"North-South Relations in International History" Past Paper PDF

North-South relations in the history of International Relations  Midterms: 3 open questions, 1 hour to answer  - October 10 (will be about or first 10 lectures) (first 201 pages of the book)  - November 21  - Final written exam in January/ February 2025: to be decided: 2 first ques...

North-South relations in the history of International Relations  Midterms: 3 open questions, 1 hour to answer  - October 10 (will be about or first 10 lectures) (first 201 pages of the book)  - November 21  - Final written exam in January/ February 2025: to be decided: 2 first questions about the common part and one question about the second part (depending on which professor you choose if you choose Ragno then its about Latin America).  Padiglione morgani floor 2 is his office  Lecture 1: 16/09 **[Going Tribal ]** Explanations of ethnic identities/tribes  - a natural fact (it is not) (for example: Indian religious identities are not natural; Hinduism has been formed through the encounter of the British colonial masters and Indian elites). Tribes were product of British colonialism in the 19th century in Africa.  - colonial \ (hierarchy, divide et impera) Most of the tribes now are the result of the encounter between the colonial masters and local elites. Why did the colonial masters (Brits) make these tribes: divide et impera. No big group in order to prevent the phenomena of fight for independence. The trick is: convince a group they are number one and you are the best getting the best food and money but be careful there is group 2 who is different of you and is jealous of you that wants your land. Then you go to group 3: you are different because you live in a specific area: be careful they want your land; you are a better tribe don't involve with them. So, divide et impera. It was important to have a single chief that ruined the balance between the tribes.  What is a tribe: a sort of family that is typically related to the South of the world. In the West we don't have tribes.  Late 19th century: used by anthropologist to describe the societies in Africa. Therefore, it's actually a modern concept.  We still think that there is a big distinction between the societies in the South and West. The North we think we are divided in nations and for the South we think that the ethnic and tribal identity is the most important.  Today when we talk about Libya and Afghanistan we talk about tribes, in Iraq we talk about religious groups.  Definition of tribes in the 19th century: Tribe is something we can find in Asia and Africa because these people have no nation, the nation has to do with the modern state and these people don't have that. Tribe is characterized by the fact that there are common ancestors and blood links between the people. What is the meaning of this distinction made between nation in the North and tribe in the South: developed people are organized in nations; the underdeveloped people are organized in tribes.   The British thought that the Indians were civilized before, but they lost it. Whereas for Africa they never thought it was civilized and was always primitive. The British wanted to divide the Indians so they would not go against the colonial system. The tribe was recreated during the colonial time, the local political entities were reshaped in accordance with a standard British/ French view of the tribe. The British did the same in India, by reshaping the system they got rid of the complexity of the systems. One chief and the subjects of the chief (very simple and stupid representation, since it doesn't show the historical complexity of these people). - modern phenomena  Why \ today?  - Fragmentation of the nation and strengthening of local identities. Fear of immigrants and them stealing our job. They are coming to get our expensive wealth system, but we build it on the basis of exploitation of the South. And what about the international community?  **[The crisis of the nation-state ]** "Unable to deliver on material promises, having lost its previous popular appeal and pushed into the defensive by global pressures(\...) nationalism fell into cultural nationalism and nativisim as a way to compensate for crisis and decline (Ddlovu-Gatsheni 2009:67)  Nation state is in crisis because of the growing inequalities and so people are asking for the power back on the local level (return of the tribe). **[A couple of examples]** - Urdu/Hindi in India: from one to two languages (and two religions) - according to British: civilized before colonization but had lost it - should be transformed according to British norms - Ndebele and Shona in Southern Rhodesia - according to British: had always been primitive, were never civilized - shouldn't be transformed, just preserved **[Several actors at work (at consolidating new identities) ]** - Colonial agents - Anthropologists - Missionaries - They transform the population through education. But most importantly was the role of the Bible. Hindi and Urdu were not codified, it is the British that started codifying it. Th missionaries had an interest in codifying and learning these languages by being able to bring the Bible, the gospel to the population. But they selected local languages to use and left out others. - Local power holders - Local intellectuals - Workers - Workers go from the rural area to the city; they create ethnical identities, and they gain some money in the city, and they save it up to send it to the rural area to establish the same institutions and to pay the tribal chief to take care of their land and families. - Migrants - Why did they play a role in consolidating these new identities? The problem for the migrants was the lack of communication with home. So, it was important that nothing changed at home, the land the wife everything must stay the same. So, this is where the role of the tribal chief is important because he will take care of this. **[Local Agency]** "the indigenous elite were "active agents in constructing the past and were consciously engaged in choosing particular elements from the embryonic body of knowledge flowing from their own current social and political concerns" (Chakravarty 1998: 32). These concerns interacted with the texts made available by Orientalist scholars through translations and new critical editions, which enabled a reinterpretation of the past as a vital period of Indian history from which a more positive Hinduism could be reconstructed from its now fallen state." (Viswanathan, *Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism*, 2002) Lecture 2: 17/09 **[The conquest of India (by the British East-Indian Company (BEIC)]** - Since the first half of XVIII C. Moghul Empire in crisis - 1717 BEIC signed agreement with Emperor (trade) - British unsuccessfully tried to enter the market of East India; Dutch colonised Indonesia - 1757 Plassey battle: after the war the emperor (Mogul?) gave BEIC the administration of tax system of Bengal. BEIC didn't find it sufficient, continued to conquer territory. - 1761 French defeated: they then went to China. - 1765 BEIC get revenue management in Bengal - The British colonization started from Bengal - 1784 India Act (BEIC maintains trade monopoly)  **Maratha empire British raj** Land systems 1857 revolt  The company little by little won the control of new territories and in 1761, the French trade missions in India were conquered. The company was very aggressive and imposed its rule on a lot of Indian territories. Because of the cost of the military conquest, because of the cost of the administration, they had to ask the British government for help. The company needed the British army to support its colonial conquest. Little by little England took over control in 1858, India became part of the British Empire. **[Colonial rule ]** - To turn the Indian into an Englishman» through: - private property - rule of law (codification of Hindu law and Islamic law) - They chose which norms and values are important and which not. - individual freedoms - Western education They didn't try to transform the Africans only preserve them, but the Indians had a prestigious past that they had lost. - 1793 Permanent settlement (large estates/private ownership of land) - 1820s Ryotwari system - Several limits The British enforced a lot of land reforms into India. Economic exploitation, land reform... →1857: The great revolt: the Indians protest. 1858: The company loses India to the British government. They realized they cannot transform them, because the Indians didn't accept British modernity. How was this modernity brought? Private property, rule of law, individual freedoms, western education. It didn't work so the solution was to preserve the caste system. Hinduism under the Mogul power was something inclusive, with colonialism it became exclusive. Don't blame just the colonial power but also the local political powers. Today political actors manipulate history and identity. Lecture 3 (19/09) William something Imposed more taxes on the peasants The new owners had to pay a certain amount of taxes to the British otherwise they would have lost control of their land. The small farmers were put under very extreme pressure, as they were not able to pay such high taxes and ended up losing their land = at the local level these lands created a new class of poor and landless peasants. The ownership of the land is given to tax collectors = poverty. The British wanted to promote economic order and development, but they only caused poverty (the same as development cooperation today). Moreover, owners were unable to pay the tax revenues, also many of the land obtained by the British were lost and came in the hands of rich people from urban centres in Bengal, as they were interested in finance and trade (They did not promote agricultural development but for speculative matters). The transformation of the Bengal rural areas had very negative effects. In central South India they decided to try a different land reform system = they realized the effects of the reform in