NCERT Class 11 Sociology Part 1 PDF

 CONTENTS FOREWORD iii A NOTE TO THE TEACHER AND STUDENTS viii 1. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 1 2. TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 24 3. UNDERSTANDI...

 CONTENTS FOREWORD iii A NOTE TO THE TEACHER AND STUDENTS viii 1. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 1 2. TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 24 3. UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 40 4. CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION 63 5. DOING SOCIOLOGY: RESEARCH METHODS 82  CHAPTER 1 SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY market that decides which subject I choice may increase or decrease your chances in the job market. The third INTRODUCTION and fourth advice complicate the matter Let us begin with some suggestions even more. It is not just our personal that are often made to young students effort or just the job market that makes like you. One advice often made is, a difference — our gender and family or “Study hard and you will do well in social background also matter. life.” The second advice as often made Individual efforts matter a great deal is, “ If you do this subject or set of but do not necessarily define outcomes. subjects you will have a better chance As we saw there are other social factors of getting a good job in the future”. The that play an important role in the final third could be, “ As a boy this does not outcome. Here we have only mentioned seem a correct choice of subject” or “As the ‘job market’, the ‘socioeconomic a girl, do you think your choice of background’ and ‘gender’. Can you subjects is a practical one?” The fourth, think of other factors? We could well “Your family needs you to get a job soon ask, “Who decides what is a ‘good job’?” so why choose a profession that will Do all societies have similar notions of take a very long time” or “You will join what is a “good job?” Is money the your family business so why do you criteria? Or is it respect or social wish to do this subject?” recognition or individual satisfaction Let us examine the suggestions. Do that decides the worth of a job? Do you think the first advice contradicts culture and social norms have any role the other three? For the first advice to play? suggests that if you work very hard, you The individual student must study will do very well and get a good job. hard to do well. But how well h/she The onus rests upon the individual. The does is structured by a whole set of second advice suggests that apart from societal factors. The job market is your individual effort, there is a job defined by the needs of the economy. 2 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY The needs of the economy are again Third, this chapter introduces determined by the economic and sociology as a systematic study of political policies pursued by the society, distinct from philosophical and government. The chances of the religious reflections, as well as our individual student are affected both by everyday common sense observation these broader political and economic about society. Fourth, this distinct way measures as well as by the social of studying society can be better background of her/his family. This understood if we look back historically gives us a preliminary sense of how at the intellectual ideas and material sociology studies human society as an contexts within which sociology was interconnected whole. And how society born and later grew. These ideas and and the individual interact with each material developments were mainly other. The problem of choosing subjects western but with global consequences. in the senior secondary school is a Fifth, we look at this global aspect and source of personal worry for the the manner in which sociology emerged individual student. That this is a in India. It is important to remember broader public issue, affecting students that just as each of us have a as a collective entity is self evident. One biography, so does a discipline. of the tasks of sociology is to unravel Understanding the history of a the connection between a personal discipline helps understand the problem and a public issue. This is the discipline. Finally the scope of sociology first theme of this chapter. and its relationship to other disciplines We have already seen that a ‘good is discussed. job’ means different things to different societies. The social esteem that a II particular kind of job has or does not have for an individual depends on the THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION: culture of his/her ‘relevant society’. THE P ERSONAL P ROBLEM AND THE What do we mean by ‘relevant society’? PUBLIC ISSUE Does it mean the ‘society’ the individual We began with a set of suggestions that belongs to? Which society does the drew our attention to how the individual individual belong to? Is it the and society are dialectically linked. This neighbourhood? Is it the community? is a point that sociologists over several Is it the caste or tribe? Is it the professional circle of the parents? Is it generations have been concerned with. the nation? Second, this chapter C. Wright Mills rests his vision of the therefore looks at how the individual in sociological imagination precisely in modern times belongs to more than one the unravelling of how the personal and society. And how societies are unequal. public are related. If we want to solve public issues we have to study about them individually -told by c wright SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 3 Activity 1 Read the text from Mills carefully. Then examine the visual and report below. Do you notice how the visual is of a poor and homeless couple? The sociological imagination helps to understand and explain homelessness as a public issue. Can you identify what could be the causes for homelessness? Different groups in your class can collect information on possible