Nervous System PDF

NERVOUS SYSTEM o Internal—blood pressure, oxygen level, and movement System is the principal control of...

NERVOUS SYSTEM o Internal—blood pressure, oxygen level, and movement System is the principal control of organs and communication system in Specialized sensory receptors or animals organs (eyes, ears, skin) – detects o Enables perception of stimuli from either inside or outside; stimuli—you are able to they can be different types feel or know that there is o Mechanoreceptor: detects something going on pressure, vibration, around you (senses felt movement against your skin) o Photoreceptor: detects light o Coordination of (usually found in eyes) responses and o Chemoreceptors: detects integration of body chemical signals function o Thermoreceptors: detects Crucial for survival, adapting to changes in temperature the environment, and o Nociceptors: responsible for maintaining homeostasis detecting pain or any harmful o The complexity and stimuli organization of the Sensory neurons or sensory nervous system vary receptors—transmit the information across different animal as nerve impulses into the central phyla reflecting their nervous system for processing evolutionary o Ex. You smell something from adaptations. afar, your receptors will tell KEY FUNCTIONS: your brain that “ oh I am smelling something” once 1.) SENSORY INPUT received by the brain there 2.) INTEGRATION will be an action resulting 3.) MOTOR OUTPUT from the receptor 4.) HOMEOSTATIS 5.) BEHAVIORAL REGULATION INTEGRATION Performs several interconnected functions to in the nervous system refers to the ensure the organism can survive and adapt to processing and interpretation of sensory any situation information. It involves: SENSORY INPUT Determining significance of sensory input. Involves detecting changes in the environment whether it is both Interpreting meaning to understand external or internal the information. o External—light, sound Deciding appropriate responses temperature, or touch of based on the context or need. another specie This function enables the body to make MOTOR OUPUT informed decisions and coordinate actions. Activates (muscles or glands) to Specifically works by your brain and produce response based on the spinal cord (which is the centra; sensory input and integration nervous system)—receives sensory Example: input and interpret it could be: o There is fire, you hear it— o SUBCONSCIOUS integration will think that INTEGRATION there is an emergency o CONSCIOUS INTEGRATION o Motor output is you doing the action of you removing SUBCONSCIOUS INTEGRATION: yourself from the danger o These are stimuli (whatever Affects different parts of the body: happens inside or outside o Glands the body) that you don’t o Reflexes necessarily need to actively Has two types think about o VOLUNTARY MOTOR o Mainly by spinal cord or OUTPUT brain cell o INVOLUNTARY MOTOR o Ex. Reflexes (automatic OUTPUT response) VOLUNTARY MOTOR OUTPUT ▪ Based on previous o Voluntary motor output experiences involves conscious control, ▪ Subconscious where you think about thinking of the brain performing an action before actually doing it. It is CONSCIOUS INTEGRATION: regulated by the somatic o Happens in the higher brain nervous system. region (cerebral cortes) for INVOLUNTARY MOTOR OUTOUT voluntary responses o Autonomic and occurs without o Information that you learn conscious control. or seek can be embedded in your brain as memories, o Primarily regulates internal previous experiences or organs (e.g., heart, glands, current goals for decision smooth muscles). making o Controlled by the autonomic o The brain will also process information from inside or nervous system (sympathetic outside of the body on what and parasympathetic divisions). to do with it based on current information HOMEOSTATIS o Control center of the nervous system The maintenance of stable internal o Consists of the brain and spinal conditions despite external changes. cord—responsible for Example: Stabilizing body processing sensory information, temperature. integrating input and generating a certain response o Sweating: Releases heat to o Usually protected by a skull cool the body in a hot (cranium), bone or vertebrae environment. and is 3 layered BEHAVIORAL REGULATION membrane(meninges) and Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) The nervous system influences and controls (cushioning and nourishing it)— behaviors by regulating: also keeps brain from being Instinctual, learned, and complex fresh and to not dry out behaviors to ensure survival and o FUNCTIONS: reproduction. ▪ Receives and processes sensory input Example: Developing sexual desires Collects data from the at maturity as an instinctive drive for body and the reproduction, guided by behavioral environment via regulation. sensory neurons GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS ▪ Initiates and regulates motor SYSTEM output Sends commands to 1.) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) your muscle and plans 2.) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM your action (PNS) ▪ Learning, memory, and CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM behavior o The CONTROL CENTER of the Serves as a seat of nervous system cognition, memory ▪ Nervous system is organized formation and into two primary behavioral responses components: Central Nervous COMPONENTS OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous Brain System (PNS) o The most complex organ in the ▪ These systems work body, divided into specific regions together to ensure seamless that control various function communication, ▪ Usually protected by the coordination and regulation cranium/skull, of the body functions ▪ Consists of billions of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM neurons and glial cells Regions o FOREBRAIN (PROSENCEPHALON) Breathing ▪ Cerebrum (largest part— Digestion responsible for the higher cognitive function, sensory perception, voluntary motor Specialized Feature activities, and decision 1.) LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE making) 2.) CRANIAL NERVES ▪ Thalamus—relay sensory 3.) SPINAL CORD and motor signals in the o LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE cerebral cortex ▪ The brain is divided into two ▪ Hypothalamus—regulates hemispheres, connected by homeostasis, controlling the corpus callosum, hunger, thirst, temperature ▪ Corpus callosum facilitates and hormonal release via communication between the pituitary gland hemispheres. Limbic system: o CRANIAL NERVES governs the emotion, ▪ 12 pairs of cranial nerves memory and from the brain (human) motivation ▪ Performs specialized functions such as: o MIDBRAIN (MESENCEPHALON) Controlling eye ▪ Acts as a relay station movement between the sensory input Movement of other and motor output parts of the body ▪ Contains structures like o SPINAL CORD tectum and tegmentum ▪ Serves as the o Involved in visual and auditory communication highway reflexes, movement and between the brain and body. coordination ▪ Cylindrical structure o HIND BRAIN (PHOMBECEPHALON) extending from the ▪ Also known as brainstem to the vertebral rhombencephalon column ▪ Composed of part of the ▪ Whatever the body feels it cerebellum will pass through the spinal Controls fine motor cord before it reaches the coordination, balance brain and posture ▪ Main Function: ▪ Pons—which connects Send signal or different parts of the brain perform signal and regulates sleep and transmission respiratory rhythms. Relays sensory ▪ Medulla Oblongata— information to the manages the involuntary brain and motor process such as: commands to the Heart rate body  Consists of nerves (bundles of axons) and ganglia (clusters of neuron cell bodies) outside the CNS. o PNS connects CNS to the rest of the o FUNCTIONS: body ▪ Signal Transmission o Links sensory receptors, muscles and ▪ Processes reflex actions glands to the brain and the spinal independently for faster cord responses ▪ Most reflexes does not reach Stimuli pass through the PNS first, then the the brain; most of the time spinal cord, before reaching the brain. the spinal cord already knows what to do; body acts FUNCTION: immediately o Transmits sensory data to the CNS o ANATOMY: o Carries motor commands from the 1.) GRAY MATTER CNS to effectors 2.) WHTE MATTER o Coordinates voluntary and 3.) SPINAL NERVER involuntary responses. ▪ GRAY MATTER Inner butterfly-shaped DIVISIONS OF THE PNS region 1.) SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM contains neuron cell 2.) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM bodies ▪ WHITE MATTER SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Outer-region o Controls voluntary movements by Composed of activating skeletal muscles. myelinated axons and o COMPONENTS: conduct signals o Sensory Afferent Pathway: ▪ SPINAL NERVES Transmits sensory information Paired nerves (e.g., touch, pain, temperature) emerged from the from receptors in the body to the spinal cord central nervous system (CNS) for Each are responsible processing. for motor and sensory o Motor Efferent Pathway: function. (in specific Delivers motor commands from regions of the body) the CNS to muscles and glands, enabling movement and responses. COMPONENTS OF THE PERIPHERAL AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) o Regulates involuntary physiological PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM processes o Including: heart rate, digestion and glandular secretion  o Movement of the eyes may NOTE: CNS and PNS are interdependent with be controls by both somatic each other—CNS acts as a control center, and autonomic NS PNS serves as a communication network; o DIVISIONS: ensuring that body is connected to the brain o Sympathetic division and the spinal cord ▪ Fight or Flight CELL TYPES IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ▪ Prepares your body for stressful or - The different types of cells in your emergency situation nervous system are the one responsible ▪ Increases heartrate, for the diverse function of the brain dilates pupil, inhibit digestion, mobilize NEURONS energy o Most common type of