Bengal had not been very good = they must implement a more egalitarian land reform = transforming the tenants into owners of the land (the private property was considered to be the tool for achieving economic development = the individual rather than a collectively will have more interest in investing in the land). In the colonial world taxation was a way to push people to work more, while in the east was considered lazy. The result was that many farmers lost control of the land, as they were not able to pay the taxes (poorer peasants lost their lands while richer peasants brought them). In the case of Bengal, a small class owned the majority of the land, in the case of South India a bigger number of people (rich middle class) accumulated ownership of most of the land (in both situations they caused poverty). In the first decade of 19^th^ century the British decided to implement a third model of land reform in northern India; they decided to adopt the Malhauri system = the British decided to leave again the ownership of the lands to the peasants and to assign the responsibility for tax collections to the village headman/chiefs = the British imposed higher taxes of the lands, many small peasants became very indebt and they lost their lands, which was put on auction, and the village chiefs sold the lands = the result is a new class of rich peasants that accumulated most of the lands. Economic exploitation of India: - the company-imposed taxes of the Indian subjects - the company imposed a number of monopolies on the commercialisation of the sale of salt and coal - the lapse system = when the ruler of the local community had been defeated/died his land would come directly under the control of the company. They wanted to annex the land of the people. What are the benefits for the company? That the British wouldn't have the time to solve the local issues at once and they couldn't bear the costs of the administration all at once. - The company-imposed duties on the Indian exports (to have economic benefits); in the 19^th^ century British textile products invaded the Indian market (it is not true that the Indian textile products lost value on the market because the British one were cheaper, but because it was very political, the market is not neutral) The result of these forms of oppression was the Great Revolt of 1857: a turning point in the history of Indian colonisation **[BEIC in trouble]** - 1813 end of BEIC monopoly of trade with India - 1833 end of BEIC monopoly of trade with China - 1857 revolt (= the great revolt) BEIC lost control of India, and the British government took over **[1857 revolt]** - Soldiers holding the cartage (munity) in their mouth to quickly put it in the gun, this was previously put in pork fat - Peasants took part under the lead of the Mogul because they wanted their power back - Part of old oligarchy a lot of political mistakes were made - Hindu/Muslims different religion and superstitious (pork fat is a problem) the Indians must be conserved because they cannot and will not be transformed, so for the British promoting stability in India was important Who took part in this unorganized revolt? Soldiers, peasants, part of the old oligarchy, Hindu/Muslims. It started with a mutiny of Indian soldiers (who had problems due to the guns). The British authority in India emphasized the issue of the religious problem (pig fat)... they asked the Moghul to start the revolt. British put the emphasis to emphasize the religious aspect of the revolt to avoid highlighting their political mistakes and to put on them the responsibility to have a different religion and to be superstitious = the fact that they were different gave the British the possibility to not be responsible for the revolt, it was their fault as they didn't want to be modernized. **[From transformation to conservation]** - Indians did not, in the British view, pursue their own best interest, but obstinately clung to their traditional ways, then the liberal presumption that all men were inherently rational and educable fell to the ground, and with it the expectation that India could be transformed on an English model. In similar fashion, after the Munity, the conversion of India to Christianity ceased to evoke much enthusiasm. **[After the great revolt]** The revolt was a turning point, the only thing left to do is to conserve the tradition, to conserve the social stability and to look out for local political figures in the name of the Hindu tradition. 1858 Proclamation by Queen Victoria (we have no right or desire to impose our convictions on our subjects, we will abstain from all interfering with their religious beliefs). - 1858 Proclamation - Need for social stability through: - local aristocracy (no more "lapse") (no interest in land annexation) - local communities of various nature: caste/tribe/religion - tradition (caste "as a necessary complement to social order and governmental authority") - the Hindu elite could rule. The British started to codify the tradition of ancient India, and they froze the social identities, the process of social transformation that was part of the precolonial India; they looked for people who could help them to codify the radical cast system: the brahmas were a perfect candidate) - *In sum, indirect rule* **[Contradictions]** - «This vision of India\'s past could not escape being caught up in a conflict between the need to \'civilize\' India, and the opposing desire to preserve a still \'medieval\' land» (Metcalf 1995) - «Tradition, once systematized and enforced as \'tradition\' in the courts, defined a new mode of governance far different from that which had gone before». (Metcalf 1995) - "Under colonialism, the old structures were frozen, and only the appearances of the old regime, without the vitally connected political and social processes that formerly invested these structures with meaning, were saved" (Dirks 2001). e.g., the caste system (= class hierarchy) was simplified, codified, and frozen **[Caste and census]** - Since 1871 caste (and religion) in the census (*India had no history*) - But how to define a caste? - "The colonial notion of caste was that each group had an essential quality that was expressed in its occupational profile and its position in the social hierarchy, as well as in a whole set of moral and cultural characteristics that adhered to each group *qua* group" (Dirks 2001). official asked the population to 'create the correct' (= manipulated the) caste system because Indians 'did not have history' before the British they were a body to be known, controlled, and organized In 1871 the British decided to use the census (recorded 3208 castes), and people were asked about their caste and religion. The people who were considered part of these castes could be somehow considered to be part of the old and modern aristocracy of India or to be part of the low castes. They wanted to codify once and for all the caste system as it would have a political effect = find someone to rule India and have political and religious legitimacy. People at the bottom of the caste hierarchy started to complain and to mobilize = The caste system was organized according to political reasons = the British manipulated one of the social systems in India, took it and changed it to an ordered society. **[Castes in history]** - Castes as "social classes designating (...) a local privilege/occupation that established a direct link with the king and with the local political/social system" (Dirks 2001). - "Politics was fundamental to the processes of hierarchy and the formation of units of identity. These units of identity were multiple and hardly exhausted by the general idea of caste" (Dirks 2001). **[In reality]** - From 3,208 castes in 1871 to 19,044 castes in 1881 the British authorities and local aristocracy based it off political prosperity, it was politically manipulated not natural In 1881 the caste system counted 19.044 different caste (they listened to the complains of the people and that is why the recognized more castes, but also people wanted to change caste to have more economical and political opportunities) = there was nothing natural about this caste system, as is the product of the encounter of British colonialism and Indian elite. The caste system was shaped by the power relations between the different Indian groups within society and the colonisers. **[Indians as Passive victim?]** - Multiple Indian actors at work both during colonialism: - - - - **[The legacies]** - Community based electorates created in 1906: accommodation to «diversity» or tool against rising nationalism? - Caste still shapes India's social world today In India the caste system consolidated at the same time as the split between Hindu and Muslims. Lecture 4: (23/09) **[Africa in XIX Century]** - From slave trade to «legal» trade in West Africa and East Africa - In the early 19^th^ century, Africa was making a shift from the illegal trade to legal trade. Slave trade was declared illegal by Britain, but slavery itself was not illegal. This became a problem for the businessmen because they couldn't sell slaves anymore, but they could use them on their own plantages to produce commodities. - Early 20^th^ century there was still slaves for example in Zanzibar even though it was declared illegal but declaring something and putting it into practice is not synonymous. - African landowners (rich Africans) were supporting the colonial government, so the colonial officials said if we give up these colonies, we will ruin these people. - Centralization of power in Ethiopia - Tewodros II (1855-1868) - Yohannes IV (1872-1889) - Menelik (1889-1913) - Zulu wars and Great Trek in South Africa - In South Africa established centralized kingdom in Western South Africa. - On the other hand, the Boers left the Cape that was now under the control of the British and the Boers made the great trek to the Northeast in wanting to establish new republics. - Colonies/republics in South Africa (Cape, Natal 1843) - The cape colony and Natal colony both British but they