Notes On Crim2-Theories Of Crime Causation PDF

**CHAPTER 1** **FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIME CAUSATION** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. Investigate various criminological perspectives, such as biological, psychological, sociological, and ecological theories, to comprehend the...

**CHAPTER 1** **FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIME CAUSATION** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. Investigate various criminological perspectives, such as biological, psychological, sociological, and ecological theories, to comprehend the multifaceted causes of criminal behavior. 2. Analyze how individual traits, including genetics, personality, cognitive processes, and psychological disorders, influence the propensity towards criminal behavior. 3. Examine how societal factors like poverty, inequality, peer pressure, family dynamics, and community environments contribute to the likelihood of criminal activity. 4. Understand the application of criminological theories in the criminal justice system, including policy development, crime prevention strategies, rehabilitation, and recidivism reduction. 5. Develop the ability to critically evaluate different theories of crime causation, considering their strengths, limitations, and relevance in understanding and addressing criminal behavior. 6. Explore ethical dilemmas in crime causation theories, including issues related to intervention strategies, profiling, the presumption of innocence, and the balance between punishment and rehabilitation. **Introduction:** The fundamentals of crime causation explore various perspectives on what leads individuals to commit crimes. *Biological or medical determinism* delves into how genetic, neurological, or physiological factors can influence behavior. *Psychological determinism* examines the impact of individual experiences, personality, and mental processes on criminal behavior. *Psychiatric determinism* focuses on the role of mental disorders or illnesses in influencing criminal actions. *Sociological determinism* emphasizes societal, cultural, and environmental factors that contribute to criminal behavior, such as poverty, social norms, or peer influence. Understanding these perspectives helps in comprehending the multifaceted nature of crime causation, where biological, psychological, psychiatric, and sociological factors intertwine to shape human behavior and its criminal outcomes. ***Causes of Crimes*** Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological. Environmental causes are ruled out as independent causes of crimes. But psychological conditions are said to be determinant of an individual's reaction to persuasive environmental influence. Criminologist says that certain offenders are born to create crimes in the environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to low condition of their living, they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination against minorities may become the cause of crimes. Emotional disorders are also cause of crimes. **Major Theories and Causation of Crime** A. **Biological Theories** Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body, such as inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones in influencing behavior. Biological theories about the causes of crime on the idea that the physical body, through inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones, has influence on an individual's involvement in criminal behavior. Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain biological factors, such as particular genes, neurological deficits, low serotonin activity, malnutrition and environmental pollutants may all affect a person's biological propensity of criminal or antisocial behavior. The challenge for biological theories of crime is to adequately represent the complex interplay between inherited characteristics and environment. B. **Psychological Theories** Psychological theories focus on human cognition and its development, and how this relates to criminal behavior. Psychology presents a number of perspectives on the causes of crime. Of particular importance are theories exploring the relationship between crime and individual personality, social factors, cognition and developmental factors. These psychological theories have different degrees of focus on individual, family, group and societal psychology. Psychological literature shows that a key variable identified in the development of individual characteristics, and any criminal propensities, is the role played by parents, in terms of factors such as child-rearing practices, attachment, neglected, abuse, supervision, and the parents own anti-social or criminal behavior. C. **Psychiatric Theories** Psychiatric theories encompass various perspectives to understand and treat mental health conditions. Some major theories include psychoanalytic (Freudian), behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and biological perspectives. Each offers distinct viewpoints on the causes and treatment of mental health issues. For instance, psychoanalytic theory delves into unconscious drives, while cognitive theory focuses on thought patterns, and biological theory explores neurological factors. These theories often intersect and evolve over time, contributing to our understanding of mental health. D. **Sociological Theories** Sociological theories focus on the influence of the organization of society and social conditions. Sociology encompasses a very wide range of theoretical perspective, but generally regards crime as a social phenomenon, and emphasizes the cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some sociological theories emphasize the relationship between social structures, such as language, ethnicity and class, and criminal behavior. Other theories emphasize the effect of social conditions on an individual's propensity to become involved in crime. **Other theories of crime causation** **1. Developmental Life-Course Theory** Developmental life-course theories focus on ***human development*** and how individual and social factors interact in different ways and at different developmental stages to influence individual propensity for criminal behavior. Developmental life-course explanations see crime as the result of a development process that starts before birth and continues throughout a person's life. It seeks to understand the interaction between individual factors such as genetics and personality, and social factors such as family and community wellbeing. **2. Geographic Theories** Geographic theories focus on the location of crime and how physical environments promote or discourage criminal behavior. Geographical theories of crime focus on analyzing data about the geographic distribution of crime, modifying the physical environment to reduce the likelihood of crime and targeting initiatives to geographic areas with high rates of offending. Using data about the geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to find patterns that can be used to inform crime prevention projects. Geographic theories of crime prevention that focus on the physical environment tend to focus on such things as how urban planning, building design and the design of public spaces affect crime, and also on how physical environments can be modified to make businesses and residences more resistant to crime (sometimes called "situational crime prevention"). **3. Economic Theories** Economic theories focus on how offending is influenced by incentives. The economic theory is based on the notion that individuals respond rationally to the costs and benefits of criminal opportunities. Thus, factors that increase the expected costs of crime (such as increasing the likelihood of apprehension or severity of punishment) or reduce the expected benefits (such as improved educational or job opportunities) can reduce the incidence of crime. The economic framework can also encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer understanding of rationality and decision-making (such as the biological basis of impulsivity), the costs of crime (such the social capital in anti-social peer networks) and the benefits of crime (such as local economic conditions). **CHAPTER 2** **BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. *Explore how biological factors, such as genetics, neurobiology, and physiology, influence behavior and mental processes.