cell ▪ Adrenaline Rush The primary functional units of the o Parasympathetic division nervous system ▪ Rest and Digest Specialized for electrical and ▪ Promotes relaxation chemical signals across the body. and conserves energy STRUCTURE: o Example: You touched something CELL BODY hot—stimulates fight or flight, once DENDRTIES you have calmed down, it is the AXON parasympathetic division telling you MYELIN SHEATH to rest or everything is alright AXON TERMINALS COMPARISON OF CNS VS PNS CELL BODY FEATURE CNS PNS COMPONENTS Contains the nucleus with genetic Brain and Nerves and spinal cord ganglia material and organelles. FUNCTION Integration Communication Responsible for the neuron's and and metabolic and synthetic activities. decision- coordination making Produces proteins and PROTECTION Enclosed by No bony neurotransmitters. skull, protection, vertebrae, more DENDRITES meninges vulnerable o Branch-like extensions that receives SIGNAL Processes Transmits DIRECTION the signals from other neurons or and relays signals to sensory receptors signals and from the CNS o Highly branched to increase the SPECIALIZATION Higher Sensory and surface area of communication cognitive motor signal functions, transmission reflex arcs AXON Neurons are positioned beside each other and communicate through o A long cylindrical structure that axons (which send information) and conducts electrical impulses (action dendrites (which receive potential) away from the cell body information). o It can vary in length (mm, over a meter long) The communication occurs at the synapse, where neurotransmitters MYELIN SHEATH are released by the axon terminals o Fatty layer that is produced by the and received by the dendrites of the oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) or next neuron. Schwann cells (in the PNS). TYPES OF NEURONS o To insulate the axon increasing the speed of electrical signal o Structural classification transmission through conduction o Unipolar o Signals "jump" between gaps o Bipolar in the myelin (called nodes of o Pseudo unipolar Ranvier) through a process o Multipolar called saltatory conduction, making transmission more efficient. AXON TERMINALS Located at the end of the axon. Contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. Release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft to communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands. Signal Transmission Process: Unipolar Neurons: 1. Dendrites: Receive information and send it toward the cell body. Have a single process extending from 2. Cell Body: Processes the signal and sends it to the axon. the cell body. Found in invertebrates and some 3. Axon: Carries the signal, which is accelerated by the myelin sheath sensory neurons. through saltatory conduction (jumping between nodes of Ranvier). Bipolar Neurons: 4. Axon Terminals: Transmit the signal to the next neuron, muscle, or gland Have two processes: one axon and via synaptic end bulbs near the one dendrite. dendrites of the next neuron. Found in sensory organs like the retina and olfactory system. Pseudounipolar Neurons: NEURAL COMMUNICATION VIDEO Have a single process that splits into Overview two branches (one acts as a dendrite, Neurons are specialized cells that the other as an axon). transmit information within the Common in sensory neurons of the nervous system. peripheral nervous system (e.g., dorsal root ganglia). They are arranged in complex networks and circuits, enabling Multipolar Neurons: thoughts, sensations, and actions. Have one axon and multiple Neurons transmit information using dendrites. two distinct molecular processes: Most common type, found in the 1. Chemical signaling via brain and spinal cord. neurotransmitters. 2. Electrical signaling via action Functional Classification of Neurons: potentials. 1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons): 1. Chemical Signaling: Neurotransmitter o Transmit signals from the Transmission body to the CNS (not the Signals are passed between neurons brain to the body). using chemical messengers called o Detect stimuli like touch, neurotransmitters. temperature, and pain. This occurs at the synapse, the 2. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons): convergence point of two neurons. o Carry signals from the CNS o Synaptic cleft: A small gap to muscles or glands to between two neurons where trigger action. neurotransmitters are released. 3. Interneurons: Process: o Found exclusively in the CNS. o Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the o Connect sensory and motor axon terminal. neurons, playing a key role in processing and integration o The neuron releases these of information. neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. o Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the next neuron, initiating a response. Example: These channels act as gatekeepers, opening or closing in response to Glutamate: A neurotransmitter changes in membrane voltage. involved in pain signaling and other pathways. Action Potential Process: o When glutamate binds to its 1. Trigger: receptor, it opens ion o The influx of ions caused by channels, allowing ions to neurotransmitter binding enter the neuron. changes the membrane voltage. 