were ruled in very different ways: - Cape= men voted on basis of education and income for the parliament. - White and African people could vote. - In the Natal colony= no voting rights for African people. - →2 different ways the regions have been conquered. - The British in the cape wanted to get some legitimacy. - In the Natal colony they crashed the Zulu kingdom and so they imposed different rule. After 1910 in the entire of South Africa the natal system was imposed. - Congress of Berlin was important because if you declared that a part of African **coast** was under your control, you had to prove concretely that that part (not interior territory, (Berlin focused on coast because their problem was Namibia)) belong to you by having trade stations, collect taxes... - Result was the fight for the interior: the scramble for Africa. - The pacification wars lasted for 20 years; the Africans tried to resist them. - In Tanganyika (Tanzania), the people of Southern Tanzania fought in the early 20^th^ century against the German armies. - The rebellion was called Magi Magi: water. It was called water because Germans wanted to make it look like a rebellion caused by Superstition: a prophet in 1902 started to say if an African drank some of the water he could gave to the people no Europeans could have killed him. If you drink my water the prophet, said no European gangs are able to kill you. But the water didn't save them, but Germans say it's not our fault it's their fault because they are superstitious. - Cecil Rhodes and BSAC (1889) in Southern Africa - In Kimberley, in the mid-19^th^ century diamonds field were discovered and soon British investors went to exploit the diamond fields. This town was suddenly built by thousand newcomers: white and Africans who wanted to profit. The most successful men in Kimberley: Cecil Rhodes. He bought all the diamond concessions in Kimberley. The company found is still one of the most important diamond dealers in the world: De Beers. (De Beers name because the first farm he bought the last name of the owners was de Beers). - Gold discovered in Johannesburg. - Cecil Rhodes made a terrible mistake: when he got the news about the gold, he thought gold in Johannesburg was minimal present. It would be an unsuccessful investment there. - He realized later that he made this mistake. - He asked the British government for a royal charter because he wanted to colonize the territories to the north of South Africa. The border between Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia) and South-Africa: he thought that the gold deposits do not know borders; the gold deposits extended to the north of South Africa he thought. The British approved: he established the British south African Company. They also colonized Malawi (Nyasaland) and Zambia (North Rhodesia). - He found no gold: so, to make profit he sold the land to the white settlers. = Local colonization. - The British didn't want South Africa to fall under the control of the Germans: 1899 Anglo Boer war. Congress of Berlin 1884-1885: colonization of Africa didn't start only after the congress, in South- Africa, the Dutch established a trade mission in the cape region, mid of 17^th^ century (1652). The Dutch were also active in Indonesia, so they wanted to establish a trade station in the Cape area, they were looking for commodities such as food to eat on the boat, little by little they expropriated the cape land and started settling there as farmers, they forced the population there to work on the farms. Congress of Berlin was conveyed by Bismarck, a German trade company, have settled in modern day Namibia. Bismarck had no interest for the colonization of Africa, according to him sending military was just a waste of Money. But the British complained about the presence of the Germans on the cost of Nabia (1884). Arguing that the cost of the north cape colony to Congo was under Portuguese control. The British didn't want the Germans in South Africa (British conquered the cape in early 19^th^ century) that's why they said this, Bismarck complained and invited a number of countries for the Congress to discuss how to proceed the colonization of Africa without the European countries fighting each other. **[Imperialism in Africa]** - French «stop and go» in West Africa. - British in Egypt (1882) - Bismark and the Congress of Berlin (1884/85) **[Empires in West Africa]** **[Colonial penetration in West Africa]** In West Africa before the congress, there was colonial penetration in Senegal. **[South Africa in late XIX C.]** **[Colonial Africa]** (24/09) In west Africa the British colonized Nigeria as the GB government was under pressure by some British companies acting in the palm oil trade (African rulers didn't want to relinquish the trade to the GB companies of palm oil) BSAC Colonized Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia. **[System of Colonial rule established by the British and French ]** When the British considered the way to administer the African colonial possession, they governed according to the 'indirect rule" = adopted in India after the Great Revolt (mid-19^th^ century). But they thought that Africans have no history, so the only way to rule them was through recreation, consolidation, transformation of ethnic identities and tribal institutions. For the Zulu Kingdom, the British imposed on them a simplification of their former political authorities. In general, the British divided Africa into tribes, and each tribe had a specific ethnic identity and was under the authority of an authoritarian chief (aware if ethnic norms). The most important power for the chief concerned land distribution (he also collected taxes and organized forced labour). As a general rule, the African colonial territories couldn't ask money to finance the colony to London. Indirect rule important and effective for the British: save money because they empower local power order with the administration of the territory, they didn't send British officials to rule Africa. The tribal chief was often the same men who ruled the area before colonizing it, in other areas the British chose the tribal chiefs. Alice the fourth: pretend that before Alice the fourth there was third, second and first. Pretending that she is the chief of the room (area). Before the tribes in Africa were the tribes. The British manipulated the Indians and transformed a system and, in this way, build a system of colonial rule that for some decades was very functional to their empire in Africa. However, the starting point for the Africans was that they cannot be transformed so we have to preserve them. French thought that they African subjects had to be transformed. The goal was to transform their African subjects into French citizens. However, they were still subjects with maybe some tribal rights. From the beginning 10 of thousands French officials send to Africa (opposite of the British), they wanted them to control political and social dynamics even at the local (rural) level and the old political actors were not involved. Because they thought that the old elite was the responsible for Africans underdevelopment and it was the French officials' task to transform them now. How? - Offering the French culture to the African people. - Built a few schools, teach language. But very few children could go to school, did not want to spend money for colonial schools. - In order to become French citizens, the Africans had to leave part of the Islamic law. - French family law instead of Islamic family law. - Voting rights at the end of the process, in some coastal towns of Senegal only a specific group of Africans could vote. - If you want to be part of the French, you must prove it through forced labour (building roads, railways). - Pay taxes to the French government. - Penal code: In some areas the custom was you kill someone okay give his family 10 cows in exchange. So, the Penal code was brought in in some areas. They lived according to customary rules and traditions, but they were not democratic. Who benefited in the tribes from the land distributions: the chiefs and their political allies. Who didn't benefit were the women, the traditions discriminated women. - Military service - Forced cultivation of cash crops. The cash crops were exported, and colonial government taxed the export, got money for it Alternative medicine is still widespread in Africa, and it has nothing to do with tradition, it has to do with the fact that they had limited access to medicine, so they had to look for alternatives. School had to be paid, when you have 10 children, you selected the sons, so discrimination not because of cultural reasons but because of this paid school system. → The French called their system was the Assimilation system. Just a few subjects in Sub-Saharan Africa got the French citizenship (they didn't want to keep them citizenship because that would mean voting rights for the Africans) the First WW was a turning point because the military service became compulsory. In some areas of West-Africa this young man revolted against the French. This was a shock for the French because they saw themselves as helping them. So, from now on the French decided not to transform them but like the British conserve them. Rules by association but they could not be transformed completely. Until WW1 they avoided to involve the old leaders but suddenly, they could be involved in the administration of the colony. Lecture 5 (24/09) Algheria and Vietnam **[French Empire ]** **[French colonial rule]** - Assimilation - Algeria - Vietnam - Africa (French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa) **[Algeria]** - 1830 Conquest - Started the military conquest of Algeria in 1830; several phases of colonial conquest (slowly they penetrated into the interior of the territory). - Several phases of colonial conquest: - 1830-1840 - 1841-1847 - 1848-1870 - 1848 division in three regions; 3 regions with 3 counsels with white settlers nominated by the Europeans for administrative purpose): the French government declared Algeria