causes for example, employment possibilities, rural to urban migration, etc. Discuss these. Do you notice how the state considers homelessness as a public issue that requires concrete measures to be taken, for instance, the Indira Awas Yojana? The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is its task and promise… Perhaps the most fruitful distinction with which the sociological imagination works is between ‘the personal troubles of the milieu’ and ‘the public issues of social structure’... Troubles occur within the character of the individual and within the range of his immediate relations with others; they have to do with his self and with those limited areas of social life of which he is directly and personally aware... Issues have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life. The facts of contemporary history are also facts about the success and the failure of individual men and women. When a society is industrialised, a peasant becomes a worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes a businessman. When classes rise or fall, a man is employed or unemployed; when the rate of investment goes up or down, a man takes new heart or goes broke. When wars happen, an insurance salesman becomes a rocket launcher; a store clerk, a radar man; a wife lives alone; a child grows up without a father. Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both... (Mills 1959). The Indira Awas Yojana, operationalised from 1999- 2000 is a major scheme by the government’s Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) and Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) to construct houses free of cost for the poor and the homeless. Can you think of other issues that show the connection between personal problems and public issues? A homeless couple 4 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY This question of what to focus in III society is indeed central to sociology. PLURALITIES AND INEQUALITIES We can take Satyajit Ray’s comments AMONG SOCIETIES further and wonder whether his In the contemporary world we belong, depiction of the village is romantic. in a sense, to more than one ‘society’. It would be interesting to contrast this When amidst foreigners reference to with a sociologist’s account of the Dalit ‘our society’ may mean ‘Indian society’, in the village below. but when amongst fellow Indians we may use the term ‘our society’ to denote The first time I saw him, he was a linguistic or ethnic community, a sitting on the dusty road in religious or caste or tribal society. front of one of the small thatch- This diversity makes deciding roofed tea shops in the village which ‘society’ we are talking about with his glass and saucer difficult. But perhaps this difficulty placed conspicuously beside him— of mapping society is one not confined a silent signal to the shopkeeper to sociologists alone as the comment that an Untouchable wanted to buy below will show. some tea. Muli was a gaunt forty- While reflecting on what to focus year-old with betel-blackened teeth on in his films, the great Indian film who wore his long hair swept back maker Satyajit Ray wondered: (Freeman 1978). What should you put in your films? What can you leave out? Would you A quote from Amartya Sen perhaps leave the city behind and go to the illustrates well how inequality is central village where cows graze in the to differences among societies. endless fields and the shepherd Some Indians are rich; most are plays the flute? You can make a not. Some are very well educated; film here that would be pure and others are illiterate. Some lead fresh and have the delicate rhythm easy lives of luxury; others toil hard of a boatman’s song. for little reward. Some are politically Or would you rather go back in powerful: others cannot influence time-way back to the Epics, anything. Some have great where the gods and demons took opportunities for advancement in sides in the great battle where life: others lack them altogether. brothers killed brothers… Some are treated with respect by Or would you rather stay where you are, right in the present, in the police; others are treated like the heart of this monstrous, dirt. These are different kinds of teeming, bewildering city, and try inequality, and each of them to orchestrate its dizzying contrasts requires serious attention (Sen of sight and sound and milieu? 2005: 210-11). SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 5 Discuss the visuals What kind of pluralities and inequalities do they show? 6 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 2 The Economic Survey of the Government of India suggests that access to sanitation facilities is just 28 per cent. Find out about other indicators of social inequality, for instance education, health, employment etc. IV everyday life and also about others’ lives, about our own ‘society’ and also INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY about others’ ‘society’. These are our You have already been acquainted with everyday notions, our common sense the sociological imagination and the in terms of which we live our lives. central concern of sociology to study However the observations and ideas society as an interconnected whole. that sociology as a discipline makes Our discussion on the individual’s about ‘society’ is different from both that choices and the job market showed of philosophical reflections and how the economic, political, familial, common sense. cultural, educational institutions are Observations of philosophical and interconnected. And how the individual religious thinkers are often about is both constrained by it and yet can what is moral or immoral in human change it to an extent. The next few behaviour, about the desirable way of chapters will elaborate on different living and about a good society. institutions as well as on culture. It will Sociology too concerns itself with norms also focus on some key terms and and