2. Electrical Signaling: Action Potentials 2. Sodium Channels Open: The ionic influx caused by o Voltage-gated sodium neurotransmitter binding initiates the channels detect this change action potential, the second signaling and open, allowing sodium process. ions to flow into the neuron. Resting State of the Neuron: o Sodium flows down concentration and charge Ionic gradients: gradients, amplifying the o Sodium (Na⁺) is dominant signal. outside the neuron. 3. Positive Feedback Loop: o Potassium (K⁺) is dominant o More sodium channels open, inside the neuron. creating a self-propagating Charge gradient: signal. o The outside of the neuron is o This rapid amplification is the more positively charged action potential. compared to the inside. o Inside the neuron, the 3. Termination of the Action Potential positive charges are balanced by cellular proteins, which To prepare for the next signal, the carry a net negative charge. neuron must reset: Gradients are maintained by the 1. Sodium channels close: sodium-potassium pump, which: ▪ At a critical point, o Pumps 3 sodium ions out sodium channels and 2 potassium ions in, inactivate, blocking using energy from ATP. further sodium entry. Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: 2. Potassium channels open: ▪ Voltage-gated potassium channels  open, allowing diffusing to the next potassium ions to neuron. flow out, restoring voltage balance. Key Components of Neural Communication 3. Sodium-Potassium Pump: 1. Neurotransmitters: Chemical ▪ Restores ionic messengers carrying signals across gradients by synapses. pumping sodium out and potassium in (3:2 2. Gradients: ratio). o Concentration gradients of 4. Refractory Period: sodium, potassium, and chloride ions. ▪ Sodium channels reset their o Charge gradients across the inactivation gates, neuronal membrane. preparing for the next action potential. 3. Ion Channels: Gatekeepers for ion traffic, critical for action potential generation. 4. Neurotransmitter Release at the Axon 4. Sodium-Potassium Pump: Maintains Terminal ionic balance and restores gradients. Once the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers neurotransmitter release: Summary Neural communication is a 1. Calcium Influx: synchronized process involving: ▪ Voltage-gated o Chemical signaling at calcium channels open, allowing synapses via calcium ions to flow neurotransmitters. into the neuron. Electrical signaling through action 2. Vesicle Fusion: potentials (rapid change in the membrane potential caused by the ▪ Calcium activates movements of the ion) proteins that Ions activate the axon, triggering the mediate the fusion of synaptic vesicles release of neurotransmitters from with the membrane. the axon terminal. At the synapse, these 3. Neurotransmitter Release: neurotransmitters cross the gap and ▪ Neurotransmitters are received by the next neuron. are released into the synaptic cleft,  The signal travels through the parts MICROFLIA of the receiving neuron (dendrites, EPENDYMAL CELLS cell body, axon) until it reaches its SATELLITE CELLS axon terminal. ASTROCYCTES The process repeats as the second neuron communicates with the third, Star-shaped cells that provide continuing the cycle. structural and metabolic support to neurons These mechanisms, powered by ion Maintains blood-brain barrier by gradients, pumps, and channels, controlling the passage of substances work in harmony to create a between the bloodstream and the continuous signaling network in the brain nervous system. Regulates synaptic activity by recycling the neurotransmitters and CELL TYPES IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM modulate ion concentration and in GLIAL CELLS the extracellular fluid o Often called neuroglia, are OLIGODENDROCYTES AND SCHWANN CELLS non-neuronal cells that provide support, protection, Produce myelin (component of and insulation to neurons myelin sheath—protective fatty layer o Essential role in maintaining in the axon), a lipid-rich insulating the health and functionality layer around axons of the nervous system Oligodendrocytes can only by found o Also, part of the immune in the CNS system of the body that Schwann Cells are found in the PNS protects the brain FUNCTIONS: MICROGLIA o Provide structural support for Function as the immune cells of the neurons. central nervous system (CNS). o Regulate the extracellular environment (e.g. ion Digest debris, pathogens, and balance, neurotransmitter damaged cells to maintain CNS recycling). health. o Insulate axons to facilitate Release signaling molecules during faster signal transmission. inflammation to regulate immune o Protect the nervous system responses and repair. from pathogens and injury. o Participate in repair and EPENDYMAL CELLS regeneration processes. Line the ventricles of the brain and TYPES OF GLIAL CELLS the central canal of the spinal cord Produces and circulates the ASTROCYTES Cerebrospinal Fluid (cushions