as part of the French territory and decided to rule Algeria and its political institutions directly. They adopted assimilation as the principle of their colonial rule= since the mid-19^th^ century the Algerian African population could get French Citizenship. Hundreds of thousands of French settlers moved to Algeria. - The assimilation policy was somehow reshaped by Napoleon III, who in 1863 claimed that Algeria had to become an Arab country. →The duty of the French government was not the process of assimilation, nor the white immigration, but the defence of the Arab interests, therefore Algeria had to be ruled in an indirect way thanks to the involvement of the Arab elite in the administration of the territories. This policy was opposed by the white settlers. - →after the defeat in Sudan by Napoleon III the policy of indirect rule was abandoned and went back to assimilation, and this opened way to expropriation of large areas from local people to the benefits of white settlers (the French settlers could impose their will on the French government). Algeria together with Kenya, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, became a settler colony, as the whites put their hands on large tracks of land= the basis were laid for the struggle of independence that the Algerian people fought for since 1954. - 1881 *Code de l\'Indigénat*  - A code for the natives: - Exam question: Assimilation but so many contradictions: land expropriation and a special code with rules for the natives. Economic development of the benefits of the French and not the African people, and not the possibility to get French citizenship. Difference between segregation and apartheid: apartheid: total separation of the races: for example, the Africans were sent to live in reserves. The reserves were declared as independent states: Bantu Stan; as they needed to be separated from the whites →black people ruled themselves in their states). No country identified the Bantu Stan states as independent, because they were totally dependent on the South Africans; even though they had their own flags, own kings but it was all a manipulation by the whites to keep an Apartheid. Lecture 6 (26/09) **[Ancient vietnam ]**  ←Two Kingdoms (XVI-XVII c.) After unification (XVIII c.) → **[Vietnam - State building]** - 939 end of Chinese domination - Vietnam, the country with the borders of today is quite a recent creation: when the Chinese were forced to leave, the core of the country that we know today was confined to the North of Vietnam. From the North slowly a king started to conquer from the North the lands to the South. The king continued to pay tribute to China for centuries. Relations between the 2 countries was not on equal terms: the US from the 40ths started to involve itself in the politics and military affairs of Vietnam. Their involvement was based on the assumption that China and Vietnam were the same thing from political view: cordial and strong relation between the two. This is not the truth, they maybe had strong ties but not always cordial. In the early 20^th^ century Vietnam freed itself from the Chinese rule. - 1558 split into two kingdoms - In the mid-16^th^ century, the kingdom was divided into two. A political and military crisis in North-Vietnam (different people fighting for power), one of these military leaders had to escape north Vietnam and go to the Centre. He conquered Vietnam from the centre to the South. The French administered Vietnam in a peculiar way and also divided. So, there is a history of division for the country. - 1772 Tay-son revolt. In 1786 rebels control entire country - In the late 18^th^ century, a revolt started in South -Vietnam. The revolt happened in the South because the peasants and farmers were unhappy with the corruption of the country. The revolt was led by 3 brothers, and they were successfully because from the South they went to conquer the entire country. This revolt unified Vietnam. - 1804 Nguyen-anh emperor (Gia-Long) - A military leader family from the military leader of 1558 with the help of the French repressed the revolt and became the emperor of Vietnam. - 1862 Treaty - The Europeans started to make an impact on the political affairs of Vietnam. For many years Vietnam had trade relations with Europe but the Vietnamese leaders in the first part of the century could somehow control this trade. Things changed because the French started to put heavy pressure on the emperor. Why were they so interested in getting control of Vietnam: because they wanted to secure a passage to China. They therefore manipulated a local problem in order to set foot in Vietnam. - The emperor was in very bad relations with the catholic church. The emperor who wanted to control the society of Vietnam, got suspicious of the presence of the Catholic church. Initially Catholics were a minority in the country, and in the mid-19^th^ century the emperor started to repress the Catholics in Vietnam. The French pretended that they wanted to protect the Catholics, so the military conquest of Vietnam started. In reality they wanted the foot close to China and trade with Vietnam. - The French started the colonization from the South, then they also took control of North-Vietnam. In the south the French ruled through **assimilation**. In the North they ruled through **association.** The emperor formally continued to rule on north Vietnam. - In 1859, the French took control of Saygon and little by little they annexed the lands that were around it by force. - In 1862, the emperor signed a treaty with Paris; the Catholics could not be more repressed in Vietnam. Formally, France got the control of the lands that it had conquered. In this way France got the control of a part of Cochinchina (South of Vietnam). - 1867 Some regions of Cochinchina annexed - 1874 New Treaty (Cochinchina) - A new treaty was signed between France and the emperor, with this new treaty the emperor recognized the French control on a big region that still has the name of Cochinchina (south of Vietnam). Power was in the hands of the French military for some years, and they were replaced by a civilian government that imposed assimilation on Cochinchina (it was a colony). - In 1882: the French got control of Annoy (to the North), they continued they conquest. - 1883 Protectorate - Was declared on North and Central Vietnam. The government is formally independent but in reality, it was under control of the French. - It was hard for the French to implement association of the South because of how expensive it was. It was costly to send French officials to transform the natives. So, they had to ask the help of the local elites. The French tried to promote the economic development of Vietnam according to their ideas in order to make profits. So, the two Vietnams together with Cambodia were unified by the French under a government general. He had to build for example railways, it had to be a centralized concept. So, the North also had to be involved. In order to build the railways, you need money, so people had to pay taxes. They couldn't ask for a loan to Paris because the colony must be self-sufficient. The result of these higher taxes was local revolts. - In 1880 the French had established a colonial council; recommendations to the government but not bounding powers. The French in Vietnam had political rights, and they could vote for the councillors and some Vietnamese chosen by the colonial government power. - The French also introduced the *Code de l\'Indigénat*, rules for the narratives. There is a contradiction because it is assimilation, but we still threat them as different people with different rights.   - 1887 Indochinese Union (Laos, Cambodia, Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin) - 1930 Indochinese Communist Party (Ho Chi Minh) - After WWI, the French started to adopt some limited political reform. They established some local councils in order to involve the young, educated people in the political management of the territory. These reforms were soon criticized by these young people, because these young people wanted jobs in the public administration, civil service... and they couldn't find them. In the 20^th^ century, a number of Vietnamese political organizations were formed. Some of them were moderate organizations that ask for the implementation of political reforms. Others were more radical and among them were a number of small fragmented communist organizations. - The most important moderate political party was formed in 1927: The Vietnamese Nationalist Party that was asking for political reforms. Also, some terrorist groups started to be active, killing colonial officials. - Communist organizations: were unified by Ho Chi Mhin in 1930 with strong ties to Moscow. In the early 30s, when a number of protest and mass actions were organized by the Vietnamese nationalist party. When they started some mass action against the colonial government, they started to violently repress the nationalist party. - Paradox: Only the radical parties remain in place fighting the colonial pressure, so they unintentionally become more popular. **[After first world war]** - "Association" in French colonies in Africa - Since the 1930s, investments in the colonies - Lecture 7 (30/09) **[Between the two worlds ]** **[Maximum territorial extension]** **[Crisis of ottoman empire]** - 1826-1876 Tanzimat (= reforms) - Found itself in trouble in the early 19^th^ century because a number of military defeats. The leadership started to introduce some reforms with the purpose of survival of the empire and centralization of political power, military reforms (professionalization of the army). - Problems: Reforms are expensive, you are going to have problems with the powerholders who resist the implementation of the reforms. - The emperor started to ask for loans from Europe & open the economy to foreign competition. - The leadership thought that in order to develop it had to open the economy to foreign competition. - 1838 Anglo-Turkish Commercial Convention - The British and Ottoman