values. But its focus is not on concepts in sociology that will enable norms and values as they ought to be, you to understand society. For as goals that people should pursue. Its sociology is the study of human social concern is with the way they function life, groups and societies. Its subject in actual societies. (In Chapter 3, you matter is our own behaviour as social will see how sociology of religion is beings. different from a theological study). Sociology is not the first subject to Empirical study of societies is an do so. People have always observed and important part of what sociologists do. reflected upon societies and groups in This however does not mean that which they live. This is evident in the sociology is not concerned with values. writings of philosophers, religious It only means that when a sociologist teachers, and legislators of all studies a society, the sociologist is civilisations and epochs. This human willing to observe and collect findings, trait to think about our lives and about even if they are not to her/his personal society is by no means confined to liking. philosophers and social thinkers. All of Peter Berger makes an unusual but us do have ideas about our own effective comparison to make the point. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 7 In any political or military conflict evidence that allow others to check on it is of advantage to capture the or to repeat to develop his/her findings information used by the intelligence further. There has been considerable organs of the opposing side. But this debate within sociology about the is so only because good intelligence differences between natural science and consists of information free of bias. human science, between quantitative If a spy does his/her reporting in and qualitative research. We need not terms of the ideology and ambitions enter this here. But what is relevant of his/her superiors, his/her here is that sociology in its observation reports are useless not only to the and analysis has to follow certain rules enemy, if the latter should capture that can be checked upon by others. In the next section, we compare them, but also to the spy’s own sociological knowledge to common side... The sociologist is a spy in very sense knowledge which will once again much the same way. His/her job is emphasise the role of methods, to report as accurately as h/she procedures and rules in the manner in can about a certain terrain (Berger which sociology conducts its 1963:16-17). observation of society. Chapter 5 of this Does this mean that the sociologist book will provide you with a sense of has no social responsibility to ask what sociologists do and how they go about the goals of his/her study or the about studying society. An elaboration work to which the sociological findings of the differences between sociology will be applied. H/she has such a and common sense knowledge will responsibility, just like any other help towards a clearer idea of the citizen of society. But this asking is not sociological approach and method. sociological asking. This is like the biologist whose biological knowledge V can be employed to heal or kill. This SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON does not mean the biologist is free of SENSE KNOWLEDGE responsibility as to which use s/he We have seen how sociological serves. But this is not a biological knowledge is different from theological question. and philosophical observations. Sociology has from its beginnings Likewise sociology is different from understood itself as a science. Unlike common sense observations. The commonsensical observations or common sense explanations are philosophical reflections or theological generally based on what may be called commentaries, sociology is bound by ‘naturalistic’ and/or individualistic scientific canons of procedure. It means explanation. A naturalistic explanation that the statements that the sociologist for behaviour rests on the assumption arrives at must be arrived at through that one can really identify ‘natural’ the observations of certain rules of reasons for behaviour. 8 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY ledge have been made, generally Activity 3 incrementally and only rarely by a dramatic breakthrough. An example of poverty has been given below and we also touched Sociology has a body of concepts, upon it in our discussion on the methods and data, no matter how homeless. Think of other issues and loosely coordinated. This cannot be how they could be explained in a substituted by common sense. naturalistic and sociological way. Common sense is unreflective since it does not question its own origins. Or Sociology thus breaks away from in other words it does not ask itself: both common sense observations and “Why do I hold this view?” The ideas as well as from philosophical sociologist must be ready to ask of any thought. It does not always or even of our beliefs, about ourselves — no generally lead to spectacular results. matter how cherished — “is this really But meaningful and unsuspected so?” Both the systematic and question- connections can be reached only by ing approach of sociology is derived sifting through masses of connections. from a broader tradition of scientific Great advances in sociological know- investigation. This emphasis on Explanation of Naturalistic Sociological Poverty People are poor because they are Contemporary poverty is caused afraid of work, come from by the structure of inequality in ‘problem families’, are unable to class society and is experienced budget properly, suffer from low by those who suffer from chronic intelligence and shiftlessness. irregularity of work and low wages (Jayaram 1987:3). Unsuspected Connections? In many societies, including in many parts of India, the line of descent and inheritance passes from father to son. This is understood as a patrilineal system. Keeping in mind that women tend not to