NPTEL Lecture Notes on Psychology of Learning PDF

EL PT Lecture - 1 Prof. Atasi Mohanty N Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Introduction to Psychology of Learning  Learning has been a central topic in psychological research since the inception of ps...

EL PT Lecture - 1 Prof. Atasi Mohanty N Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Introduction to Psychology of Learning  Learning has been a central topic in psychological research since the inception of psychology as an independent science (e.g., Ebbinghaus, 1885/1962; Thorndike, 1911). The psychology of learning focuses on how people learn and how EL they interact with the environments in which they learn. Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists agree PT that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Learning as a change in behaviour vs. a determinant of changes in behaviour N Learning involves some kind of change in the organism, which is necessary but not sufficient for observing a change in behaviour.  Learning as an enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior Learning as the contiguous causal effect of experience on behavior Learning can be defined as changes in the behavior of an organism that are the result of regularities in the environment of that organism In order to say that learning has occurred, two conditions must be met: EL An observable change in behavior must occur during the lifetime of the organism. The change in behavior must be due to regularities in the environment. PT Learning is thus seen as an effect—that is, as an observable change in behavior that is attributed to an element in the environment (a regularity in the environment). N  Non-associative learning-refers to a decrease in the intensity of a response as the result of the repeated presentation of a stimulus Functional definitions promote the development of cognitive learning theories EL Cognitive definitions of learning are mechanistic & refer to a specific change in the organism, a change in mental constructs PT (e.g., knowledge, representations, associations)—that can function as a contiguous cause of changes in behaviour, Learning changes the physical structure of the brain through the N process of continuous interactions between the learner and the external environment. THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT MAKES A DIFFERENCE People learn by making sense of the environment and of stimuli around them , the nature of the tasks confronted, the ways in which information is presented, and the expectations for the learner’s involvement, all impact the learning process EL Reinforcements from the environment and the nature of feedback from significant others can stimulate or undermine greater effort PT  LEARNING IS BASED ON ASSOCIATIONS People make connections and draw conclusions based on a sense of what they already know and have experienced N For learning to occur, facts, concepts and ideas must also be stored, connected to other facts, concepts, and ideas, and built upon  EL PT Lecture - 2 Prof. Atasi Mohanty N Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur LEARNING OCCURS IN CULTURAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS Culture influences the knowledge and experiences people bring to the classroom, the ways in which they communicate, the expectations that have for how learning will occur The social context created within the classroom—the ways in EL which communication, teachers’ and students’ roles, and opportunities for collaboration are structured—all influence the learner’s understanding and construction of knowledge PT PEOPLE LEARN IN DIFFERENT WAYS Learners also possess inter- and intrapersonal intelligence/s, N musical, kinesthetic , and spatial abilities beyond the linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities PEOPLE THINK ABOUT THEIR OWN LEARNING, AND THEIR FEELINGS MATTER- Both thoughts and emotions shape the learning process  History of the Psychology of Learning One of the first thinkers to study how learning influences behavior was psychologist John B. Watson, who suggested in his work ’Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It ’that all behaviors are a result of the learning process. EL Psychology, the behaviorists believed, should be the scientific study of observable, measurable behavior. Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he PT conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early 20th century. N Although behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.  Psychology of Learning provides necessary theoretical and empirical data regarding the learning process. It describes the principles of learning, motivation strategies, transfer of learning, memory, retention and forgetting. It is also useful in understanding the fundamental problems or EL emotional development motivation, social behavior and personality of people. To sum up, learning can be described as a process by which an PT individual: i. acquires a novel idea or experience to a situation; N ii. retains and applies the idea, skills and knowledge in solving the confronting problems; iii. modify one’s behavior by the experience gained in the past and making the change permanent.  EL PT N What state is the learner in?  EL PT N The state of “conscious incompetence” may be valuable at the start of a learning experience. Effective Learning … that reflective activity which enables the learner to draw upon previous experience to understand and evaluate the present, so as to shape future action and formulate new knowledge Criteria of learning- Learning involves change EL Learning endures over time Learning occurs through experience PT Learning is: - an activity of construction, - handled with (or in the context of) others, - driven by learner’s agency N Effective learning is- all of these at their best, PLUS the monitoring and review of whether approaches and strategies are proving effective for the particular goals and context  EL PT Lecture - 3 N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur 1- more connected knowledge 2- wider range of strategies 3- greater complexity of understanding EL 4- enhanced action appropriate to goals and context 5- increased engagement and self-direction 6- more reflective approach PT 7- more positive emotions and affiliation to learning 8- more developed vision of future self as a learner 9- greater facility in learning with others N 10- more sense of participation in a knowledge community N PT EL  Learning About Learning reviewing how we learn most effectively exploring our thinking and problem-solving reviewing beliefs about successes EL exploring approaches to anxiety-provoking tasks managing feelings that impede learning PT practising our approach to difficult tasks, talking ourselves through them N examining responses to experiences of failure analysing contributions to group tasks  How do students think and learn?  Principle 1- Students’ beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and learning; intelligence and ability can be developed through effort and experiences with applying different strategies EL  Principle 2- What students already know affects their learning; learning consists of either adding to existing student knowledge, PT known as conceptual growth, or transforming or revising student knowledge, known as conceptual change; Principle 3- Students’ cognitive development and learning are not development; N limited by general stages of Principle 4 -Learning is based on context, so generalizing learning to new contexts is not spontaneous but instead needs to be facilitated;  EL PT Lecture - 4 Prof. Atasi Mohanty N Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur  Principle 4 -Learning is based on context, so generalizing learning to new contexts is not spontaneous but instead needs to be facilitated; Deliberate practice involves attention, rehearsal, and repetition over time & leads to new knowledge or skills that can later be developed EL into more complex knowledge and skills Principle 5- Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice PT Principle 6- Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback to students is important for learning N Learning can be increased when students receive regular, specific, explanatory, and timely feedback on their work Principle 7- Students’ self-regulation assists learning, and self- regulatory skills can be enhanced, specifically through direct instruction, modelling , support, and classroom organization and structure Principle 8- Student creativity can be fostered by making it an EL important outcome of the learning process for students and educators. What motivates students? PT Principle 9- Students tend to enjoy learning and to do better when they are more intrinsically rather than extrinsically motivated to achieve by developing increasing competence, the knowledge and skills N  Principle 10- Students persist in the face of challenging tasks and process information more deeply when they adopt mastery goals rather than performance goals. Principle 11- Setting goals that are short term (proximal), specific, and moderately challenging enhances motivation more than establishing goals that are long term (distal), general, and overly challenging ;  should learn to become intermediate risk takers  Principle 12- Learning is situated within multiple social contexts EL  Principle 13- Emotional well-being influences educational performance, learning, and development PT How to assess student progress? Principle 14- Formative and summative assessments are both interpretations N important and useful but require different approaches and  Principle 15- Students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities are best measured with assessment processes grounded in psychological science with well-defined standards for quality and fairness  EL PT Lecture - 5 Prof. Atasi Mohanty N Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur  Types of human learning Non-associative learning- is the simplest and most elementary of all, since only one element is necessary for the subject to learn something: a stimulus. 