Empire signed a trade agreement in 1838, to open the Ottoman economy for British interest. - The Ottoman companies proved unable to compete with the British/European ones. - Message: you can open your economy, but you have to think first if your economy will be able to compete or not. - If you want to invest in a poor country you will focus on the fact that you have guarantees on (how to attract people to invest in your poor country): Labor deregulation (no compulsory minimum wage), lower taxes, legal protection against nationalization, no environmental regulations. What to do now with the money you get in that country: put the money (profits) in another country. The poor country should also allow this in order to attract foreign investment. - 1839 war with Egypt - 1854-56 Crimea war - 1875 bankruptcy (1879 Egypt) - 1876 constitution - 1878 Congress of Berlin - 1908 coup of Young Turks - They took power but they didn't do away with the Caliph since he was still in power. but they started reforms. The reforms were followed by the coup of 1913. **[Dissolution of ottoman empire]** - 1913 new coup (revolutionary phase) - Defeat in First World War - 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement - 1920 Treaty of Sevres - Kemal continued to fight - After WW1, he continued to fight to unify the Turkish people. - 1923 Treaty of Lausanne - Turkey got its independence with its current borders. After WW1, ottoman dissapeared because most parts became mandates of France or GB. **[1923 Treaty of Lausanne]** **[Mandate system]** - Voices of the colonial peoples ignored (Egypt, Korea, Vietnam, China) at Versailles - Mandate system as a compromise between Wilson and the colonial powers - Three types of mandate: A. B, C. **[After first world war]** - "Second colonial Occupation" beginning of the "development era" - Colonial Development and Welfare Act - Fonds d'Investissement pour le Développement Économique et Social - From conservation to (capitalist) transformation: expectations, divisions, protests, new solidarities - Institutional reforms in British India Chapter on book of colonization (period between the two world wars): read it! - Which factors are important for the beginning of the decolonization process: - **Economic investment:** In late 20s/ 30s but after WW2 this was put into force; TOP DOWN economic development: European countries decided to finance more development in colonies (emphasis on economic problems) - Colonies can contribute to the reconstruction in Europe, but most importantly to prevent the spread of communism in colonies. - The Soviets were putting pressure on the Europeans about the colonies, and so they had to show that they were doing something good; build schools, hospitals... - The response was resistance and decolonization. - **Anti-Colonial protest movement**: Civil resistance in some colonies, protest movements started to complain about political system and asked for political autonomy (e.g. in Algeria, Vietnam) - **Internationalization of colonies:** Paris and London wanted to keep their colonies, Woodrow Wilson didn't like it, also what to do with the German colonies? The compromise was the Mandate system. (first countries who won the war shared part of the ex-Germany colonies). - **Political reforms** **[7. Crisis and independence (India) ]** **[Political reforms in India ]** - 1885 formation of Indian National Congress (reformers) - The idea to convene a conference in Bombay to form a congress was made by a Scottish, closed to some groups of Indian elites. The congress was open to Hindus and Muslims (was it a radical movement?) No. The congress was not asking for land redistribution, but it was more than eager to get support from the Hindus and Muslim landowners. - Some years after the formation of the congress, the British implemented a number of political reforms (which led to the everlasting loop of protest) to involve more Indians in the political, legislative institutions in the local, provincial and national levels (open political space to Indians) = the reforms were the response of the expected reforms. - 1892 Indian Council Act (consultative councils) - A number of regional councils were created, they discussed the budget but did not have the power to vote to implement it (gradual process of independence) → the idea was to weaken the congress, which was looking for the support of civilians, by giving to these people a role in the government. The congress started to mobilize lots of people. - 1904 partition of Bengal → radicalization of Congress - The British took a dangerous decision regarding Bengal: the richest area of India populated by Hindus. They decided to split Bengal into two parts: one part was merged with another British possession (weaken the Hindus political activism in Bengal by allowing the Muslim community to join another Muslim state t create a counterbalance to Bengal). - What was the purpose to create this Muslim country: to weaken the congress, the Hindu political mobilization. This led to a religious split in India (no Indian nationalism but Hindu and Muslim nationalism, making them enemies of each other and this is still relevant in India today). Divide et Impera! - 1909 introduction of separate electorates - The divide of Bengal, the Hindus started to protest the government and start to kill the Muslims. The Muslim minority asked the British to create separate electorates for the elections. The Muslims thought that the congress could be a threat to them. - The end result of this religious division led that at independence we have two countries: Pakistan (what today is also Bangladesh but independent since 1971) for the Muslims and India for the Hindus. The other minorities were neglected. - 1919 constitutional reform → Gandhi demands independence - British implemented other reforms, political representation was broadened at the local and provisional level. These councils discussed policies, the budget but could not take decisions. Several local leaders were involved in these councils, but real power was still with the British. - Gandhi started a protest movement against these reforms and in 1920 started to ask for independence. Gandhi was active as a lawyer in South -Africa for almost 20 years. He fought against the segregation is SA, he was against the segregation of the Indians in SA, but he refused to work with African political movements in SA. According to Gandhi the Africans were not ready for self-rule. - In 1920 he started to ask for independence within the British empire. **[Towards independence]** - 1935 Government of India Act - More powers to the assemblies, to the councils at the provincial level. But the lapse system that was abolished after the Great Revolt, so a large part of India was under the rule of old princes' kind power holders (princely states). More representation for local people but the states still under the control of the old elites, the elite could free decide what political system to put in place. So, the elites were used as a tool to avoid the independence of India. - 1937 elections - Congress took part in the elections and won majority of the vote. They became the dominant party. - 1940 Jinnah proposed the formation of two countries - But Muslim politicians felt threatened by the large majority of the congress= the result 1940 **Jinnah,** a Muslim leader talked of two nations coexisting in India and the need to create an autonomous Muslim state within India, by unifying several Muslim political parties in India and asking to the British for a separate state on the basis of religion. - 1946 ad interim government led by Nehru - Coalition government was created under leadership of Nehru. The government found itself in a crisis, as it was impossible to choose the budget because of the split in Muslim and Hindu parties. - August 14^th^ 1947, independence - Violence between H and M: GB recognized independence of India in 1947: creation of Pakistan (east and West) with leader Jinnah and India - INC offered the old leaders (of 500 small/ big states a package (maintain part of their privileges in exchange for renouncing their sovereignty. - These privileges: royal persons could keep their land. - 496 states accepted. Hyderabad and Kashmir refused the deal. → Hyderabad was invaded by the Indian army in 1948, and it was annexed to India. - Kashmir war - Both India and Pakistan wanted Kashmir and until today it is still a sensitive issue. **[The protagonists]** **[Independence 1947]** **[Kashmir war]** **[Few words on Africa]** See pictures on slides! - 1958 referendum in French colonial Africa (Sékou Touré) - Great Britain tried the policy of "partnership" in Eastern and Southern Africa - 1957 Ghana, 1958 Guinea Conakry, 1960 French territories, 1960 Nigeria, 1961 Tanganyika, 1962 Uganda, 1963 Kenya, 1964 Zambia and Malawi - Some countries remained under colonial (Portugal) or white domination Lecture 8 (1/10) China from Empire to Mao **[Malesia ]** After WW2, what happened in Malesia has similarity to what happened in another country. Malesia was under the control of the British and in Malesia the British had ruled through indirect rule. A number of local Sultans were in power. Malesia was divided in several territories with each one having a sultan in power. After WW2, the British decided to offer to Malesia a union. The British tried to reorganize the colony by building a union between the different territories. The French did the same in Sub- Sahara Africa in the late 50's when they tried to establish a French African Union. In Malesia the union concerned only the territories of the colonies. Problems: the local rulers thought that not enough power was given to them in the Union. Maleya citizenship was going to be open to all the people who are living there. The ethnic Malesian people protested against this. Since, they wanted citizenship only for themselves and particularly an important minority in the country to get national independence. The problem here was that in Malesia there was the relevant Chinese minority. This minority had