get property rights, the Government of India in the aftermath of the Kargil War decided that financial compensation for the death of Indian soldiers should go to their widows so that they were provided for. The government had certainly not anticipated the unintended consequence of this decision. It led to many forced marriages of the widows with their brother- in-law (husband’s brother or dewar). In some cases the brother-in-law (then husband) was a young child and the sister-in-law (then wife) a young woman. This was to ensure that the compensation remained with the deceased man’s patrilineal family. Can you think of other such unintended consequences of a social action or a state measure? SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 9 scientific procedures can be understood developed. The Indian colonial only if we go back in time. And experience has to be seen in this light. understand the context or social Indian sociology reflects this tension situation within which the sociological which “go far back to the history of perspective emerged as sociology was British colonialism and the greatly influenced by the great intellectual and ideological response developments in modern science. Let us to it…” (Singh 2004:19). Perhaps have a very brief look at what because of this backdrop, Indian intellectual ideas went into the making sociology has been particularly of sociology. thoughtful and reflexive of its practice (Chaudhuri 2003). You will be VI engaging with Indian sociological thought, its concerns and practice in THE INTELLECTUAL IDEAS THAT WENT greater detail in the book, INTO THE MAKING OF SOCIOLOGY Understanding Society (NCER T, Influenced by scientific theories of 2006). natural evolution and findings about Darwin’s ideas about organic pre-modern societies made by early evolution were a dominant influence on travellers, colonial administrators, early sociological thought. Society was sociologists and social anthropologists often compared with living organisms sought to categorise societies into and efforts were made to trace its types and to distinguish stages in growth through stages comparable to social development. These features those of organic life. This way of looking reappear in the 19th century in works at society as a system of parts, each of early sociologists, Auguste Comte, part playing a given function influenced Karl Marx and Herbert Spencer. the study of social institutions like the Efforts were therefore made to classify family or the school and structures different types of societies on that such as stratification. We mention this basis, for instance: here because the intellectual ideas that Types of pre-modern societies such went into the making of sociology have as hunters and gatherers, pastoral a direct bearing on how sociology studies empirical reality. and agrarian, agrarian and non- The Enlightenment, an European industrial civilisations. intellectual movement of the late 17th Types of modern societies such as and 18th centuries, emphasised reason the industrialised societies. and individualism. There was also great Such an evolutionary vision advancement of scientific knowledge assumed that the west was and a growing conviction that the necessarily the most advanced and methods of the natural sciences should civilised. Non- western societies were and could be extended to the study of often seen as barbaric and less human affairs. For example poverty, so 10 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY far seen as a ‘natural phenomena’, how far reaching the change began to be seen as a ‘social problem’ industrialisation brought about was, caused by human ignorance or we take a quick look at what life in pre- exploitation. Poverty therefore could be industrial England was like. Before studied and redressed. One way of industrialisation, agriculture and studying this was through the social textiles were the chief occupations of the survey that was based on the belief that British people. Most people lived in human phenomena can be classified villages. Like in our own Indian villages and measured. You will be discussing there were the peasants and landlords, social survey in chapter 5. the blacksmith and leather worker, the Thinkers of the early modern era weaver and the potter, the shepherd were convinced that progress in and the brewer. Society was small. It knowledge promised the solution to all was hierarchical, i.e. the status and social ills. For example, Auguste Comte, class positions of different people were the French scholar (1789–1857 ) clearly defined. Like all traditional considered to be the founder of societies it was also characterised by sociology, believed that sociology would close interaction. With industrialisation contribute to the welfare of humanity. each of these features changed. One of the most fundamental VII aspects of the new order was the degradation of labour, the wrenching THE MATERIAL ISSUES THAT WENT of work from the protective contexts of MAKING OF SOCIOLOGY INTO THE guild, village, and family. Both the The Industrial Revolution was based radical and conservative thinker was upon a new, dynamic form of economic appalled at the decline of the status of activity — capitalism. This system of the common labourer, not to mention capitalism became the driving force the skilled craftsman. behind the growth of industrial Urban centres expanded and grew. manufacturing. Capitalism involved It was not that there were no cities new attitudes and institutions. earlier. But their character prior to Entrepreneurs engaged in the industrialisation was different. The sustained, systematic pursuit of profit. industrial cities gave birth to a The markets acted as the key completely new kind of urban world. It instrument of productive life. And was marked by the soot and grime of goods, services and labour became factories, by overcrowded slums of the commodities whose use was new industrial