1- Habituation Habituation is the decrease in the response that an organism EL gives to a stimulus to which it is exposed in numerous trials or occasions. PT This decrease in the response rate is presumably due to the poor biological relevance of the stimulus in question ; Example- ticking of a Wall Clock. 2- Sensitization N Sensitization can be understood as the phenomenon opposed to habituation; That is, because of repeated exposure of a subject to a stimulus, it will increase its response rate. Example- drugs/cocaine that sensitize the individual who ingests them.  Associative learning- is the type of learning where the learner has to associate two or more elements. Example-instrumental conditioning or learning through associating two events. 3- Meaningful learning EL According to the American theorist David Ausubel , the type of learning in which a student relates the new information to the one he already has, adjusting and reconstructing both information in this process. PT Significant learning occurs when new information is connected to a preexisting relevant concept in the cognitive structure. N  4- Cooperative Learning It is an interactive learning that organizes the activities within the classroom to become a social and academic experience. Special emphasis is placed here on exchanges of information as a way of enriching work and the confluence of ideas. John Dewey, promoted the importance of building knowledge within the classroom EL based on interaction and so-called peer support. For Example-new ideas, concepts, and propositions can be learned significantly to the extent that other relevant ideas, concepts, or propositions are sufficiently clear, and PT function as a point of anchoring the former. N  The information that is being learned is constantly subjected to a recycling process; meaningful learning is not excluded preconceived ideas, but it is, to also dismantle these from the new information that we are collecting and to which we are seeing the meaning and the logic. EL This learning emphasizes the importance of knowing how to relate concepts, rather than memorize. PT Cooperative learning is shaped by three crucial elements: ─ The formation of heterogeneous groups, where the creation of a group identity derived from mutual aid should be promoted. N ─ Positive interdependence, fostering effective communication and feedback among group members.  Individual responsibility, understood as the value of each member of the group separately. 5- Emotional learning It uses stimuli with great affective load to produce some change in the behavior of the subject. EL More than in didactic means or in the classroom, this particular type of learning becomes especially useful in the clinic. Example PT of EL is therapy against phobias; In systematic desensitization , the subject, through the directed imagination, is presented situations that for him have special N affective connotation and great emotional load, all with the aim of enhancing learning in the most effective way possible.  6-Observational learning Albert Bandura stated that another way of learning a behavior is by watching another subject doing it. If the observer realizes that the task that the observed is performing is beneficial or has positive consequences, it will be more likely to EL issue it. We all learn observationally on a daily basis and almost without PT realizing it, and this type of learning is also called social because it is necessary the relationship between two people so that it is unleashed. N  7- Learning by discovery Jerome Bruner promulgated the so-called learning by discovery. This is a new way of learning in which the student, was not given any instructions on how to perform a task that dictated his own curiosity. EL The subject learned for himself, progressively and without mediation as far as possible of directions to undertake the activity. PT In this way, learning became much more meaningful. Bruner wanted to direct education professionals, especially teachers: N the role of the teacher should be no other than to encourage students to be interested in the subject, to make it interesting and useful for his life.  This trend is part of the new methodologies of alternative teaching is having proven benefits such as: ─ The promotion of creative problem solving. ─ Learning by successive approximations as opposed to impulsive learning EL ─ The empowerment of metacognitions or, in other words, learning to learn. PT 8- Rote Learning - Memory learning is one that we perform based on storing information by repetitions usually or known as mnemonic rules. N Almost all of us can think of examples such as the subject of the periodic table or multiplication tables, which we practically learned at school without understanding the underlying logic.  Although many are those who reject rote learning, sometimes it is necessary Memory learning goes through the different phases of the process of storing information and to understand it, rather than… EL a constructivist approach as in theories of pedagogical cut, we have to contemplate them from a cognitive view. The information, until it reaches the memory store, goes through PT several phases according to the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), which are the following: ─ First we perceive the stimulus to be stored. If we do not pay N attention, there will be no learning.  ─ That information passes to the store in the short term. ─ If it is useful or valuable, we will retain it. ─ If we retain it, it will be transferred to the warehouse in the long term and will be available to be retrieved according to the EL relevance it has and the daily use that we give to this information. PT N N PT EL  Major Learning Theories in Psychology During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. EL The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning. PT N  What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors. Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his EL seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist View It, PT the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered N because they could not be directly observed and measured.  Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior Behavior is directed by stimuli; changes in behavior that EL result from stimulus-response associations Only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be PT directly observed; does not explain abnormal behavior All behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors N  J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov are the pioneers of Behaviorism EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed operant conditioning based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences EL PT N Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus Modeling , Shaping, and Cueing:  Modeling also known as observational learning EL Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response PT Cueing is providing a child with a verbal / non-verbal cue for the appropriateness of behaviour N Behaviour Modification: has six basic components 1. Specification of the desired outcome: increased student participation in class discussions 2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment 3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforces (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards) 4. Reinforcement of behaviour patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success 5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the EL amount of one-on-one review 6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach: based on teacher expectations and student results PT Criticisms: 1. Oversimplifies the complexity of human behaviour N 2. Ignores the internal psychological and mental processes 3.The principles of conditioning are not universal Educational Implications: 1. Students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire 2. Behaviours can be learned, unlearned or relearned EL 3. Ignoring an undesirable behaviour will go far toward eliminating it 4. Organizing the time and duration of learning: studying intermittently or intensely; PT Exmpl.