the OLIGODENDROCYTES AND brain and spinal cord and removes SCHWANN CELLS the waste product)  Found only in the CNS PROCESS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM SATELLITE CELLS Generation of Nerve Impulses (Action Potential) Surround neuron cell bodies in The nervous system perceives, ganglia processes, and responds to stimuli Found in the PNS through two key processes: Regulates exchange of nutrients and o Nerve impulse generation wastes between the neuron and the (action potential). environment o Synaptic transmission. Both depend on precise COMPARISON OF NEURONS AND coordination of electrical and GLIAL CELLS chemical signals between FEATURE NEURONS GLIAL neurons. CELLS FUNCTION Signal Support, NERVE IMPULSE GENERATION transmission protection, (ACTION POTENTIAL) and repair What Is an Action Potential? EXCITABILITY Excitable Non- o Action potentials are (generate excitable electrical signals generated action and transmitted along potentials) neurons, allowing TYPES Sensory, Astrocytes, communication within the motor, microglia, nervous system. interneurons oligodendr ocytes, etc. REGENERATIVE Limited in Capable of Phases of the Action Potential ABILITY most cases division and repair Resting Potential LOCATION CNS and PNS CNS and o The neuron is at rest and PNS maintains a polarized membrane (a difference in charge across the Neurons and glial cells work together to membrane). maintain the nervous system's functionality. o The sodium-potassium Glial cells create an optimal environment for neurons by: pump establishes this polarization by pumping Regulating the surroundings. sodium (Na⁺) out and Removing waste. potassium (K⁺) in. Providing insulation (e.g., myelin). Depolarization o When a stimulus arrives, Neurons depend on glial cells for survival and sodium channels open, efficient communication. allowing sodium ions to flow in, increasing the neuron's voltage.  o This change triggers the 1. Role of Synaptic Vesicles electrical signal to travel o Synaptic vesicles in the axon from the cell body along the terminal contain axon. neurotransmitters, which Repolarization carry information. o After the peak voltage is 2. Travel of the Signal o The action potential travels reached, potassium channels along the axon to the axon open, allowing potassium terminal. ions to flow out, restoring o At the terminal, the charge difference. neurotransmitters are Hyperpolarization released from the axon into o Sometimes, too much the synaptic cleft (the small potassium leaves the neuron, gap between neurons). causing the voltage to drop 3. Neurotransmitter Release below the resting level. o The neurotransmitters bind o The neuron then stabilizes to docking proteins on the and returns to its resting membrane of the next potential. neuron. o Calcium ions trigger the Cycle Repeats vesicles to fuse with the axon o The neuron is ready for the terminal membrane, next action potential once it releasing neurotransmitters resets. into the synaptic cleft. 4. Signal Transfer This process ensures the neuron can o Neurotransmitters diffuse generate and propagate signals across the synaptic cleft and continuously for communication bind to specific receptors on within the nervous system. the dendrites of the next neuron. 5. Triggering the Next Neuron o This binding initiates the electrical cycle (resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization) in the next neuron. o The process repeats, propagating the signal until it reaches its final destination, SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION such as the muscles or the brain. Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate with one another, as This synchronized electrical and chemical well as with effectors like muscles and communication allows efficient signaling glands. across the nervous system.  sensory ADAPTATION ACROSS ANIMAL organs. PHYLA Vary from simple (e.g., clams) to Type of highly Key Example Diverse Phylum Nervous developed Snails, Features Organisms Mollusca nervous System systems (e.g., Octopuses systems octopuses) Use with a brain specialized and giant cells axons. (choanocytes) Decentralized No nervous and chemical Radial nerve ring Porifera Sponges system signaling to Starfish, Sea Echinodermata nerve and radial Urchins coordinate network nerves; lacks water flow a true brain. and particle capture. Highly developed Simplest form brain and Centralized of nervous spinal cord; Fish, Birds, Chordata nervous Mammals system; dorsal hollow system decentralized nerve cord Jellyfish, network of characteristic Cnidaria Nerve net Sea neurons of phylum. Anemones allowing bidirectional The effectiveness and complexity of the signal transmission. nervous system in different species or animal phyla are closely linked to the Centralized system with level of cognitive function they exhibit. paired Platyhel- Ladder-like longitudinal Flatworms Vertebrates: These animals tend to nervous (e.g., minthes nerve cords have higher cognitive abilities, such system Planaria) and transverse as reasoning, which is due to their