* 2. *Investigate psychological theories that elucidate how thoughts, emotions, and motivations shape human actions and interactions.* 3. *Grasp the complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences in determining behavior and mental health outcomes.* 4. *Understand how these theories are used in fields like clinical psychology, medicine, education, and social sciences to address and solve real-world problems.* 5. *Develop the ability to critically assess and compare various biological and psychological theories, understanding their strengths, weaknesses, and practical implications.* 6. *Explore ethical implications in applying these theories, especially in healthcare, research, and societal contexts, considering issues related to consent, privacy, and interventions.* **Introduction:** Biological and psychological theories form the backbone of understanding human behavior and cognition. These theories delve into the intricate connections between our biology, brain functions, and mental processes. While biological theories explore the role of genetics, neuroscience, and bodily functions in shaping behavior, psychological theories focus on thoughts, emotions, and social interactions. Together, they offer comprehensive perspectives on what makes us who we are, illuminating the fascinating interplay between our biology and the workings of the mind. **A. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES** - This pertains to a collection of theories that attribute the perpetration of crimes by certain individuals to physical, physiological, and other natural factors. - This explanation for the presence of criminal characteristics links an individual\'s malevolent inclination to physical deformity or impairment. **Heredity** - **refers to the process through which qualities are passed down from parents to their children.** **Richard Louis Dugdale** - **undertook an extensive investigation into the Jukes family, tracing their genealogy as far back as two centuries.** - **It was shown that a significant majority of the progenitors of the Jukes lineage exhibited criminal tendencies.** **Henry Goddard** - **conducted a study in which he examined the lineage of Martin Kallikak\'s offspring from both of his wives.** - **Through his investigation, Goddard saw a notable disparity in the overall quality of life among the descendants.** - **The individual in question is credited with the origination of the term \"moron.\"** **Charles Goring** - **was a prominent figure in the field of criminology during the early 20th century.** - **The author posited the notion that hereditary factors play a role in the transmission of criminal behaviors from parents to their offspring.** - **Additionally, the author suggested that persons exhibiting criminal characteristics should be subject to restrictions on their reproductive capabilities.** **INTELLIGENCE AS A FACTOR IN CRIMINALITY** The seminal investigations conducted on the Juke and Kallikak lineages were pioneering research that demonstrated the hereditary transmission and perpetuation of feeblemindedness or low IQ through several generations. Several tests were also undertaken, which ultimately resulted in the creation of the utilization of IQ tests as a method of assessment for those involved in criminal activities. The first findings appeared to support the notion that individuals who engaged in criminal behavior exhibited diminished cognitive capacities and were diagnosed with cognitive impairments. **Alfred Binet** - a renowned French psychologist, is credited with the creation of the initial intelligence quotient (IQ) test. This exam was designed to assess the cognitive abilities of individual children by comparing their performance on activities and problem-solving with the average abilities of their classmates. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Physiognomy** | | | | | | - refers to the scholarly | | | investigation of face traits | | | and their correlation with | | | human behavior. | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Giambattista della Porta**, | **Johann Kaspar Lavater** | | | | | - the progenitor of human | - espoused the idea of | | physiognomy, posited that the | delaPorta, positing that an | | facial characteristics of an | individual\'s character can | | individual might be utilized | be discerned by their face | | to forecast criminal conduct. | features. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Phrenology, craniology, or | **Franz Joseph Gall** | | cranioscopy** | | | | - is credited with the | | - refers to the scholarly | development of cranioscopy, a | | examination of the exterior | field that was afterwards | | configuration of the cranium | known as phrenology. | | in correlation with an | | | individual\'s psychological | **Johann Kaspar Spurzheim** | | traits and proclivities | | | towards engaging in criminal | - served as an assistant to | | activities. | Franz Joseph Gall in the | | | field of phrenology. He | | | played a significant role in | | | the dissemination and | | | popularization of phrenology | | | across a broad spectrum of | | | individuals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Physiology or Somatotype** | | | | | | refers to the study of the body | | | build of a person in relation to | | | his temperament and personality | | | and the type of offense he is | | | most prone to commit. | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Ernst Kretschmer** | **William Herbert Sheldon** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **asthenic**-- characterized as | **ectomorph** -- tall and thin | | thin, small and weak. | and less social and more | | | intellectual than the other | | | types. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **athletic** -- muscular and | **mesomorph**-- have | | strong. | well-developed muscles and an | | | athletic appearance. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **pyknic** -- stout, round and | **endomorph** -- heavy builds and | | fat. | slow moving. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **dysplastic** -- combination of | | | two body types | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Ernst Kretschmer** (1888-1964) ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------- **Body Physique** **Description** **Psychiatric Disorders** **Asthenic** lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders Schizophrenia **Athletic** medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones Schizophrenia **Pyknic** medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face Bipolar (Manic Depression) **B. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES** - refers to the theories that attribute criminal behavior of individuals to psychological factors, such as emotion and mental problems. **Sigmund Freud** - he is recognized as the FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS - known for his *psychoanalytic theory* - According to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of personality: *the id, the ego, and the superego.* **THREE PARTS OF PERSONALITY** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **ID** -- this stands for instinctual drives; it is governed by the "pleasure principle"; the id impulses are not social and must be repressed or adapted so that they may become socially acceptable **EGO** -- this is considered to be the sensible and responsible part of an individual's personality and is governed by the "reality principle" **SUPEREGO** -- serves as the moral conscience of an individual; it is structured by what values were taught by the parents, the school and the community, as well as belief in God. **Sigmund Freud\'s conceptualization of the human mind encompasses three distinct levels.