- Students who learn in an overall manner by means of studying intensely just before an exam N are more successful at the exams; 5.The structure of the subject to be learnt: learning, as a whole is superior to learning by parts; learning by parts is more efficient in case of a lengthy topic 6. Participation: attention, motivation and readiness 7. Feedback: Knowledge of the results for improvements. Classical Conditioning -is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response EL Operant Conditioning- is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment system according to the behavior The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest PT  Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior The behaviors can be measured to record learning success N overall learning may fade away after a short time, can be forgotten if the exam is delayed; Intermittent study is more efficient for those who want to achieve a permanent learning N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Summary Basic Concepts of Behaviorism Conditioning: Learning takes place through Condition-- Organism/Human being EL Stimulus-Response:Reaction/Relationship Reinforcement and punishment PT Extinction Generalization N Summary Discrimination Reinforcement ratio EL Spontaneous return High-level conditioning PT Observable & measurable behavior Please visit: N https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vM0qolv8GTU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5c4spo7umo N PT EL Lecture:6 EL PT N  Major Learning Theories in Psychology During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. EL The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning. PT N  What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors. Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist View It, EL the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal PT mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured. N  Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior Behavior is directed by stimuli; changes in behavior that EL result from stimulus-response associations Only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; does not explain abnormal behavior PT All behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors N  J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov are the pioneers of Behaviorism EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed operant conditioning based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences EL PT N Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus Modeling , Shaping, and Cueing:  Modeling also known as observational learning EL Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response PT Cueing is providing a child with a verbal / non-verbal cue for the appropriateness of behaviour N Behaviour Modification: has six basic components 1. Specification of the desired outcome: increased student participation in class discussions 2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment 3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforces (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards) 4. Reinforcement of behaviour patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success 5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the EL amount of one-on-one review 6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach: based on teacher expectations and student results PT Criticisms: 1. Oversimplifies the complexity of human behaviour N 2. Ignores the internal psychological and mental processes 3.The principles of conditioning are not universal Educational Implications: 1. Students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire 2. Behaviours can be learned, unlearned or relearned EL 3. Ignoring an undesirable behaviour will go far toward eliminating it 4. Organizing the time and duration of learning: studying intermittently or intensely; PT Exmpl.- Students who learn in an overall manner by means of studying intensely just before an exam N are more successful at the exams; 5.The structure of the subject to be learnt: learning, as a whole is superior to learning by parts; learning by parts is more efficient in case of a lengthy topic Lecture:7 EL PT N 6. Participation: attention, motivation and readiness 7. Feedback: Knowledge of the results for improvements. Classical Conditioning -is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response EL Operant Conditioning- is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment system according to the behavior The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest PT  Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior The behaviors can be measured to record learning success N overall learning may fade away after a short time, can be forgotten if the exam is delayed; Intermittent study is more efficient for those who want to achieve a permanent learning N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL N PT EL  Psychology  The study of Human Behavior  Derived from two Greek words: Psyche (mind/soul) & Logos (study)  Founders: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, EL  The father of modern Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt  He established the first psychological laboratory at the PT University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879  Q.1. Are we creative when we think more on it or think less on it? N Q2. Why some students do well in studies and whereas some do well in sports?  Learning can be defined as an observable change in the behavior of a specific organism as a consequence of regularities in the environment of that organism.  In order to say that learning has occurred, two conditions must be met: An observable change in behavior must occur during the EL lifetime of the organism. The change in behavior must be due to regularities in the PT environment. Learning is thus seen as an effect—that is, as an observable change in behavior that is attributed to an element in the N environment (a regularity in the environment). Learning takes place whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).  Cognitivism Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processer, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behavior, viewing learning as internal mental processes. EL According to this perspective, learners are actively involved in the way they process information. PT Knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem solving are areas for development. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that N behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that thinking plays an important role. Knowledge is an internal process rather than a product. (J. Bruner)  Cognitivist learning states - the way we learn is determined by the way our mind takes in, stores, processes, and then accesses information. When we learn new things, our brains are able to EL transfer the information we have learned and apply the information to new situations or problems. Even when a student is trying to learn something new, PT there is usually some sort of prior knowledge that he can use to anchor that new information and connect the new knowledge to it; this is the basis of cognitivism. N The mind is basically an internal processor that uses our internally stored information and connects it to external factors in order to create new learning.  Cognitivists believe that their theory is the primary foundation for explaining how we learn things. Cognitivism is viewed as the mainstream for all research on learning designs. Cognitivism is the theory that focuses on how we receive, organize, store, and recall information in our EL minds. Cognitivism theory of learning uses the concept that our mind is like a computer and explains how it accesses PT schema (file folders) and then uses the stored information to create new learning and store it in a practical place. N If the new information is stored properly and permanently, then learning has taken place.  Cognitivism holds that a person's behavior is more dependent on insight into the relationships that exist in a situation.  The whole is more than the sum of its parts. They put pressure on the organization of observations for stimuli in the environment as well as on the factors that influence EL consideration.  Mental life encompasses cognitive, affective, conative PT symptoms to some degree, namely psychosomatics that cannot be separated from each other. N  Thus, cognitive psychology not only explores the basis of typical cognitive symptoms but also from the affective (interpretation and consideration that accompanies the reaction of feelings), conative (will ,passion, decisions).  The works of Edward C. Tolman, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and German Gestalt psychologists were instrumental in engendering the dramatic shift from behaviorism to cognitive theories. Tolman is usually considered a pioneer in initiating the cognitive movement; saw motivation as the key to EL transmuting expectations into behavior; often treated as a precursor of contemporary cognitive psychology. From a cognitive learning perspective, learning PT involves the transformation of information in the environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. N Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience.  Gestalt Psychology EL PT N Lecture:8 EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes. EL PT N  Intelligence  Intelligence Individual’s abilities to understand complex ideas to adapt effectively to the environment , to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by Careful thought EL  “Intelligence is the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.“-Wechsler PT  Intelligence is typically measured as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) N  Standardized tests of intelligence usually measure so- called underlying cognitive ability: things like memory, speed of reactions and attention, as opposed to people’s knowledge of facts. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence EL PT N  Howard Gardner identified seven intelligences in his studies in psychology, human cognition, and human potential. These intelligences were named by Gardner as linguistic intelligence, logical–mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily−kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. EL Linguistic intelligence is the capacity to use words effectively, whether orally or in writing. It involves the mastery of spoken and written language to express oneself or remember things. PT Logical–mathematical intelligence is the capacity to use numbers effectively, detect patterns, think logically, reason deductively, and carry out mathematical operations. N These two kinds of intelligences are typically the abilities that are expected by the traditional school environments to support and assess most IQ measures or tests of achievement.  Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the visual– spatial world accurately and involves sensitivity to color, line, shape, form, space, and the potential for recognizing and manipulating the patterns of spaces. Bodily−Kinesthetic intelligence includes an expertise in using one’s whole body or parts of the body to express ideas and feelings; and solve problems or create products. EL Musical intelligence is the capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms, and use them for performance or composition. PT Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. N The last intelligence is the intrapersonal intelligence, and this intelligence is about self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge.(Gardner,1991)  Later on Gardner also proposed that one more intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, met the criteria for identification as an intelligence as well. Naturalistic intelligence involves high expertise in recognition and classification of the numerous species— the flora and fauna—of the environment. More recently, Gardner has added an additional EL intelligence, the existential intelligence. He defines this intelligence as- PT “The capacity to locate oneself with respect to the furthest reaches of the cosmos—the infinite and the infinitesimal—and the related capacity to locate oneself N with respect to such existential features of the human condition as the significance of life, the meaning of death, the ultimate fate of the physical and the psychological worlds, and such profound experiences as love of another person or total immersion in a work of art”(Gardner,1999). Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of Intelligence EL PT N  Robert J. Sternberg, a well-known psychologist whose research often focuses on human intelligence and creativity. Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative to the idea of the general intelligence factor. The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is what EL intelligence tests typically measure; refers only to “academic intelligence.” Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s PT ability to react and adapt to the world around them—as well as creativity are equally important when measuring an individual's overall intelligence. He also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but rather N comprises a set of abilities that can be developed. Sternberg's assertions led to the creation of his theory.  The Triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that there are three distinct types of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical. Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three sub- theories: Contextual sub-theory: The contextual sub-theory says that intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions in their everyday EL circumstances, including one’s ability to a) adapt to one’s environment, b) select the best environment for oneself, or PT c) shape the environment to better fit one’s needs and desires. Experiential sub-theory: The experiential sub-theory proposes that there is a continuum of experience from novel to automation to N which intelligence can be applied. It’s at the extremes of this continuum that intelligence is best demonstrated.  At the novel end of the spectrum, an individual is confronted with an unfamiliar task or situation and must come up with a way to deal with it. At the automation end of the spectrum, one has become familiar with a given task or situation and can now handle it with minimal thought. Componential sub-theory: The componential theory outlines the EL various mechanisms that result in intelligence. This sub-theory is comprised of three kinds of mental processes or components: PT Meta-components enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental processing, so that we can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans. N Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and decisions arrived at by the meta-components. Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will help us carry out our plans.  Kinds of Intelligence- Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the everyday world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the contextual sub-theory. EL Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving in successful ways in their external environment. Creative intelligence: The experiential sub-theory is related PT to creative intelligence, which is one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or cope in new situations. N Analytical intelligence: The componential sub-theory is related to analytical intelligence, which is essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is the kind of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for successful intelligence, which refers to the ability to be successful in life based on one’s abilities, personal desires, and environment. EL PT N Lecture:9 EL PT N  PASS Model of Intelligence (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS)-Das, Naglieri, & Kirby (1994)) EL PT N  PASS Theory of Intelligence The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) theory of intelligence, was developed by Das, Nagliery and Kirby (1994). PASS theory is useful to link PASS processes to the brain. This theory has taken its inspiration from the Pioneering EL neuropsychological researches of Alexander Luria. Luria described human cognitive processes within the framework of three functional units. PT The function of the first unit is cortical arousal and attention, the second unit codes information using simultaneous and successive processes and the third unit provides for planning, N self-monitoring, and structuring of cognitive activities. There are four main components of the theory, viz, Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) processing systems.  Planning is a frontal lobe function. It is, more specifically, associated with the prefrontal cortex and one of the main abilities that distinguishes humans from other primates. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in forming goals and objectives and then in devising plans of action required to attain these goals. It selects the cognitive skills required to implement the plans, EL coordinates these skills, and applies them in a correct order. Finally, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for evaluating our actions as success or failure relative to our intentions. PT Planning, helps us achieve through the selection or development of plans or strategies needed to complete tasks for which a solution is needed and is critical to all activities N where the child or adult has to determine how to solve a problem.  This includes generation, evaluation, and execution of a plan as well as self-monitoring and impulse control. Thus, Planning allows for the solution of problems, control of attention, simultaneous, and successive processes, as well as selective utilization of knowledge and skills. EL Attention is a mental process that is closely related to the orienting response. The base of the brain allows the organism to direct PT focused selective attention toward a stimulus over time and resist loss of attention to other stimuli. N  The longer attention is required the more the activity can be one that demands vigilance. Attention is controlled by intentions and goals and involves knowledge and skills as well as the other PASS processes. Knowledge base is closely associated with the PASS model and all processes are found within this framework. EL Knowledge base of the PASS model represents all information obtained from the cultural and social background and throws light on various parts of behavior. PT Simultaneous Processing is essential for organization of information into groups or a coherent whole. N The parietal-occipital-temporal brain regions provide a critical ability to see patterns as interrelated elements.  Planning processes provide for the programming, regulation and verification of behavior and are responsible for behaviors, such as asking questions, problem solving, and the capacity for self-monitoring. Successive Processing is involved with the use of stimuli arranged in a specific serial order. Whenever information must be remembered or completed in a EL specific order successive processing will be involved. Importantly, however, the information must not be able to be organized into a pattern (like the number 9933811 organized PT into 99-33-8-11) but instead each element can only be related to those that precede it. The PASS theory is an alternative to approaches to intelligence N that have traditionally included verbal, nonverbal, and quantitative tests.  