working class, bad determined by rational calculation. sanitation and general squalor. It was The new economy was completely also marked by new kinds of social different from what it replaced. England interactions. was the centre of the Industrial The Hindi film song on the next Revolution. In order to understand page captures both the material as well SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 11 From working class neighbourhoods to slum localitites 12 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY as the experiential aspects of city life. From the film C.I.D. 1956 Activity 4 Aye dil hai mushkil jeena yahan Note how quicly Britain, the seat of Zara hat ke, zara bach ke, yeh the Industrial Revolution became hai Bombay meri jaan an urban from a predominantly Kahin building kahin traame, rural society. Was this process kahin motor kahin mill identical in India? Milta hai yahan sab kuchh ik milta nahin dil 1810: 20 per cent of the population Insaan ka nahin kahin naam-o- lived in towns and cities. nishaan 1910: 80 per cent of the population Kahin satta, kahin patta kahin chori lived in towns and cities. kahin res Significantly the impact of the Kahin daaka, kahin phaaka kahin same process was different in India, thokar kahin thes Urban centres did grow. But with Bekaaro ke hain kai kaam yahan the entry of British manufactured Beghar ko aawara yahan kehte has goods, more people moved into has Khud kaate gale sabke kahe isko agriculture. business Ik cheez ke hain kai naam yahan Geeta:(Bura duniya woh hai kehta The mass of Indian handicraftsmen aisa bhola tu na ban ruined as a result of the influx Jo hai karta woh hai bharta hai of manufactured machine-made yahan ka yeh chalan goods of British industries were not absorbed in any extensively PARAPHRASE: Dear heart, life is hard developed indigenous industries. here, you must watch where you’re The ruined mass of these going if you want to save yourself, this handicraftsmen, in the main, took to agriculture for subsistence is Bombay my dear! You’ll find (Desai 1975:70). buildings, you’ll find trams, you’ll find motors, you’ll find mills, you’ll find The factory and its mechanical everything here except a human heart, division of labour were often seen as there’s no trace of humanity here. So a deliberate attempt to destroy the much of what is done here is peasant, the artisan, as well as family meaningless, it’s either power, or it’s and local community. The factory was money, or it’s theft, or it’s cheating. The perceived as an archetype of an rich mock the homeless as vagabonds, economic regimentation hitherto but when they cut each other’s throats known only in barracks and prisons. themselves, it’s called business! The For some like Marx the factory was same action is given various names in oppressive. Yet potentially liberating. this place. Here workers learnt both collective SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 13 functioning as well as concerted VIII efforts for better conditions. WHY SHOULD WE STUDY THE Another indicator of the emergence of modern societies was the new BEGINNING AND GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGY IN EUROPE? significance of clock-time as a basis of social organisation. A crucial aspect of Most of the issues and concerns of this was the way in which, in the 18th sociology also date back to a time when and 19th centuries, the tempo of European society was undergoing agricultural and manufacturing tumultuous changes in the 18th and labour increasingly came to be set by 19th centuries with the advent of the clock and calendar in a way very capitalism and industrialisation. Many different from pre-modern forms of of the issues that were raised then, for work. Prior to the development of example, urbanisation or factory industrial capitalism, work-rhythms production, are pertinent to all modern were set by factors such as the period societies, even though their specific of daylight, the break between tasks features may vary. Indeed, Indian and the constraints of deadlines or society with its colonial past and incredible diversity is distinct. The other social duties. Factory production sociology of India reflects this. implied the synchronisation of labour — it began punctually, had a If this be so, why focus on Europe steady pace and took place for set of that time? Why is it relevant to start there? The answer is relatively simple. hours and on particular days of the For our past, as Indians is closely week. In addition, the clock injected a linked to the history of British new urgency to work. For both capitalism and colonialism. Capitalism employer and employee ‘time is now in the west entailed a world-wide money: it is not passed but spent.’ expansion. The passages in the box on next page represent but two strands in the manner that western capitalism Activity 5 impacted the world. Find out how work is organised in a R.K. Laxman’s travelogue of Mauritius traditional village, a factory and a brings home the presence of this call centre. colonial and global past. Here Africans and Chinese, Biharis and Dutch, Persians and Tamils, Activity 6 Arabs, French and English all rub Find out how industrial capitalism merrily with one another... A Tamil, changed Indian lives in villages and for instance, bears a deceptively cities. south Indian face and a name to go with it to boot; Radha Krishna 14 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Capitalism and its global but uneven transformation of societies Between the 17th and 19th centuries an estimated 24 million Africans were enslaved. 