played a crucial role in the WW2 resistance against the Japanese invasion of Malesia. They had established a political party (The Malaysian people anti-Japanese party and army). They were the most active in the war and the British wanted to reward them by giving them citizenship, but the ethnic majority protested. The union was formed in 1946, in 1948 the British changed the Union into a federation (federation of Malesia). More powers were given to the Sultans and citizenship was only granted to the ethnic majority of the country. - In 1948 the Chinese minority started a guerilla war against the British and local rulers. This guerrilla movement was considered a big problem by the British, the war fought by the Chinese was fought on an ethnic basis and so for these rebels it was very difficult to persuade other groups of Malaysian people to join their guerilla movement. - The British decided to crush this movement. The British fought against the Chinese guerillas and implemented a number of policies that more or less in the same years, they implemented in another British colony: Kenya. The British wanted to strictly separate the guerillas from the rest of the Chinese population. To do so they not only build concentration camps but also new villages for the Chinese people. Half a million Chinese were deported into the new villages, they had to live their land and go live in these British army guarded villages. In the meantime, the British continued to find the Chinese guerilla movement, this deportation into the new villages started in 1950 and was organized through a plan called the **Briggs Plan.** The problem with the villages is that the places where they were, the peasants could not farm anything. The guerrilla war in Malesia ended in 1960. - According to the British these guerilla fighters were primitive people. It was a fight tradition against modernity, but in reality, the British wanted to keep the control of Malesia. In the early 50ths a similar strategy was used by the British in Kenya, where they were fighting the Mau Mau. - Mau Mau was the name given to the Kenyans by the British, they accused them of being superstition and fight the British. And so there is only one way dealing with them is killing them. These rebels in Kenya called themselves the Ithaka Na Wiathi (means land and freedom). These people were not fighting the British because they were not primitive or against modernization, they were fighting land expropriation and colonial rule. - These people when accused of being Mau Mau they could be hanged without any trial. Villages were also made for the local population. Hundreds of thousands of peasants were deported to these far away villages where they could not farm. There was not a lot of land so they would give land to the loyal people, cooperating with them. Early 20^th^ Century 80.000 Herero people were living in Namibia. The Germans did a genocide on the Herero people. **[China in transformation]** - 1644 Qing dynasty - 1793 Macarteney mission - 1839-1842 first opium war - 1842 Treaty of Nanking - 1859-1864 Taiping rebellion - 1857-1860 second opium war (1860 Beijing looted) - Territorial losses The problems that the Chinese emperor faced when the British and others started to put pressure on him because they wanted him to open the Chinese market to the Western companies. They also decided to take control of some small and important areas of China. Since the mid-17^th^ century China had been unified by the Qing dynasty after a period of internal wars and had build a strong centralized state and had expanded the borders of the empire. When in 1793 a British emperor went to China to establish diplomatic links with China and ask to open an embassy the answer of the emperor was No, we don't need you. The Chinese were not interested in trading with Britain in the late 18^th^ century. Things were going to change rapidly because from India the British started to put pressure on the Chinese empire. In 1839: the first opium war was fought against the Chinese and British. The British were illegally exporting opium into China. The problem was with the balance of payment between the two empires. British were importing from China, but the Chinese didn't import into China. So, the British tried to sell something into China which was Opium. In 1842 a peace treaty was signed, according to the peace treaty China was forced to open five ports to the Western companies. In 1729, 30 tons have been exported by the British into China. In 1870, 6000 tons. After the war, China was forced to open some of its port to foreign trade (Western private companies). On the basis of this agreement Hong Kong became a British possession. Trade monopolies in China were abolished. The European countries, little by little got the permission to establish extraterritorial concessions within China. These were areas where the Western Councils ruled and areas that were not under the control of the Chinese government. The Europeans were putting on one side on the Emperor, on the other side the political control of his territory became very weak. Taiping Rebellion: In 1859, a rebellion started within China against the government because of the economic problems, high taxes and a leader Hong Xiuquan that started to talk of the need to establish in China an egalitarian society. He took some of his idea from the gospel. He was talking about the need of an agrarian revolution. He talked about the need of the emperor to listen to the demand of the locals. The rebellions didn't last long in 1864 it ended, but 20 million people were killed. The rebellion was joined by Hong Xiuguan and he was able to convince the poor peasants to join its rebellion since they wanted to take the land from the big landowners. This rebellion put at risk the status quo. The British sided with the emperor, but at the same time they started to put pressure on him to grant them more concessions. The British didn't want the empire to collapse but at the same time they didn't want China again to become a strong country. In 1857 a second opium war started: China lost the war again and other eleven ports were opened to the European trade companies. Again, no taxes on European imports. **[Hong Xiuquan]** **[Taiping rebellion]** **[Territorial losses]** See pictures on slides! Lost part of Tributary states, states that were not formally under Chinese control, but they paid tribute to China. - Manchuria - Vietnam - Vietnam: when the French conquered North-Vietnam, the Chinese tried to do something, but they didn't fight the French, so it became a French colony and protectorate. So, no tribute was paid, China could not control the country as in the past. - Korea (1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki) - Korea: Was like Vietnam, the king was paying a tribute to the Chinese emperor. In 1894 a rebellion started within Korea and the king asked for help from Chinese emperor. Japan wanted to impose its influence into Korea. And when the Chinese army entered Korea so did the Japanese army. The Chinese fleed was destroyed and after the war Korea came under the tutelage (control) of Japan. In 1910 Korea was annexed to Japan. **[Russia in Manchuria]** See pictures in Slides! **[The end of an era]** - 1899-1901 Boxer revolt - New reform efforts - January 1°, 1912 republic. Yuan Shikai president In the very late 19^th^ century, the emperor tried to implement a modernization program. The emperor with the help of a number of young, educated people tried to implement a number of reforms. For example: they tried to build a modern system of administration. They tried to reform the army, they tried to promote industry. But the reforms were not very successful because: - Money and so they had to ask from money from the Western countries. - Established interest - External powers The situation internally was very problematic, the emperor was losing control of the country. A number of local war lords had cut some territory for themselves→ political fragmentation. Until several reform groups, terrorist... tired to build something new. In 1912, a republic was proclaimed (established) by a reformist San Yat Sen, and the emperor abdicated in favor of Yuan ShiKai. San Yat Sen was a politician without an army so he could not rule, and the new president became general Yuan ShiKai who was control of the Chinese army. San Yat Seit led him rule under the condition of a liberal constitution. However after seizing power, he didn't set up the liberal constitution. - Number one priority for Yan Shikai was power. Through getting rid of the war lords and centralizing power. - The big problem was that again he had to ask for money from the Western countries. So, China started to have a quite important debt with Western countries. It proved to be impossible for him to fight successively The War Lords who continued to control large parts of China. Little by little the situation became critical again. In order to get some money for the West, Yuan Shikai had to relinquish the control of the Chinese customs (Doane) to the foreign countries (Banks). He had to use a lot of the tax revenue to pay his debts back. **[CRISIS and conflict]** - 1916 Yuan Shikai died - When he died the country was heavily fragmented, there was still a president in China, but the president was a very weak institution. Since he didn't control most of the regions of the country. - 1916-1928 «Warlord era» - In reality power was in the hands of these regional Warlords. - 1921 creation of Chinese Communist Party - Something new started form the early 20ths, on the one side the creation of the Chinese Communist Party. At the beginning it was a weak and fragmented party with some members in the urban areas but very weak in the rural ones. - 1923 San Yat Sen (leader of Guomindang) established new government in Canton. Communists joint the regime. - Leader of the nationalist people's party. So, the nationalist people party will be in competition with the Chinese communist party. - Guomindang despite not being a communist party got help