** The human mind is believed to include three distinct degrees of consciousness. The three components under consideration are the conscious mind, which accounts for around 10% of mental activity, the subconscious mind, which encompasses 50-60% of mental activity, and the unconscious mind, which represents 30-40% of mental activity. Freud explicated the structure of the mind into several levels, each with unique responsibilities and purposes. The three tiers of cognitive functioning encompass: 1. The conscious mind encompasses the array of ideas, memories, emotions, and desires that individuals are now cognizant of. This pertains to the cognitive processes within our mind that can be subject to logical thought and verbal expression. In addition, our memories, although not always inside the realm of consciousness, may be readily accessed and brought into awareness. 2. The subconscious encompasses all elements that have the capacity to be accessed by the conscious mind. 3. The unconscious mind can be seen as a reservoir containing a multitude of emotions, cognitions, impulses, and recollections that lie outside the realm of our conscious consciousness. The unconscious mind includes elements that are deemed unwanted or unpleasant, such as experiences of distress, apprehension, or discord **Psychology** -- the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on the individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained and modified. Both the environmental and personality influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior. **Criminal Psycho-Dynamics** -- The study of mental processes of criminals in action, the study of the genesis, development and motivation of human behavior that conflicts with accepted norms and standards of society. This study concentrates on the study of individuals as opposed to general studies of mass populations with respect to their general criminal behavior. **Common Types of Insanity** a. **Dementia Praecox** - A collective term for mental disorders that begin at or shortly after puberty and usually lead to general failure of the mental faculties with the corresponding physiological impairment. Also known as Schizophrenia. b. **Manic Depressive** - (characterized by mania and mental depression) c. **Paralysis** - condition of helpless inactivity or of inability to act. d. **Senile** -- mental deterioration often accompanying old age (Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease). 1. **Idiots** -- person whose case there exist mental defectiveness of such a degree that they are unable to guard themselves against common physical dangers. Their mentality is compared to a two years old person. 2. **Imbeciles** -- persons in whose case there exist mental defectiveness which thought not amounting to idiocy, is yet so pronounced that they are incapable of managing themselves or their affairs. Their mentality is like a child of 2 to 7 years old. 3. **Feeble-Minded Persons** -- those in whose case there exist mental defectiveness which thought not amounting to imbecility, is yet so pronounced that they require care, supervision and control for their own or for the protection of others, or in the case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable by reason of such defectiveness or receiving proper benefit from the intrusion in ordinary schools. 4. **Moral Defectiveness** -- person wherein defect exists coupled with strong vicious or criminal propensities, and who require care and supervision, and control for their own or for the protection of others. **Sigmund Freud** **-** He is known for his *psychoanalytic theory.* **-** According to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of personality: *the id, the ego, and the superego.* *- According to him there are three parts of personality:* **Psychosexual Stages of Human Development** **Eros --** The most basic human drive present at birth (the instinct to preserve and create life); expressed sexually. **Oral Stage --** Usually during the first year of life when the child attains pleasure by sucking and biting (Birth to 1^st^ year). **Anal Stage --** Focus on the elimination of bodily wastes during the second and third years of life (1 to 3 years old). **Phallic Stage --** During the third year when child focuses their attention on their genitals (3^rd^ to 6^th^ year). **Oedipus Complex --** A stage of development when male begins to have sexual feelings for their mother. **Electra Complex --** A stage of development when girls begin to have sexual feelings for their fathers. **Latency -** Begins at age 6; feelings of sexuality are expressed until the genital stage begins at puberty. This marks the beginning of adult sexuality (6^th^ year to puberty). **Genital -** This is the last stage of Freud\'s psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20\'s. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage (Puberty to Adulthood). **Fixated Person --** It exhibits behavior traits characteristics of those encountered during infantile sexual development e.g., an infant who does not receive enough oral gratification during the first year of life if likely as an adult engage in such oral behavior as smoking, drinking, or drug abuse and others. **Psychopathy Or Anti-Social Personality** - Personality that is characterized by an inability to learn from experience, lack of warmth and no sense of guilt. - Referred to as **"manie sans delire"** or madness without confusion by the French physician **Philippe Pinel** - Called as **"moral insanity"** by **James Prichard** - Referred to **"irresistible atavistic impulses"** by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero 1. Characterized by no sense of guilt; 2. No subjective conscience; 3. No sense of right and wrong; 4. They have difficulty in forming relationships with other people; and 5. They cannot relate to other people. **CHAPTER 3** **SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: **INTRODUCTION** Sociological theories examine how society shapes human behavior, interactions, and institutions, while economic theories explore the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within societies. Both fields offer frameworks to understand complex social structures, behaviors, and systems that impact individuals and communities. Sociological theories delve into social phenomena, while economic theories focus on resource allocation and market dynamics, contributing to a broader comprehension of how societies function and evolve. **A. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES** Sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior. **Sociology** -- the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as socio-economic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime. **Sociological Factors** - refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior **Anomie (B -- A -- N)** - is a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. This is characterized by **b**reakdown of social order, **a**bsence of social norms and **n**ormlessness. NOTE: LOGOMACY -- A statement that we would have no crime if we have no criminal laws and that we could eliminate all crime merely by abolishing all criminal laws. a. **David Emile Durkheim or Emile Durkheim** **-** He stated that crime is a normal part of the society just like birth and death. b. **Gabriel Tarde** c. **Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry** - He repudiated the free will doctrine of the classicists. - He is a founder of *cartographic school of criminology.