PASS theory puts emphasis on basic psychological processes and precludes verbal achievement like tests such as vocabulary. The functions of the brain are considered the building blocks of ability conceptualized within a cognitive processing framework. PASS theory applications are spread over developmental and educational psychology. EL For the children in the age group of 8 to 17 years, Ability/achievement, Ability/reading and ability/ mathematics normative taxonomies for reading and mathematics have been developed from the PASS theory scales of the CAS (Cognitive PT Assessment System). N  Salient features of PASS theory: It tests intelligence as a set of cognitive processes. The PASS theory of intelligence examines what the major processes are and guides us in the remediation of cognitive processing difficulties. Cognition is a dynamic mechanism that works inside EL the setting of the individual’s knowledge base; it is also liable to developmental varieties. Cognitive evaluation for planning, attention, PT simultaneous, and successive processing of individuals can be done through CAS test battery based on PASS theory. N Cognitivism BRAIN-BASED LEARNING EL PT N N PT EL N PT EL BBL deals with the concept of learning in a neuro- physiological context Explains the process of learning as a bio-chemical or electro- chemical change Learning, is a process of establishing a connection between brain cells and an intercellular connection; a new connection EL is established between brain cells with each new learning (Jensen, 2000) Structure and processing of brain, intercellular relations, PT brain hemispheres and lobes (parts), processes at which each part is good at and structural qualities of brain hemispheres are some of the features of BBL N Brain is a structure that is composed of a number of parallel processors that carryout a lot of processes at the same time N PT EL Brain based learning(BBL) is a new science that shapes learning process.”Eric Jensen, 2000 Brain based learning is an approach that is based on the structure and function of human brain Caine and Caine (2002);  Making sense in brain is much more important than EL receiving knowledge Brain creates meanings in line with patterns, connections and feelings PT Jensen (1998),- “How can brain learn best?” BBL focuses on- how brain perceives, operates, N interprets, establishes connection, stores (such as establishing connection, coding, structuring matrixes) and remembers messages in learning process Factors that ensure learning to be meaningful and permanent 1. Relaxed alertness: When a person is in an environment where he feels relaxed and calm, learning will be influenced by this environment positively EL 2. Orchestrated immersion: When a certain level of integrity and inter correlativity is ensured, learners PT will use memory systems in order to explore content and reach learning goals 3. Active processing: A learning brain is an active brain; N learning activity takes place by means of new connections (dendrites and synapses) established as a result of data transfer between neurons Principles of BBL: How to realize effective learning? Caine and Caine (1998; 2000)- The brain is a parallel processor; learning is also affected by psycho-social qualities of the individual & chemical structure of the organism; these interactions reflect on EL the process of learning 1. Learning engages the entire physiology 2. The search for meaning is innate PT 3. The search for meaning occurs through patterning 4. Emotions are critical to patterning N 5. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously 6. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception; also affected by environmental factors, 7. Concepts such as awareness, conscious, automatization (unconscious behaviour), feeling, sense & attention are all known to originate from brain and can be called the factors of learning process 8.Learning involves both conscious and unconscious EL processes 9. We have two types of memory: STM ,LTM PT 10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory by threat 12. Each brain is unique N 11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited Factors that affect BBL-  The organic / chemical structure of the brain Emotions Music Sleep Physical vitality EL Exercise Nutrition PT Genetic factors Lifestyle Stress / anxiety Motivation N Social / physical / educational environment Health  1 Memory: 2 Stress, fear and anxiety 3 Attention 4 Rewards and punishment 5 Social fluency EL 6 Individual development 7 Scientific research PT 8 Information literacy 9 Artistic expression N “Brain based learning is a new science that shapes learning process.”(Eric Jensen, 2000)  Summary Brain needs sufficient nutrition, water and rest to realize best L. Feelings can weaken or strengthen learning New learning is built upon previous learning Brain stores data in more than one place EL Brain processes the gathered data beyond the awareness of learners Reflection is an important part of learning and PT processing information Brain has got two memory systems: STM , LTM Brain can acquire information both through a holistic view and in a detailed manner N Lecture:10 EL PT N According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory (1955), an individual's performance on intelligence tests can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities organized along three dimensions: operations, content, and products. EL PT N  Structure of Intellect (J.P. Guilford) In Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents, and products. There are 6 kinds of operations (cognition, memory recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation), 6 kinds of products (units, classes, relations, systems, EL transformations, and implications), and 5 kinds of contents (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). PT Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are theoretically 180 different components of intelligence. N Guilford researched and developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific abilities predicted by SI theory. A major impetus for Guilford’s theory was his interest in creativity (Guilford, 1950). The divergent production operation identifies a number of different types of creative abilities.  SI theory is intended to be a general theory of human intelligence; its major application has been in education, personnel selection and placement. Principles Reasoning and problem-solving skills (convergent and EL divergent operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents). Memory operations can be subdivided into 30 different PT skills (6 products x 5 contents). Decision-making skills (evaluation operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents). N Language-related skills (cognitive operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5 contents).  Gagne’s Conditions Of Learning Theory Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, also known as Nine Events of Instruction, is a set of instructional design principles developed by psychologist Robert Gagne. These conditions outline a sequence of events that EL enhance the learning process and promote effective instruction. Gagne’s theory of instructional learning offers a more PT rounded theory of learning and instruction that which offers far more directive advice on how the teacher should manage individual lessons. N The nine events provide a framework for designing and delivering instruction in a structured and systematic manner. Such as : Theory of Learning & Instruction: Robert Gagne GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS of Learning & Instruction: 1. Gain attention of the students 2. Inform students of the objectives -  Describe required performance  Describe criteria for standard performance EL  Learner establishes criteria for standard performance 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning PT 4. Present the content 5. Provide learning guidance N 6. Elicit performance (practice) 7. Provide feedback 8. Assess performance 9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job  Gain Attention: This event aims to capture the learners’ attention and engage them in the learning process. It can be achieved through the use of stimulating and relevant stimuli or by posing questions or problems. Inform Learners of the Objective: Learners need to be EL aware of the specific learning objectives or goals they are expected to achieve. Clear communication of these objectives helps to focus PT their attention and motivate them to learn. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Activating learners’ prior knowledge helps them connect new information to existing mental frameworks. N By reviewing relevant concepts or experiences, learners can build upon what they already know.  Present the Content: The instructional content is presented to the learners in a structured and organized manner. It should be logically sequenced, chunked into manageable units, and delivered using appropriate instructional strategies such as lectures, visuals, or multimedia. Provide Guidance: Learners need guidance and support to EL understand and acquire new knowledge or skills. This event involves providing clear explanations, examples, PT demonstrations, and instructions to assist learners in grasping the content. Elicit Performance: Learners are given opportunities to N practice what they have learned. This active participation helps reinforce the newly acquired knowledge or skills and allows for feedback and correction if needed.  