from the Soviet-Union, and therefore could strengthen its presence in the country. The Soviet-Union forced the communist party co cooperate with the Guomindang - 1926 Chiang Kai Shek led repression against CCP. Stalin's advice proved a disaster! -. When San Yat Sen died, new leaders came at the top of the Guomindang, among them was Chiang Kai Shek. He started in the Mid-20^th^ a military offensive against the warlords. He wanted to put them under control and unite the country, his military offensive was really successive to the point that he decided to attack not only the warlords but also the communist party. The communist party was organizing strikes, protest in some urban areas of China, so the communist party was considered a military problem but more important a political problem. Because he didn't want them to prevent him to become the ruler of the entire of China. Thousands of the communist members were killed by the troops of Chiang Kai Shek. - 1928 new government established in Nanjing - With Guomindang as the ruling party, this government faced a number of relevant challenges: see part on conflict and new republic. **[The protagonists]** - San Yat Sen - Chiang Kai Shek - Mao **[Conflicts and new republic]** - 1931 Japan annexed Manchuria - Since the early thirties Japan started to occupy regions of China. The government of Chiang Kai Shek in a difficult position not only because of the Japanese pressures but also because of the fact that the communist party had started its small guerilla war within China against the government. Chian Kai Shek tried to repress this communist guerilla war, and he said its army to occupy its strongholds (areas under the control of the communist party). Chian Kai Shek was quite successful because the communist party leadership was split with Mao wanting to be the leader but not everybody agreeing because they wanted to become leaders themselves. Some of the members were active in the urban areas but he said it was too dangerous and that they should be active in the rural areas and so he started his Long March. - 1934-1935 Long March - The reason for the March: leadership (power struggle within the party), to recruit more followers, to survive, 100 thousand soldiers followed him with in the end only a couple thousand surviving. But Mao was able to survive and got soviet military aid. - 1939 Japan launched invasion - CCP-Guomindang cooperation and conflict - Under Soviet pressure, Mao cooperated with the Guomindang against the Japanese. Mao cooperated with Chiang Kai Shek, but Mao during the war did a couple of things. - He consolidated his position (leadership) within the CCP by getting rid of other military leaders who he considered a threat to his power. - He fought in some areas against the Guomindang, so on one side formally there was cooperation but practically he got rid of some members of the Guomindang because Mao wanted power. - He also contacted the US for military aid, they did help them, they helped both parties because the idea was to help them fight Japan. There was a sort of equilibrium in China because both couldn't win against each other. This equilibrium was ended when Japan lost to the US. - Later SU entered the war with Japan. - February 11, 1945, Secret Yalta text - 1946-1949 civil war - War CCP and Guomindang continued for several years, and in 49, Mao proclaimed republic. - October 1^st^, 1949, Mao proclaimed People's Republic of China - Mao went to Moscow to talk to Stalin for close cooperation with SU and China- had to wait 1 month to see Stalin: result treaty of friendship: alliance, and mutual assistance between the 2= blow to the US because Truman was under pressure because of this cooperation he was accused of losing China. This was one of the reasons why the American reaction in Korea was very tough and serious and it was one of the reasons why the Americans decided to support the French in Vietnam against the national liberation war fought by the Vietnamese people. **[Second world war in china]** See picture on slides! Lecture 9 (7/10) **[Korean war]** **[Japan and Korea]** - 1905 Portsmouth Treaty between Japan and Russia opened the way to the imposition of a Japanese protectorate over Korea - 1910 annexation of Korea by Japan - Different strands of Korean nationalism developed (communist and anti-communist) - December 1945 Moscow Conference: Korea divided into two parts (38^th^ parallel) and placed under a Four-Power Trusteeship (the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and China) for a period of up to five years.  In the meantime, discussions concerning independence. - Two separate governments took powers - 1948 birth of People's Democratic Republic of Korea (Pyongyang**/**Kim Il-sung) and Republic of Korea (Seul/Syngman Rhee)µ After WW2: Korea in 2 parts Idea: for 5y it would be ruled by joined trusteeship commission (ex-Somalia), joined administration, after these years independence. Reality: 2 different governments and in 1948 two republics were established one in the North under the Communist leader Kim II- sung and a republic of Korea with Wester support. - 25/6/1950 North invaded the South - The North started an invasion of the South, Stalin at the beginning was not in favour of this invasion but North-Koreans asked him to support this idea because they wanted to unify the old country, and so Stalin gave his support. Stalin also involved the Chinese in the decision concerning the invasion of South Korea. Stalin trusted Mao until a certain point and he also wanted the Chinese to be fully committed to this military offensive. The Offensive was quite successful, since almost all of South Korea was conquered. - 25/6/1950 UNSC RES 82 - Soon after the Invasion started the UN asked for the withdrawal of the North Koreans and the security council recommended all the Member States to offer all needed assistance to the South in order to repel the military attack. The US was to lead an army supported (Truman) by the UN. SC reached consensus because Mao's China was not represented in the SC but the exile government in Taiwan and Soviet Union was boycotting the Security council so they couldn't say no. - The US send a to Taiwan. They did this to put pressure on China. At the same time Truman also the aid to the French in Vietnam intensified. In this way the cold war came to Asia and stayed there for many years. - 26/6/1950 US reactions - 27/6/1950 UNSC RES 83 - General MacArthur led offensive - Mac Arthur decided to attack he North-Koreans in Inc'on, he didn't go to the pocket of the south of South-Korea that was till under South Koreans rule. His move was really successful. - 28/9/1950 Seoul reconquered **[China enters the war]** - 30/9/1950 South crossed the 38° parallel - The American decided not to stop on the Parallel that was the division between North and South, but they went more to the North. This decision pushed China to send its army into Korea. - October 1950 China entered the war - Mao decided to enter the war, and the military offensive of the Chinese was quite successful→ Korea back divided in 2 parts. - Korea again divided along the 38° parallel - 10/7/1951 negotiations started - In 51, negotiations started to reach a compromise on the future of the country, when the ceasefire was established in June 1953 it was also decided to convene a conference now fighting has stopped. - 27/6/1953 cease-fire - 26/4/1954 opened Geneva Conference - Why a conference? Because the UN had the idea that in the future Korea had to be unified from the South to the North, lets expand the institution of the South to the North. The North however had the idea that it should be unified with the expansion of the North institutions to the South. This conference was also going to discuss the future of Indochina, another Asian country: Vietnam. During the conference in early May, the information reached Geneva that the French have been defeated in Vietnam. (A link between China, Korea, Vietnam, Algeria). After Vietnam, the independence movement in Algeria started. **[Division of Korea]** See pictures on slides **[Effects]** - Militarization of Europe →NATO + US military presence - Credibility of US intact - Integration of former enemies (Japan + Germany) within Western military umbrella - China showed that it could withstand US military power - Stronger cooperation between China and Soviet Union, but China now a competitor for the leadership of the communist movement - Consolidation of two different regimes in Korea Historians agree that the Soviet-Union was the country that gained the less out of the Korean War. Stalin wanted to shift their movement and focus from Europe to Asia. As soon as the War started, the Americans decided to make some moves in Europe (for example: Germany becoming a member of NATO). Credibility of Asia committed to fight against communism (see Korea), accelerated the normalisation of relations with Japan. China had shown that it was a military power, it had fought against US (with SU military aid but Mao's China had emerged now as a communist power. The Soviet-Union and China were cooperating for some years, but these countries had different ideas. When Khruschev became the leader, talking about a peaceful coexistence, criticizing Stalin he was criticized by Mao as a result a split between the two started to deepen. Lecture 10 (8/10) First vietnam war **[2° world war]** - 1940 Japan invaded Indochina - Japan did not rule Vietnam directly, but it used the French officials to rule the country during WW2. The Vietnamese people fought against the Japanese occupation and in particular one of the main groups to fight against the Japanese was the one led by Ho Chi Minh. - 1941 Vietminh created (led by Ho Chi Minh) - There was a cooperation between Ho Chi Minh and the US. - March 1945 emperor Bao Dai declared independence (with support of Japan) - The Government was not recognized by Western countries later. On his side Ho Chi Min declared independence for Vietnam in 1945. After WW2, Ho Chi Minh together with other leaders had asked Versailles