* - He is a founder of moral statistics. - First Scientific Criminologist - Father of Modern Sociological and Psychological Statistics - Thermic Law (Temperature and Crime) \- Cartographic school of criminology made use of statistical data such as population, age, gender, occupation, religious affiliations and social economic status and studies their influences and relationship to criminality. It also states that crimes against person increase during summer and crimes against property increase during winter. \- Environmental factors such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality of teaching in school, influences of peers and friends, conditions of the neighborhood, and economic and other societal factors are believed to be contributory to crime and criminal behavior. 1. **SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES** - These refer not only to the physical features of the communities but also to the way society is organized. - These include such things as level of poverty and unemployment and the amount of crowded housing which are believed to affect behavior and attitudes of individuals which in turn contribute to their commission of crimes. - Also called *social environment* - These include *social disorganization theory, strain theory and cultural deviance theory.* a. **Social Disorganization Theory** - This was popularized by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. - According to this theory, crimes in urban areas are more prevalent because residents have impersonal relationships with each other. - Increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are also very common in disorganized communities. - Another feature of disorganized community is poverty as evidenced by poor living conditions such as rundown houses, unsanitary and unsightly streets and high unemployment rates. b. **Strain Theory by Robert King Merton or Robert Merton** - Strain refers to the individual's frustration, anger and resentment. - It holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. This also argues that the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent; members of the lower class are unable to achieve these goals which come easily to those belonging to the upper class. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, failure of a man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for those status/goals to be attained referred to as STRAIN. - **Innovation -** The innovator buys into the culturally approved goals of society but pursues them through unacceptable means. - **Ritualism -** This describes a person who, over time, abandonsthe goal of financial success. Despite this, they continue to embrace the accepted means. - **Retreatism --** A retreatist is a social dropout. This type of person will not resort to illegitimate means to achieve widely shared goals. This individual simply withdraws from society. - **Rebellion --** These are individuals who oppose both culturally dominant goals and the means to achieve these goals. The rebel seeks to establish a new social order and embraces a different cultural goal. c. **Cultural Deviance Theory** - It gives emphasis on the concept of culture and sub-culture. - According to this theory, people in the lower class feel isolated due to extreme deprivation or poverty. They tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules and values. This is characterized by deviant behavior which results in criminal behavior among its members. \- Different Groups learn different conduct norms and that the conduct norms of some groups may clash with conventional middle-class rules. It defines what is considered appropriate or normal behavior and what inappropriate or abnormal behavior is and considered as the source of delinquent behaviors. \- He claims that lower class cannot socialize effectively as the middle-class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together to share their common values/problems forming a sub-culture that rejects middle-class values. \- It explains that society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. 1. **SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES (Social Learning)** \- These refer to a group of theories which points to the individual's socialization process as the cause for the commission of crimes. These theories cite interaction with people and experiences and exposure to different elements in the environment as primary factors to criminality. \- Under this theory is the **social learning theory** which in turn has three (3) sub-theories: *differential association theory; differential reinforcement theory; and neutralization theory*. a. **Differential Association Theory** - This was formulated by Edwin Sutherland - his theory states that criminal behavior is learned through socialization. - Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. b. **Differential Reinforcement Theory** - According to this theory, individual's behavior depends on how people around him react towards his behavior. - An act that is rewarded is repeated; an act that is punished will be avoided. - This was introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes. - Sometimes referred to as "*drift theory"* - According to this theory, people know when they are doing something wrong. However, they rationalize and justify their actions. This rationalizing is what we called *"neutralization*". 2. **SOCIAL REACTION THEORY** \- This is more commonly called "**labeling theory".** \- It states that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity. 1. **FRANK TENNEMBAUM** -- He made the earliest statements of latter-day labeling theory. He describes the process of defining deviant behavior as different among juvenile delinquents and conventional society, causing a \"tagging\" of juveniles as delinquent by mainstream society. The stigma that accompanies the deviant \"tag\" causes a person fall into deeper non-conformity. 2. **ERWIN LEMERT** -- founder of the \"Societal Reaction\" theory. This theory explores the journey to social deviance in two stages; primary deviance and secondary deviance which are both incorporated into Labeling Theory as well. 3. **HOWARD BECKER** - hailed as the founder of modern labeling theory. He proposes that this label becomes a person's master status, meaning that this is a constant label, affecting and over-riding how others will view them. 4. **GEORGE HERBERT MEAD** - One of the founders of Social Interactionism. Believed that people are compelled to see themselves as society perceives them to be. 3. **SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES** \- Maintain that everyone has the potential to become criminal but most people are controlled by their bonds to society. \- Social control refers to the agencies of social control such as family, school, religion or church, government and laws and other identified authorities in society. \- There are two (2) sub-theories: **containment theory** and **social bond theory.