Provide Feedback: Learners receive feedback on their performance, indicating whether they have achieved the desired learning outcomes. Feedback helps them assess their progress, identify areas for improvement, and reinforce correct understanding or behavior. Assess Performance: This event involves assessing EL learners’ performance to determine the extent to which they have achieved the learning objectives. Various assessment methods such as quizzes, tests, or PT practical exercises, can be used to evaluate their progress. Enhance Retention and Transfer: The final event focuses N on promoting long-term retention and transfer of the learned material to real-world contexts. Strategies such as providing opportunities for review, application in different situations, and promoting transfer of knowledge to other domains are employed to solidify learning. Mastery Learning Model : (Bloom and Carroll) What Is Mastery Learning? EL PT N N PT EL 1. Cognitive Entry Behaviours: language ability, & reading comprehension 2.Affective Entry Characteristics: interests, attitudes & learning readiness EL PT N  Elements of Mastery Learning Pre-assessment- Determining students’ prior knowledge and skills Monitoring student progress Communicating expectations Focusing students’ attention on learning targets EL Checking for misconceptions Identifying students’ interests, talents, and preferred ways of learning PT Group-based initial instruction Instruction must be multifaceted, context-adapted, and student- oriented (Guskey, 2010) Regular formative assessments N The use of regular formative assessments. This could be in the form of quizzes, written assignments, oral presentations, skill demonstrations, or performances, depending on the subject area, the grade level, and the learning outcomes involved Corrective Instruction Teachers provide “high-quality corrective instructions” to mend learning problems that the assessments have identified,  CI to be versatile enough to accommodate different student learning styles, modalities, and intelligence levels EL Parallel formative assessments A second, parallel formative assessment to determine the effectiveness of the corrective instruction. PT Enrichment activities Aiming to provide challenging yet rewarding learning N experiences, these activities enable students to explore a greater depth of related topics that pick their interests. Enrichment activities could be in the form of academic games and exercises, various multimedia projects, and peer discussions.  Concept of Personalization and Academic Self-Concept QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION Cues, Participation, Reinforcing Feedback and Correction EL LEARNING OUTCOMES Learning Level and Learning Speed PT Affective Outcomes POSITIVE SIDES OF MASTERY LEARNING: N 1. student learns in his own capacity and speed, 2. increases the achievements on affective and cognitive level  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efjDq-kO7lE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWa48XRnLh0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBiz04uGqA4 EL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ej1qP8o2Sp4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1ESb1RGZ7g PT https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGQBbRqdaVM N Pl. Visit the sites for Better Learning  Constructivism EL Jean Piaget (1896-1983), Lev Vigotsky (1896-1934) PT N  Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000). Constructivism is crucial to understand as an educator because it EL influences the way all of our students learn. Teachers and instructors who understand the constructivist learning theory understand that their students bring their own PT unique experiences to the classroom every day. Their background and previous knowledge impacts how they are able to learn. N  Types of constructivism- 1. Cognitive- Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning should be related to the learner’s stage of cognitive development. It comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive development in children. EL 2. Social- Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large. PT Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism with the added element of societal and peer influence. 3. Radical- Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and N social constructivism. It focuses on the idea that learners and the knowledge they construct tell us nothing real, only help us function in our environment. This theory was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld in 1974. N PT EL  Constructivism: A Learning Theory Constructivism is a learning theory that says we create our own knowledge from our experiences and interactions, It challenges the idea that knowledge is fixed and objective, and that teachers can simply transfer it to students, EL Constructivists see learning as a dynamic and social process, where learners build on their prior knowledge and collaborate PT with others, Constructivism encourages learners to be active, creative, reflective, and critical thinkers who can construct their own N understanding of the world,  Basic Concepts of Constructivism  Cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction  People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things & reflecting on those experiences EL  Human learning is constructed; learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning PT  Constructivist learning is transferable  Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn  Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things N  Promotes social & communication skills through collaboration and exchange of ideas Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Jean Piaget & Social constructivism is based on the work of Lev Vygotsky.  Principles of Constructivism: (Tam ,2000)  Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students  Teachers and students will share authority EL  The teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide  Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students PT  To embed learning in social experience,(collaboration) & realistic context  To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection, metacognition) N  Learning is an individual and social process. Learning is an organizational process - new knowledge is assimilated with old knowledge to construct new meanings and understandings. Learning is based on personal experiences - different people understand 'truth' differently. EL The concept of reality is based on individual interpretation. Learning is socially situated and enhanced through meaningful context - situated PT learning focuses on creating meaning from the real activities of daily life. Language plays an essential role in learning - the sharing of knowledge happens through communication. N Motivation is key to learning - individuals must want to actively engage and reflect on their prior knowledge in learning. Jean Piaget (1896-1983): Learning and Cognitive Development  Knowledge is actively constructed  In the process of constructing knowledge, children adhere to their experiences EL  Knowledge is constructed in schemas  After new learning, these schemas are organized & developed PT better and new connections are established  Learning & cognitive development occurs with processes of assimilation and accommodation N  Knowledge is subjective because people construct it  Cognitive development occurs step by step N PT EL Stages of Cognitive Development EL PT N  Preoperational stage: children begin to use language; memory and imagination; Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical  Concrete operational stage: use of logical and systematic manipulation of symbols; Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events; EL involves concrete references Formal operational stage: use symbols related to abstract concepts, can formulate hypotheses,& think about abstract relationships PT and concepts Intellectual development is a lifelong process, adults involve developing more N complex schema through knowledge acquisition Schema Formation: Assimilation & Accommodation EL PT N N PT EL “Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know (prior knowledge)”. EL  Educational Implications of Constructive Learning-  Learners are active participants in their learning, and learning by doing, or experiential PT learning is central to constructivist leaning in practice (Howe et al.,2000)  Learners are self-regulated and they construct and monitor their learning, where meta- cognition plays an important role in meaningful learning. N  Social interactions is essential for meaningful learning.  Vygotsky's constructivism is a theory of child development that emphasizes the role of social interaction and collaboration in learning.  Vygotsky argued that cognitive functions are the products of social negotiations and that learning occurs in the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a EL learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other.  