to do some things for example to grant an armistice to the political prisoners in Vietnam, and a reform of the Justice system to guarantee the equality of the Western and Vietnamese people. Freedom of the press, freedom of association, more education. A Vietnamese delegation to have access to the French Parliament, so they can present the needs of the Vietnamese people. These moderate reforms were not implemented, and Ho Chi Minh gradually adopted a more radical attitude. - When declaring independence, he was still referring to the US, because he thought he could establish support from them. - At Potsdam (16/7-2/8 1945) decided to divide Vietnam along 16^th^ parallel - The Northern part of Vietnam was put under control of the Chinese army. The Southern part was put under control of the British army. - Ho Chi Minh wanted a united Vietnam, but the winners of the Cold War voted for leave it split. - The Chinese in 1946 withdrew from Northern Vietnam, while in the South the British withdrew but provided military support to the French troops in loco. The North and the South had to find a way to coexist. - September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared Democratic Republic of Vietnam **[The war]** - March 1946 agreement between France and Ho Chi Minh - In March 46 an agreement was found between France and Ho Chi Minh = the French Government recognized the republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh, later on they held a referendum to discuss the future of the South. The Republic of the North was recognized but French troops remained there, moreover, the French recognized the independence of the South - December 1946 war started - At the end of 1946 a war started between the French and Ho Chi Minh troops, in the North he was ruling in a non-revolutionary way, no communist politicians were in government together with his one, so he allowed other political parties. He started a land reform that was not a radical one, the land that the settlers had abandoned was taken by the state and redistributed among the peasants. Here again, this was a communist party who wanted to show that it was willing to cooperate with non-communist forces. For some years the French and Northern (Ho Chi Minh troops) were fighting each other for several years without significant foreign aid. In 1946/1947, the French tried different military aids but not successful, and since '48 the war recorded an impasse. - USA militarily supported French army in Vietnam - Only in '50s foreign powers got involved in the War. The Soviets and the Chinese sent military aid to Ho Chi Minh. - China/Soviet Union provided military help to Vietminh - Why does China just now support the war? Due to China's proclamation of independence and its involvement in the Korean War. The Soviet Union had already tested their atomic bombs and felt safe to take part in the conflict. The US in 1950 decided to provide military support in Vietnam on the French side (stop the spread of communism in Asia). The US however had several doubts regarding the French administration n Vietnam. - 1954 Geneva conference \-\-- in parallel, battle of Dien Bien Phu - The French proved unable to win the war→ late '53 discussing the future of Vietnam at the Geneva Conference (1954), which started during the battle of Dien Bien Phu= Vietnamese Won. **[Dien Bien Phu 1954]** See pictures on slides! Giap is a historical figure he stayed in government long after the independence of Vietnam. **[1954 Geneva conference]** - China e Soviet Union accepted division of Vietnam - During the conference, western countries needed to face the problem of France's defeat (the US secretary left the room.) But what about Vietnam? Ho Chi Minh hoped that the Soviet-Union and China would support his demand for the unification of Vietnam under his leadership. But the Soviets and Chinese in Geneva, decided to accept the continued division of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh felt betrayed. The Soviets were not really interest in the future of Vietnam, and the Chinese didn't want to antagonize the US. In the final agreement Vietnam was still divided into two, and in two years' time elections would be held and new discussions on the future of the country. Despite the agreement in the South a government was formed and in 56 with a referendum (organized by Diem), the emperor lost power and a republic was established (ruled by the Diem brothers in an extreme authoritarian manner). In the South no elections but a new republic, in the North after Geneva, Ho chi Minh could consolidate his control and a new war soon to start between the North and the South. - End of French colonialism in Indochina - Two governments in Vietnam. 10 bis- Algeria **[Opposition in the 1920s]** - Three strands of local opposition - Leftist - Algeria didn't only need independece from the French but also a social revolution. - Assimilationist - Some of the leaders were opposing the French Government because they were asking for assimilation. - Islamist - Islam was a unifying factor for the people of Algeria. - France refused to introduce political reforms - They refused to implement serious reforms after WW2 and they had to face the opposition of 1 million French settlers that were living in Algeria. - 1 million French settlers in the country («pieds-noirs») against granting independence to the African majority. French tried to repress the political movements and political parties, the Algerians had created in November of 1954 a new organization called the National Liberation Front, they started a national liberation war in Algeria. **[National liberation War]** - 1° November 1954 (after Dien Bien Phu) National Liberation Front declared liberation war - 1956/7 Battle of Algiers - NLF s a coherent political agenda - 1958 creation of a provisional government - The 4th Republic crumbled. 1958 De Gaulle returned to power. - March 1962 Evian Agreement - July 1962 independence National Liberation Front didn't have a clear political program, most of its leaders were not highly educated and most of its leaders lacked a clear political vision for the future of the country. The priority was now fighting against the French. The NFL started from Algeria, and the mission ended in a complete failure. The NFL had a difficult life in the urban centers of Algeria and had to fight in the rural areas, and had to fight from its basis in Tunisia, Marocco etc. The National Liberation front could not win the war, but the French could also not defeat the Front. The French found itself in a serious political crisis, and in 58, De Guale returned to power, and from a right position could lead to a peace agreement with the National Liberation front and the French Government. Algeria became independent in July 62. The French could keep some troops on Algerian territory, and they kept the control of the Gas and Oil industry. One Million people were killed between 54 and 62. **[Ben Bella president]** - Authoritarianism (1963 constitution, trade union under the single party) - The NLF got power in the country after independece, the first president was Ben Bella. - One of his first decision, the trade union movement was put under the control of the National Liberation Front who was the only legal party in the country. This should shock us because they fought for liberation and freedom, but one of the first decisions was to put the trade union under the control of the only legal party in the country. The Message: in Algeria but also countries in the South, the independence was followed by authoritarian governments. - State Building: strengthening the institutions of the state. - Why authoritarianism became the most popular way for many governments in the South to pursue State Building. - To overcome the institutional legacy of colonialism (forget about tribalism by building a strong centralized institutions). - Democracy could represent a new threat too their country= democracy gives voices to marginalized and minorities, while the aim is to abolish Pluralism and create a natin which can be identified with the main party. - The Legacy of the armed struggle made people to believe that they had the right to rule without sharing it with anyone. - Personalism - No clear political agenda - Limited land reform - Ben Bella concentrated power in his hand and he didn't implement any nationalization, and he implemented a very limited land reform. He didn't want to expropriate the land from the rich landowner, as he need their support and so contented himself with redistributing some of the land that the Settlers have left when they left the country. - The peasants couldn't just use the land how they wished for, but they had to follow the order of the local states on how to use the land. **[Regime change]** - June 1965 military coup - A general, the head of the Armed forces of Algeria, made a military coup and became the president. - Houari Boumediene in power - He was president until 78. He was the leader of the army; he took power and then organize elections and could rule Algeria as a civilian leader. He was an authoritarian leader as he kept the one-party state system. - Boumediene thought that Politics had to shape economics. According to Boumediene, the government of Algeria (politics) had to shape the economic system of the country. He was one of the leaders of the South who thought that the end of the position of the economic dependency of the South could be brought about by an active policy of these countries in the South. GOVERNMENTS MUST DISCIPLINE THE INTERNAL AND INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY. The global South exported primary commodities, such as oil and gas, but remained poor. Boumediene was in favor of a strong cooperation between the global south to re-shape the economy at the international level. - Elections, but with only one party and with the military in control of the state - Government must fight against economic - dependence (heavy industry, nationalizations) - New International Economic Order - 1978 died