** **a. Containment Theory** \- It was proposed by Walter Reckless \- He stated that inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile offending. \- Containment means the forces within and outside the individual that has the power to influence his actions. \- Inner containments include positive self-concept, tolerance for frustration and an ability to set realistic goals. \- Outer containments include family. \- This was propagated by Travis Hirschi \- This theory views crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds to social institutions. \- According to this theory, there are four (4) elements of social bonds: **attachment; commitment; involvement and belief**. - **[B]elief** -- refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society - **[I]nvolvemen**t -- refers to the amount of time an individual spends on a conventional pursuit. - **[A]ttachment** -- refers to the degree to which an individual care about the opinions of others. - **[C]ommitment** -- refers to an individual's investment of energy and emotion in conventional pursuits such as getting good grades. **B. ECONOMIC THEORIES** Economic theories of crime causation analyze how economic factors influence criminal behavior. These theories suggest that individuals may engage in illegal activities due to financial incentives or lack of legitimate economic opportunities. For instance, the Rational Choice Theory posits that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of committing a crime, choosing to engage if the perceived benefits outweigh the risks. Poverty, income inequality, unemployment, and disparities in wealth distribution are often linked to higher crime rates, as they can create environments where individuals turn to illegal means to fulfill their economic needs. **Rational Choice Theory** The rational choice theory was formulated by philosopher and economist **Adam Smith** (1723-1790). He stated that people are rational thinkers who weigh the disadvantages and benefits of their decisions, and will most often make the choices that maximize their benefits and minimize their disadvantages. **Rational choice theory in criminology** makes a similar assertion. While many criminologists believe that the commission of crime is influenced by external factors such as culture and environment, rational choice theory centers on the individual as the primary driving force in criminal activity. The assumptions of the rational choice theory are: - People are motivated by their own personal desires and goals and prioritize them in their choices. - People compare and contrast the potential outcomes of different choices. - People ultimately make the choice that gives them the most benefit. This all means that criminal behavior is the result of calculated decision-making. When people make the choice to commit crime, it is because they see a greater possible reward for it compared with the rewards for abiding by the law. Additionally, people who resort to crime see the costs of committing crime to be lower than those accrued by legal activities. The formal term for this method of weighing the costs and benefits of a decision for one\'s own self-interest is **hedonistic calculus**. Rational choice theory mostly applies to adults, as children lack the ability to make informed decisions as adults can due to ongoing cognitive development. **CHAPTER 4** **BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: **Introduction:** Bio-Psychosocial theories are frameworks used to understand human behavior and health by integrating biological, psychological, and social factors. They suggest that an individual\'s health and well-being are influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social elements rather than any one factor in isolation. These theories consider genetics, brain function, cognition, emotions, social relationships, culture, environment, and more when explaining human behavior and health outcomes. **The Biopsychosocial Model** The biopsychosocial model reflects the development of illness through the complex interaction of biological factors, psychological factors, and social factors. Examples include: Engel revolutionized medical thinking by reintroducing the idea of mind/body dualism (René Descartes) that was forgotten during the biomedical approach. because of that, Engel and Romano's publication on the biopsychosocial model was adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2002 as a basis for the International Classification of Function (ICF). The biopsychosocial model is still widely used as a psychological model. The biological, psychological, and social categories have expanded into bigger categories: specifically, the social aspect has greatly expanded through ideas such as spirituality and culture. Even if all aspects do not apply to the situation, the biopsychosocial model is widely used to organize one's thoughts. It shows that a person's problems are all connected, and they may be more complex than previously imagined. This medical model was surprisingly presented earlier in 1972 by Juan B. Cortes and Florence M. Gatti (5 years earlier from the work of Engel's and Romano, 1977) linking all the theories of crime causation into one basket, calling it "BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH". On the basis of numerous empirical studies, Cortes and Gatti construct a biopsychosocial theory of criminal behavior from which they draw a series of conclusions about methods for the prevention and control of delinquency (although the word biopsychosocial was already used in psychology and in the study of victimology in the 1940s). *\ The chapters on "empirical criminology" report the results of investigations on the relationships between delinquency, on the one hand, and physique, temperament, need for achievement, intrinsic religiosity, discipline, and affection, on the other.* *Comparing samples of delinquents and non-delinquents, Cortes and Gatti argue that the former (delinquents) is higher in mesomorphy, activity, aggressivity, impulsiveness, and need for achievement, and lower in religiousness, parental discipline, and parental affection.* *Many of the findings in the book of Cortes and Gatti merely confirm the conclusions of earlier studies. However, given the criticisms of previous research on the relationships between constitutional factors and crime, this additional demonstration of an association between delinquency and body build is valuable.* *The authors are cautious in their attempts to interpret this association, pointing out that future work on this problem must concentrate on the biochemical and physiological underpinnings of the basic physical types and criminal behavior in order to deepen our understanding of the causal pathways involved.* *While much of the discussion about the effects of family environment on delinquency seems reasonable, the evidence offered is often less than persuasive because of weaknesses in the research design of the various sociological studies during that time.* *To give one example, surely the fact that the interviewer was a priest had a differential influence on the responses of non-delinquents who were students at a Catholic school and delinquents who were not attending such a school, particularly with respect to questions about religiosity.* *Alternative explanations, indeed, could be given for many of the empirical findings in the writing of Cortes and Gatti. "Theoretical criminology" is the central concern of two chapters in which several sociogenic and psychogenic theories are criticized and in which the authors outline their biopsychosocial theory.* **A. PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES** **Three (3) Psyche of Personality** **a. Id** - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and pleasure. **b. Ego** - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality and it acts to keep the id in check. **c. Superego** - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. This part of the personality contains the conscience of the individual. **1. Electra Complex** - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her mother. **2. Freudian** - This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood. **3. Oedipus Complex** - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his father. **4.