commissures. more advanced and specialized Nerve ring central nervous system (CNS) and surrounds the Ring and pharynx; peripheral nervous system (PNS). Roundworm Nematoda longitudinal longitudinal s These systems are designed to nerve cords cords coordinate support complex functions, including movement. memory, learning, and problem- Brain solving, which are necessary for (cerebral ganglia) and advanced behaviors. ventral nerve Ganglionic cord with The structure of the nervous system Earthworm Annelida nervous segmental in these animals allows for the s, Leeches system ganglia; enables local execution of higher-order processes, and enabling them to interpret and coordinated control. respond to their environment in Large brain, sophisticated ways. ventral nerve cord with Advanced This higher cognitive function reflects specialized Insects, ganglionic Arthropoda nervous ganglia for Crustacean the evolutionary development of the local s system processing; nervous system, which has become highly more sophisticated over time to help developed  organisms better adapt to and thrive ▪ Impaired in a constantly changing decision-making environment. and overall brain function. In short, the evolution of the nervous Long-Term Effects of Elevated system in vertebrates enables them to Temperatures: perform more complex tasks, helping o Chronic exposure to them survive and adapt to their elevated temperatures surroundings more effectively. can cause prolonged neural inefficiency, EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING where brain function AND POLLUTION IN NERVOUS becomes less effective over time. SYSTEM o Persistent heat stress GLOBAL WARMING may lead to long-lasting impairments in motor THERMAL STRESS skills and cognitive functions. Temperature Sensitivity of Enzymes and Synaptic BEHAVIORAL CHANGES Processes: o Enzymes that regulate Disruption in Navigation: synaptic activity and neural processes are Many animals, such as birds, turtles, highly temperature- and fish, use thermal cues for dependent. navigation (e.g., using temperature o Shifts in temperature gradients to find food or migrate). (either colder or hotter) Extreme temperatures can interfere can alter enzyme activity, with these cues, leading to: affecting signal o Disorientation. transmission and neural o Difficulty in following function. migration routes. Effects on Ectothermic Animals: o Inability to locate food or o Ectothermic animals nesting areas. (e.g., reptiles, amphibians, and fish) Cognitive Impairment: rely on external temperatures for Learning and memory can be regulating body heat. significantly reduced under thermal o Extreme heat can disrupt stress. enzyme activity, The brain's ability to process stimuli impairing neural effectively is hampered, reducing the processes like signal animal's capacity to respond to transmission, leading to: environmental changes. ▪ Reduced reaction time. ▪ Coordination issues. Thermoregulation Changes: NERVOUS SYSTEM ADAPTATION ACROSS PHYLA TO ENVIRONMENTAL Thermoregulation (maintaining body CHALLENGES temperature) becomes less effective in extreme conditions. CNIDARIA Animals might become unable to maintain optimal body temperature, Simple Neural Plasticity: resulting in: o Jelly fish adjust their o Impaired metabolism. swimming and feeding o Reduced coordination and patterns in response to movement. warmer waters or low oxygen levels. Impact of Climate Change on o Neural plasticity allows them Disorientation: to thrive in environments where other species struggle, Climate change exacerbates thermal such as oxygen-depleted stress, leading to higher “dead zones” temperatures that overwhelm natural thermoregulation. MOLLUSCA This can result in: o Disorientation during Cephalopod Adaptability seasonal migrations. o Cephalopods like octopuses o Difficulty in finding suitable and squids display advanced habitats, leading to decline neural adaptation, including in survival rates. learning and problem solving, enabling them to POLLUTION survive in polluted or warming waters Neurotoxicity by Heavy metals o Neural Flexibility allows rapid and Organic Pollutants changes in behavior, such as o Can cause a lot of illness camouflage adjustments and o If we ingest harmful altered feeding techniques toxins, it can affect how ARTHROPODA our nervous system function Resilience Through Rapid Neural Sensory Impairment Adjustments: o Ocean Acidification and o Insects adapt their nervous Noise Pollution systems to survive warming conditions, expanding their ADAPTATIONS TO POLLUTION: range into previously cooler o Resistance Development habitats. o Behavioral Shift o Neural mechanisms governing fight and thermoregulation are fine- tuned to handle fluctuating temperatures. CHORDATA Complex Neuroendocrine Response o Mammals exhibit sophisticated neuroendocrine adaptations, such as hormonal shifts (e.g. increased cortisol) to manage stress from temperature extremes o Behavioral flexibility, mediated by the brain, allows mammals to modify foraging migration, and shelter-seeking behavior in response to climatic changes.