies are acting on this evidence. Online shoe retailer Zappos is so commiued to finding customer service employees who are satisfied with the job that it offers a \$2000 bribe to quit the company after training, figuring the least satisfied will take the cash and go.S6 Employees are empowered to \"create fun and a little weirdness and are given unusual discretion in making customers satisfied, and it works: Of the company\'s more than 24 million customers, 75 percent are repeat buyers. Therefore, for Zappos, employee satisfaction has a direct effect on customer satisfaction. Life Satisfaction Until now, we have treated job satisfaction as if it were separate from life satisfaction, but they may be more related than you think. 57 Research in Europe indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with life satisfaction, and your aLtitudes and experiences in life spill over into your job approaches and experiences.S8 Furthermore, life satisfaction decreases when people become unemployed, according to research in Germany, and not just because of the loss of income.s9 For most individuals, work is an important part o f life, and therefore it makes sense that our overall happiness depends in no small part on our happiness in our work (our job satisfaction). How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction What happens when employees like their jobs, and when they dislike their jobs? One theoretical model- the exit- voice- loyalty- neglect framework- is helpful in understanding the consequences of dissatisfaction. Exhibit 3-6 illustrates the framework\'s four responses, which differ along two dimensions: constructive/destructive and active/ passive. The responses are as fo llows:60 Exit\_ Actively auempting to leave the organization, including looking for a new position as well as resigning. This action is destructive from the point 9 Identify four employee responses to job dissatisfaction. exit Dissatisfaction expressed by actively attempting to leave the organization. 94 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace voice Dissatisfaction expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions. loyalty Dissatisfaction expressed by passM!Iy waiting for conndual\'s emotional attachment to and identification \~h an organization, and a belief in s values. normative commitment The obligation an individual feels to stay \~h an organization. continuance commitment An indiooual\'s calculation to stay with an organization based on the perceived costs of lea\>nng the organization. job involvement The degree to 1\'