Vygotsky also rejected the idea that learning can be separated from its social context. PT  Social constructivism shifts the responsibility of knowledge acquisition from the teacher to the student,  Transforms the student from a passive listener to an active participant and a co- N constructor of knowledge among co-learners.  Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): Social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step changes in children's thought & behaviour that can vary greatly from culture to culture Development depends on interaction EL with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world PT Three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another- N  a) Imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another  b) Instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher & then using these instructions to self-regulate the learning behaviour.  c) Cultural tools are passed on to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill EL PT N  Vygotsky’s position is a form of dialectical (cognitive) constructivism because it emphasizes the interaction between persons and their environments; Mediation is the key mechanism in development and learning  A key concept is the Zone of proximal development (ZPD), EL defined as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as PT determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978). N  Schooling is important not because it is where children are Scaffolded but, because it allows them to develop greater awareness of themselves, their language, & their role in the world order  Helping students acquire cognitive mediators (e.g., signs, EL symbols) through the social environment can be accomplished in many ways  Concept of instructional scaffolding, which refers to the process PT of controlling task elements that are beyond the learners’ capabilities so that they can focus on and master those features of the task that they can grasp quickly N  Reciprocal teaching involves an interactive dialogue between a teacher and small group of students.  Peer collaboration, which reflects the notion of collective activity Apprenticeships- novices work closely with experts in joint work-related activities Many mental processes are acquired as a result of social interactions Successful people’s help let students reach difficult targets The difficulties encountered in achieving the works contribute to the highest level of cognitive development EL Games, for children, aren’t waste of time but rather they include activities that get them into adults’ world successfully, through future planning PT N N PT EL  https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/processing-the- environment/cognition/v/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qVHU8CTIM8 EL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcXkp0c_q4c https://educationaltechnology.net/constructivist-learning-theory/ PT https://edpsych.pressbooks.sunycreate.cloud/chapter/social-constructivism- vygotskys-theory/ N  Memory & Cognition Lecture - 11 EL PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur  What Is Memory? Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. EL Researchers have long believed that memories form due to changes in brain neurons (nerve cells). PT Changes in the connections between nerve cells (synapses) are associated with the learning and retention of new information. Strengthening these connections helps commit information to memory. N There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.  Memory Defined  In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through a process known as encoding.  Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. EL  Our cognitive system for storing and retrieving information Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and combining of PT received information Storage: creation of a permanent record of the memory N encoded information in short term or long term Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity  Reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it.  Practice strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.  Much of our stored memory lies outside of our awareness most EL of the time, except when we actually need to use it.  The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness. PT  To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. N  There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.  Theories of Memory  Levels of Processing Theory  Atkinson and Shiffrin Model EL  Neural Network Model PT N N PT EL Cognition EL PT N Social Cognition EL PT N  The Information Processing View of Learning  Assumptions  Information is processed in steps or stages  There are limits on how much information can be processed at EL each stage  The human information processing system is interactive PT  Information processing is analogous to computer processing  Information processing is involved in all cognitive activities : perceiving, rehearsing, thinking, problem solving, remembering, forgetting, and imaging N Information Processing Model EL PT N  Memory & Cognition Lecture - 12 EL PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur N PT EL Atkinson and Shiffrin Model- Encoding- Storage-Retrieval EL PT N  The Sensory Register  Capacity – Very large  Duration – 1 to 3 seconds  Contents – Raw sensory data (encoded in same form as perceived)  The Nature of Recognition- Noting key features of a stimulus and relating EL them to already stored information  The Impact of Attention- Selective focusing on a portion of the PT information currently stored in the sensory register  What we attend to is influenced by information in long-term memory N  Short-Term Memory  Capacity – 7 +/- 2 chunks of information  Duration – 20 to 30 seconds  Contents – What you are currently thinking about (information from the sensory register and information from long term EL memory)  Rehearsal- Maintenance Rehearsal (rote rehearsal, repetition):Information is repeated over and over again with no PT effect on long-term memory storage  Elaborative Rehearsal (elaborative encoding): New information N is related to knowledge already stored in long-term memory  Organization- Putting interrelated pieces of information into chunks  Meaningfulness- When new material can be related to information in long-term memory  Visual Imagery Encoding- Generating images in your mind of objects, ideas, and actions EL  Dual coding theory  Implications for Instruction: Short-Term Memory and Its PT Control Processes 1. Rehearsal prevents the quick disappearance of information from short term memory N 2. Most children do not begin to rehearse on their own until about age seven  3. Organization of material into chunks makes it much easier to remember 4. Meaningful learning occurs when the learner relates new information to prior ideas and experiences 5. Visual imagery is easier to recall than abstractions EL  Long-Term Memory  Capacity – Unlimited PT  Duration – Permanent, long-term  Contents – Schemata N  How Information is Organized in Long-Term Memory- Schemata – Interrelated networks of associated ideas into which new knowledge is assimilated  How Well Do We Remember What We Learn ??  More than 7 out of 10 studies reported less than a 20% loss of what was learned  Subject matter that had a higher than average level of unfamiliar facts and for which students would have little EL relevant prior knowledge was associated with increased levels of forgetting  Most of the forgetting of information occurred within 4 weeks PT after the end of a unit of instruction  Less forgetting occurred among students who learned the N material to a high level either by being required to achieve a high score, teach it to less knowledgeable students, or take advanced courses  Less forgetting occurred in classes where students were more actively involved in learning Functional Memory Processes EL PT N  Memory & Cognition Lecture - 13 EL PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Working Memory Model Components EL PT N  Working Memory  Assumptions:  1.Dual Channel-Human information processing system consists of 02 separate channels-Acoustic/Auditory, & EL Visual/Pictorial/Iconic (Dual Coding Theory-Paivio & Baddley,1998)  2. Limited Capacity- A limited amount of cognitive processing PT can take place in the verbal & visual channel at any one point of time (Cognitive Load theory-Sweller & Baddley,1998) N  3.Active Processing-Meaningful learning requires a substantial amount of cognitive processing to take place in verbal & visual channels( Mayer’s Theory of Active L.,2002) Multiple Components Model of Working Memory EL PT N  Basic Principles :  1. Relatively independent processing system in WM for visual & auditory information  2.Simultaneous & mixed mode of presentations(Multimodal) can enhance WM capacity  3.WM is a predictor of wide range of complex cognitive tasks- EL planning, problem solving, decision making etc.  4.Central executive is responsible for controlling the overall system & performing all information processing tasks PT  5.Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad maintains & manipulates visual information  6.Phonological Loop stores & rehearse verbal information  N 7. Episodic Buffer-Attentional system functions as a storage structure to integrate multiple sources of information ( Episodic LTM, Baddeley et al. ,2011). Multicomponent Model of Working Memory (Baddeley, 2003b) EL PT N  The Central executive is the main component. It is responsible for the control of executive processes, including actions; the direction of attention to relevant information; EL the suppression of irrelevant information , undesired actions; the supervision of information integration; PT the coordination of multiple cognitive processes to be executed in parallel; and the coordination of the sub-systems of WM. N  The Phonological loop permits to maintain auditory information with a rehearsal mechanism that prevents its rapid decay.  The Visuo-spatial sketch pad permits to maintain and manipulate visual and spatial information. For example, we can create and navigate mental maps, form mental images and rotate them, etc. It is constituted of two subsystem, the former specialized for visual information, and the latter for spatial information. EL The Episodic buffer temporarily integrates phonological, visual, and spatial information , and possibly other forms of information (e.g., semantic information, musical information) in a unitary, episodic PT representation. Thus, it provides an interface between the sub-systems of WM N and the part of LTM specialized for Episodic memory (EM) (i.e., recollection of specific events that integrate time, place, and emotions) (Tulving , 1972). N PT EL N PT EL  Summary Working memory is a limited capacity store for retaining information for a brief period while performing mental operations on that information. Working memory is a multi-component system which EL includes the central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. PT Working memory is important for reasoning, learning and comprehension. Working memory theories assume that complex reasoning N and learning tasks require a mental workspace to hold and manipulate information.  Memory & Cognition Lecture - 14 EL PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Declarative Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge, and Episodic Knowledge in Long-Term Memory EL PT N N PT EL  Episodic, Procedural and Semantic Memory LTM can be split up into declarative memories (explicit memories that can be inspected and recalled consciously) and procedural memories (which are implicit in that we are typically unable to consciously recall them). Declarative memory can be further sub-categorized EL into episodic and semantic memories, Episodic memory refers to any events that can be reported from a person’s life. PT Episodic memory can be split further into autobiographical episodic memory (memories of specific episodes of one’s life) and experimental episodic memory (where learning a fact [a semantic memory, N Like episodic memory, semantic memory is also a type of ‘declarative’ (explicit, consciously recalled) memory. Procedural memory describes our implicit knowledge of tasks that usually do not require conscious recall to perform them. Levels of Processing Theory- (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) EL PT N  Levels of processing: The way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall. EL PT Shallow Processing only involves maintenance rehearsal ; 1. Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word N or how the letters look. 2. Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its sound. Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow processing and less accurate recall.  Deep Processing Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations, etc.) of information and leads to better recall. Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. EL Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and deep processing which results in more accurate recall. PT Recent studies have clarified that deeper coding produces better retention because it is more elaborate. Elaborative encoding enriches the memory representation of an item by N activating many aspects of its meaning and linking it into the pre-existing network of semantic associations. Latest research indicate that processing is more complex and varied than the levels of processing. Sensory, Short-Term (Working), and Long-Term Memory EL PT N Human Memory and Computer Comparison EL PT N Human Information Processing Model EL PT N  Neural Network Model of Memory Memories are remembered as long as they influence our thoughts, feelings, and behavior at the present time. Memory is also one of the fundamental components of learning, our ability to acquire any type of knowledge or skills. EL The memory capacity depends on the complexity of the synapses, the sparseness of the representations, the spatial and temporal correlations between memories PT and the specific way memories are retrieved. Complexity is important when the synapses can only be modified with a limited precision, as in the case of biological synapses, and sparseness can greatly increase N memory capacity and be particularly beneficial when memories are structured (correlated to each other). N PT EL  Research finding- Example Model for memory retrieval based on a Hopfield neural network: Here the transition between items are determined by similarities in their long-term memory representations. Meanfield analysis of the model reveals stable states of the network corresponding , EL (1) to single memory representations and (2) intersection between memory representations. It shows that oscillating feedback inhibition in the presence of noise PT induces transitions between these states triggering the retrieval of different memories. The network dynamics qualitatively predicts the distribution of time intervals required to recall N new memory items observed in experiments. It shows that items having larger number of neurons in their representation are statistically easier to recall and reveals possible bottlenecks in our ability of retrieving memories. This neural network model of information retrieval broadly compatible with experimental observations and is consistent with the graphical model (Romani et al., 2013).  Cognitive Load Cognitive architecture: memory and schemas Schema theory-, knowledge is stored in LTM in schemata Schemata categorize information elements according to how they will be used A schema can hold a huge amount of information, yet is processed EL as a single unit in working memory Schemata can integrate information elements and PT production rules and become automated, thus requiring less storage and controlled processing N Skilled performance consists of building increasing numbers of increasingly complex schemas by combining elements in an inductive/sequential manner  Memory & Cognition Lecture - 15 EL PT N Prof. Atasi Mohanty Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur  Schemas can also reduce working-memory load Schema construction aids the storage and organization of information in long-term memory and reduces working memory load Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) assumes a limited working EL memory connected to an unlimited long-term memory (Baddeley, 1986) PT Both causal and assessment factors affect CL Causal factors can be characteristics of the subject (e.g. cognitive abilities), the task (e.g. task complexity), the environment (e.g. N noise), and their mutual relations N PT EL  Assessment factors include mental load, mental effort, and performance as the three measurable dimensions of CL Mental load is the portion of CL that is imposed exclusively by the task and environmental demands Mental effort refers to the cognitive capacity actually EL allocated to the task The subject’s performance , finally, is a reflection of mental PT load, mental effort, and the aforementioned causal factors Working memory load is affected by the inherent nature of the material (intrinsic CL) and by the manner in which the N material is presented (extraneous and germane CL)  Germane CL is required for the construction and storage of schemata into long-term memory Intrinsic CL, which is the portion of load that is imposed by the intrinsic characteristics of the task or subject matter Conventional instructions tend to impose an Extraneous CL on working EL memory, whereas learning something requires shifting from extraneous to germane CL Instructional design -unused working memory capacity because of a low PT intrinsic CL by the instructional materials or low extraneous CL due to appropriate instructional procedures ,may further improve L. by encouraging construction N learners to engage in conscious cognitive processing relevant for schema Total CL of the instructional design- (intrinsic CL +extraneous CL+ germane CL) is within working memory limits.  Effective ways of reducing Cognitive Load: 1. One concept per page-Presenting one key learning concept per page will reduce cognitive load 2. Remove non-relevant items-removing media elements not EL relevant to learning 3. Clear, concise writing style-Remove excess words and PT statements that don’t relate directly to the topic 4. Information access- Clever chunking of content with smaller, bite-sized pieces of information, pop-ups or click-to-reveal N mechanisms to allow learners to drill down and discover content one step at a time  5. Consolidate key learning-Consolidating key learning points at the end of each topic or module will increase knowledge retention 6. Use consistent structure-In eLearning, learners will not need to continuously readjust to the experience, leaving EL more cognitive load available for information assimilation 7. Link back to learning objectives-create stro