** **Personality Theory** - This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation seeking. **5. Psychoanalytic Theory** - A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual. **6. Psychological Counseling** - The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately. **7. Psychological Theory** - A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is only important in that it highlights an underlying mental issue. **Psychopathic Theory** **Psychopathic** - A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders. **Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R)** - Developed by HARE, this is a tool comprised of a check list that is designed to measure the feeling and relationships of an individual, along with the social deviance of an individual. This tool is the main one used in the measurement of a psychopathic personality. **B. BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES** **C. SOCIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CRIMES** **I. Social Learning Theory** - In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation. One of the four main concepts of **AKERS' SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY** - The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right and wrong. Definitions of the law may be general or specific. One may have the general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a specific view that a 20-yearold who can fight in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person may follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law. **1. Behavior Theory** - Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement. **2. Differential Association** - A theory of crime and delinquency developed by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts of Akers' social learning theory. Akers retains the process of differential association, and expands upon it in his theory. **3. Differential Identification** - A modification of differential association theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives. **4. Differential Reinforcement** - One of the four main concepts of Akers' social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments. **5. Discriminative Stimuli** - Internal or external factors or cues that aid an individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation. **6. Imitation** - One of the four main concepts of Akers' social learning theory. Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision. **7. Positive Reinforcement** - This refers to an individual receiving something of value for committing a certain act. This may include things such as money, food, or approval. **8. Negative Reinforcement** - This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act. **9. Neutralizing Definitions** - This type of definition helps a person justify committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong, under certain conditions it is all right. **10. Operant Conditioning** - The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world. **11. Retroflexive Reformation** - This process is based upon differential association and often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders and non-offenders. This concept suggests that the offenders in such groups, who join on the side of the non-offenders in attempting to get the other offenders to change their definitions favorable to law violation, actually wind up reducing their own definitions favorable to crime. **12. Self-Reinforcement** - The exercise of self-control used by an individual to reinforce his or her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the eyes of another. **13. Social Reinforcement** - This refers to the actual, perceived, expected, tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by society or a subset of society. **14. Social Structure and Social Learning Model** - A model proposed by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual's actions through the social learning process. **15. Symbolic Interactionism** - The process by which two or more individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the ability to incorporate other people's reactions into their own behavior, and use those reactions as part of their own understanding of themselves. Example: You want to know how you look in a new outfit. Part of your understanding of how you look is going to be based upon how others respond to you. You have the ability to understand other people's facial reactions, body language, and language in understanding how they view you. You then use this information when deciding if you look good in the outfit. **Social Bonding and Control Theories** **Social Bonding Theory** - A control theory that states that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from criminal activity. **A. Social Control** - Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act. Examples include the family, church, and school. **B. Self-Concept** - An element of containment theory thought to be responsible for insulating an individual from criminal activity. This is Similar to self-esteem. **C. Self-Control Theory** - A specific type of control theory developed by **GOTTFREDSON** and HIRSCHI in which self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts. **1. Containment Theory** - A control theory in which the inner and outer pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment measures. **2. Control Theories** - A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so. **3. Delinquent Subculture -** A group of delinquent peers which may influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an individual towards delinquency. **4. Drift Theory** - This theory states that people can 'drift' or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law abiding behavior. **5. External Control** - A concept in control theory in which agents outside the control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual from committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents, teachers, or law enforcement. **6. Internal Control** - A concept in control theory which explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others. **7. Natural Motivation** - This refers to the belief in control theories that the desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society. **Definition of Labeling Theories To The Explanation Of The Causation Of Criminality** **Labeling Theory** - The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant "labels" or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts. **Restorative Justice** - This refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as they existed before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and attempt to financially compensate the victims for their losses. **1.** **Deinstitutionalization** - The removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion. **2. Disintegrative Shaming** - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual. This occurs without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore them to the larger community. **3. Diversion Movement** - This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels on the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime. **4. Faith-Based Programs** - These are religiously based programs which can be operated within the institution or the larger community. They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and values to change offenders' attitudes and behaviors. **5. Net Widening** - A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are placed in a program simply because a program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes net widening when kids, who otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot camps. **6. Primary Deviance** - Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not be the first crime a person has committed, it is not based on a response to being labeled as a deviant (see Secondary Deviance). **7. Secondary Deviance** - Criminal or deviant acts those are committed in response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an individual. **8. Reintegrative Shaming** - The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger community and restored to a position of respectability. **Social Disorganization, Anomie, And Strain Theories** **Anomie** - A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in American society. **Social Disorganization** - Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social control and organization in the society, community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity results. It is most often applied to urban crime. **Institutional Anomie** - This theory was created by **MESSNER AND ROSENFELD**. The premise of the theory is that American society is set up in such a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This means that the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people's highest priorities. Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions (family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of American society. **Merton's Anomie Theory** - This version of anomie theory looks at American society, and what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success. When this happens, one of five adaptations will occur. The conformist accepts the goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the college student. The innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the drug dealer. The mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and means of society, and wants to replace them with new goals and means: the militia member. The retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from society: the alcoholic. Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person has given up on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to keep what they have. **1. Differential Opportunity** - A theory which draws from anomie and the work **of MERTON AND COHEN; the SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY of SHAW** and **MCKAY**; and the **DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY of SUTHERLAND.** This view says that although one may be denied legitimate opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate opportunity. Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad response to that strain depending on the available opportunities and role models, legitimate or illegitimate. **THREE (3) GROUPS EXIST UNDER THIS PERSPECTIVE OF DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY** **1. The First Is Criminal** - In criminal groups, juveniles are organized, and the primary goal of the activity is to make money. A lack of legitimate means has been replaced by illegitimate ones, such as theft or extortion. **2. The Second Group Is The Conflict Group** - In this group, there are few legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. These groups are found primarily in poor socially disorganized neighborhoods. As a result, toughness and fighting are the primary goals. **3. The Final Group Is The Retreatist** - This group cannot fight well, or profit from their crimes. They are the double-losers. **2. Focal Concerns Of The Lower-Class Culture** - The list of focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was developed by MILLER to describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs. According to MILLER, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower class culture. This culture valued THINGS SUCH AS: A. Trouble, B. Toughness, C. Smartness D. Excitement E. Fatalism F. and autonomy. **3. General Strain Theory Of Crime And Delinquency** - A micro-level social psychological revision of Agnew's strain theory. According to this theory, criminal and deviant acts are one possible adaptation to stress. **THE THREE (3) MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIANCE-PRODUCING STRAIN ARE:** 1\. Failure to achieve positively valued goals 2\. Removal of positively valued stimuli, and 3\. Confrontation with negative stimuli. Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any of these stressors is anger. Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and attributions of causes, self-control, and self-efficacy will affect each individual's reaction to stress. **COHEN** is in agreement with **MERTON** that blocked goals produce **STRAIN**; his theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids, who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This 'status deprivation' leads to 'status frustration,' which in turn causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes, Cohen sees only one group---a conflict group which values toughness, fighting, and respect. **4. Urban Ecology Theory** - A theory that views a city as analogous to the natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center to the outer regions of a city. This work done by PARK and BURGESS influenced the social disorganization theory developed by SHAW and MCKAY. **5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY** - This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the residents of a given neighborhood to maintain informal social control over the criminal or deviant behavior of other residents. This would have the effect of keeping crime rates lower. **6. CHICAGO AREA PROJECTS** - This was the first large-scale urban delinquency prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core. Cohen's Anomie Strain. This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. **CONFLICT THEORY DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY CONFLICT THEORY** - The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior which is now viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined as criminal). **1. CONSENSUS THEORY** - In general, this theory states that laws are a result of, and a reflection of, general agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and mores, influence the laws and rules which govern a society. **2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY** - Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior. **3. INTEREST GROUPS** - These groups form and act in such a manner so as to influence the political system in ways that will provide the greatest benefits to members of the group. They are also referred to as pressure groups. **4. LAW** - Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state. Depending upon one's view, law is either formed with the agreement of the majority of society and designed to promote order, or formed by the powerful in society to keep control of the masses. **5. PLURALISTIC CONFLICT** - A type of conflict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful group making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and informal and often with overlapping interests, which wrestle for control and power. **6. POLITICAL CRIMES** - Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a government or overturn a government action; or crimes committed by government officials to control groups seen as a threat. Which side in any given conflict is labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and which side wins the dispute. **7. RACIAL PROFILING** - Actions taken by the police based solely on the race of an individual. **8. SOCIAL CONTROL** - A normative system with rules concerning the way people should and should not behave. This is combined with a formal and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the family, church, and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts. **9. SOCIAL THREAT HYPOTHESIS** - This hypothesis states that criminal and deviant acts will increase as the number of people opposed to the interests of the powerful increases. **MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES MARXIST THEORY -** This theory explains both law and criminal justice, and focuses upon the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a capitalist society, the ruling-class elite **(bourgeoisie)** control the means of production which allows them to control the political state as well. They use this control to manipulate the laborers **(proletariat)** and keep them in a position of powerlessness. The masses are thus controlled both economically and legally. **STRUCTURALIST MARXISM** - While close to the view of Instrumental Marxism, this perspective states that the political state is not under the total control of the ruling elite; that from time to time, laws may be passed that harm the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may be subject to state control. **1. BOURGEOIS** - The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those with the power. **2. PROLETARIAT** - The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those with no power. **3. CAPITALISM** - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held privately in the hands of a few. **4. SOCIALISM** - A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held by the state for the benefit of all. **5. CONSTITUTIVE CRIMINOLOGY -** A variation of critical criminology, which recommends that we the search for the cause of criminal activity. Instead, it examines how the relationships between criminals, victims, and agents of control act and react to form our understanding of crime. **6. CRIMES OF ACCOMMODATION AND RESISTANCE** - Crimes committed by the lower class against the upper class, or the capitalist system. **7. CRIMES OF DOMINATION AND REPRESSION** - Crimes committed by the ruling class against the lower class. **8. CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY** - An extension of Marxist theory that goes beyond the examination of the effects of capitalism on crime. It takes a critical stance against mainstream criminology. 