11 million of them survived the journey to the Americas in one of a number of great movements of population that feature in modern history. They were plucked from their existing homes and cultures, transported around the world in appalling conditions, and put to work in the service of capitalism. Enslavement is a graphic example of how people were caught up in the development of modernity against their will. The institution of slavery declined in the 1800s. But for us in India it was in the 1800s that indentured labour was taken in ships by the British for running their cotton and sugar plantations in distant lands such as Surinam in South America or in the West Indies or the Fiji Islands. V.S. Naipaul the great English writer who won the Nobel prize is a descendant of one of these thousands who were taken to lands they had never seen and who died without being able to return. Govindan is indeed from Madras. I India, the great workshop of cotton speak to him in Tamil. He surprises manufacture for the world, since me by responding in a frightfully immemorial times, now became mangled English with a heavy French innundated with English twists and accent. Mr Govindan has no cotton stuffs. After its own produce knowledge of Tamil and his tongue had been excluded from England, has ceased curling to produce Tamil or only admitted on the most cruel sounds centuries ago (Laxman 2003) ! terms, British manufactures were poured into it at a small and merely IX nominal duty, to the ruin of the native cotton fabrics once so THE GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA celebrated (Marx 1853 cited in Colonialism was an essential part of Desai 1975). modern capitalism and industrialisation. The writings of Western sociologists on Sociology in India also had to deal with capitalism and other aspects of modern western writings and ideas about society are therefore relevant for Indian society that were not always understanding social change in India. correct. These ideas were expressed Yet as we saw with reference to both in the accounts of colonial officials urbanisation, colonialism implied that as well western scholars. For many of the impact of industrialisation in India them Indian society was a contrast to was not necessarily the same as in the western society. We take just one west. Karl Marx’s comments on the example here, the way the Indian impact of the East India Company bring village was understood and portrayed out the contrast. as unchanging. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 15 In keeping with contemporary- characteristic feature of the two Victorian-evolutionary ideas, western subjects in many western countries. writers saw in the Indian village a Perhaps the very diversity of the remnant or survival from what was modern and traditional, of the village called “the infancy of society”. They saw and the metropolitan in India accounts in nineteenth-century India the past of for this. the European society. Yet another evidence of the colonial X heritage of countries like India is the T HE S COPE OF S OCIOLOGY AND ITS distinction often made between RE L A T I O N S H I P TO OTHER SO C I A L sociology and social anthropology. A standard western textbook definition of SCIENCE DISCIPLINES sociology is “the study of human The scope of sociological study is groups and societies, giving particular extremely wide. It can focus its analysis emphasis to the analysis of the of interactions between individuals industrialised world” (Giddens 2001: such as that of a shopkeeper with a 699). A standard western definition of customer, between teachers and social anthropology would be the study students, between two friends or family of simple societies of non-western and members. It can likewise focus on therefore “other” cultures. In India the national issues such as unemployment story is quite different. M.N. Srinivas or caste conflict or the effect of state maps the trajectory: policies on forest rights of the tribal population or rural indebtedness. Or In a country such as India, with its examine global social processes such size and diversity, regional, linguistic, religious, sectarian, ethnic (including as: the impact of new flexible labour caste), and between rural and urban regulations on the working class; or that areas, there are a myriad ‘others’... of the electronic media on the young; In a culture and society such as or the entry of foreign universities on India’s, ‘the other’ can be the education system of the country. encountered literally next door... What defines the discipline of sociology (Srinivas 1966: 205). is therefore not just what it studies (i.e. Furthermore social anthropology in family or trade unions or villages) but India moved gradually from a pre- how it studies a chosen field. occupation with the study of ‘primitive Sociology is one of a group of people’ to the study of peasants, ethnic social sciences, which also includes groups, social classes, aspects and anthropology, economics, political features of ancient civilisations, and science and history. The divisions modern industrial societies. No rigid among the various social sciences are divide exists between sociology and not clearcut, and all share a certain social anthropology in India, a range of common interests, concepts 16 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Discuss how you think history, sociology, political science, economics will study fashion/clothes, market places and city streets SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 17 and methods. It is therefore very important to understand that the Activity 7 distinctions of the disciplines are to ´ Do you think advertisements some extent arbitrary and should not actually influence people’s be seen in a straitjacket fashion. To consumption patterns? differentiate the social sciences would be to exaggerate the differences and ´ Do you think the idea of what defines ‘good life’ is only gloss over the similarities. Furthermore economically defined? feminist theories have also shown the greater need of interdisciplinary ´ Do you think ‘spending’ and ‘saving’ habits are culturally approach. For instance how would a formed? political scientist or economist study gender roles and their implications for politics or the economy without a