9\. **LEFT REALISM** - A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact, damage, and fear caused by traditional street crime. It proposes reforms to the system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce the use of prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This perspective rejects both the conservative and choice perspective of the right, and the tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by crime. 10\. **INSTRUMENTAL MARXISM** - The political state (including the law and the criminal justice system) is always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress the working class. **11. PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY** - This perspective is often viewed as a philosophy as opposed to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society (victims, offenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the violence that is at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then be replaced with non-violent solutions. **12. POSTMODERNISM** - Closely related to critical criminology, his perspective seeks to discover and eliminate the power of language and text which is used to give power and privilege to specific groups, while denying it to others. This perspective also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientific explanations of criminology, and replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and advances the cause of disadvantaged individuals. **CHAPTER 5** **FEMENIST THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: **Introduction:** **I. FEMINIST THEORIES** **TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO FEMINIST THEORIES** **FEMINIST THEORY** - This theory attempts to define criminology and criminal justice based upon the experiences, understanding, and view of the world as perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of criminology that have been developed, tested, and applied by men to men, which have only incorporated women as an afterthought. **MASCULINITIES** - A trait shared by all men, but one that changes and evolves depending upon the race, economic status, and sexual orientation of any particular man. Crime may be viewed as an attempt to claim, re-claim, or prove the very qualities that make one a man. **MASCULINITY THESIS -** The view that as women become more equal in society with men, their crime rates will increase. **1. EGALITARIAN FAMILY** - Part of Hagan's power-control theory. A family in which the mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share power and control in the family. **2. PATRIARCHAL FAMILY** - Part of Hagan's power-control theory. In a patriarchal family, the father is typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the family. Mothers are more likely to supervise daughters more closely than sons and encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in daughters. **3. POWER-CONTROL THEORY** - A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters becomes more similar. **4. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION HYPOTHESIS** - The belief that economic pressures put on women to support themselves and their dependent children, along with the stepping back of men from their roles of financial support of women and children has pushed women into criminal activity for economic gain. **5. LIBERATION HYPOTHESIS** - This view states that as men and women become more equal in society in terms of family, politics, and education, their crime rates will begin to equalize as well. **6. OPPORTUNITY HYPOTHESIS** - The view that as women increase their numbers in corporate America, their rates of white collar and corporate crime will increase along with this increased opportunity. **7. PATERNALISM** - This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep women and girls in a subservient position in society. While women and girls may be treated less severely as indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality with men. **8. SELECTIVITY HYPOTHESIS** - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle class, privileged women. **9. TYPICALITY HYPOTHESIS** - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes consistent with the stereotypical view of women, and to women who can still be viewed as "feminine" **10. CHIVALRY HYPOTHESIS** - The view that male police officers, prosecutors, and judges tend to have traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the officials are more lenient on the females for committing criminal acts than on their male counterparts. **INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES THEORETICAL INTEGRATION** - This occurs when two or more theories are combined in such a manner so as to make the new theory explain criminal activity in a more comprehensive manner. It can also be used to combine two competing theories which, upon reflection, were not as incompatible as once thought. **THEORETICAL ELABORATION** - A term coined by Thornberry in which he states that one begins with a particular theory and extends it as far as one can. **THEORY COMPETITION** - Logical, conceptual, or empirical comparison of two or more theories to determine which offers the better or best explanation. **1. CONCEPTUAL ABSORPTION** - Concepts from one theory are subsumed as special cases of the phenomena defined by the concepts of another theory. **2. CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION** - Concepts from one theory are shown to overlap in meaning with concepts from another theory. **3. CONTROL BALANCE THEORY** - The ratio of how much the individual is liable to control to how much he or she is able to control. It operates in the context of four main variables: predisposition, provocation, opportunity, and constraint. **4. LIFE-COURSE THEORIES** - These theories attempt to explain better the stability and changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time and at different life stages. **5. NETWORK ANALYSIS** - An explanation of delinquency that draws on social learning and social bond theories. It connects the structural characteristics of social networks and interactional processes. **6. PROPOSITIONAL INTEGRATION** - This explains how two or more theories make the same predictions about crime or make propositions that can be put together, even though each may begin with different concepts and assumptions. **7. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY** - A theory in which delinquency and drug use are explained through the use of social learning theory, control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory. In this perspective, delinquency is viewed as the result of the weakening of one's self-esteem. **8. SOCIAL SUPPORT** - Social integration in a group relationship in which emotional, material, and social assistance is provided to each group member.