context of social norms, values, practices sociology of the family or gender division of labour. and interests. The corporate sector managers are aware of this. The large Sociology and Economics investment in the advertisement industry is directly linked to the need to reshape Economics is the study of production lifestyles and consumption patterns. and distribution of goods and services. Trends within economics such as feminist The classical economic approach dealt economics seek to broaden the focus, almost exclusively with the inter - drawing in gender as a central relations of pure economic variables: organising principle of society. For the relations of price, demand and instance they would look at how work in supply; money flows; output and input the home is linked to productivity outside. ratios, and the like. The focus of The defined scope of economics has traditional economics has been on a helped in facilitating its development as narrow understanding of ‘economic a highly focused, coherent discipline. activity’, namely the allocation of scarce goods and services within a society. Sociologists often envy the economists Economists who are influenced by a for the precision of their terminology political economy approach seek to and the exactness of their measures. understand economic activity in a And the ability to translate the results broader framework of ownership of and of their theoretical work into practical relationship to means of production. suggestions having major implications The objective of the dominant trend in for public policy. Yet economists’ economic analysis was however to predictive abilities often suffer formulate precise laws of economic precisely because of their neglect of behaviour. individual behaviour, cultural norms The sociological approach looks and institutional resistance which at economic behaviour in a broader sociologists study. 18 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Pierre Bourdieu wrote in 1998. Sociology and Political Science A true economic science would look As in the case of economics, there is an at all the costs of the economy-not increased interaction of methods and only at the costs that corporations approaches between sociology and are concerned with, but also at political science. Conventional political crimes, suicides, and so on. science was focused primarily on two We need to put forward an elements: political theory and economics of happiness, which government administration. Neither would take note of all the profits, branch involves extensive contact with individual and collective, material political behaviour. The theory part and symbolic, associated with usually focuses on the ideas about activity (such as security), and also government from Plato to Marx while the material and symbolic costs courses on administration generally associated with inactivity or deal with the formal structure of precarious employment (for example consumption of medicines: France government rather than its actual holds the world record for the use operation. of tranquilisers), (cited in Swedberg Sociology is devoted to the study of 2003). all aspects of society, whereas conventional political science restricted Sociology unlike economics usually itself mainly to the study of power as does not provide technical solutions. embodied in formal organisation. But it encourages a questioning and Sociology stresses the inter-relation- critical perspective. This helps ships between sets of institutions questioning of basic assumptions. And including government, whereas thereby facilitates a discussion of not political science tends to turn attention just the technical means towards a towards the processes within the given goal, but also about the social government. desirability of a goal itself. Recent However, sociology long shared trends have seen a resurgence of similar interests of research with economic sociology perhaps because of both this wider and critical perspective Activity 8 of sociology. Sociology provides clearer or more Find out the kind of studies that adequate understanding of a social were conducted during the last situation than existed before. This can general elections. You will probably be either on the level of factual find both features of political science knowledge, or through gaining an and sociology in them. Discuss how improved grasp of why something is disciplines interact and mutually happening (in other words, by means influence each other. of theoretical understanding). SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 19 political science. Sociologists like Max history of less glamorous or exciting Weber worked in what can be termed events as changes in land relations or as political sociology. The focus of gender relations within the family have political sociology has been increasingly traditionally been less studied by on the actual study of political historians but formed the core area of behaviour. Even in the recent Indian the sociologist’s interest. Today elections one has seen the extensive however history is far more sociological study of political patterns of voting. and social history is the stuff of history. Studies have also been conducted in It looks at social patterns, gender membership of political organisations, relations, mores, customs and process of decision-making in important institutions other than the organisations, sociological reasons for acts of rulers, wars and monarchy. support of political parties, the role of gender in politics, etc. Sociology and Psychology Psychology is often defined as the Sociology and History science of behaviour. It involves itself Historians almost as a rule study the primarily with the individual. It is past, sociologists are more interested in interested in her/his intelligence and the contemporary or recent past. learning, motivations and memory, Historians earlier were content to nervous system and reaction time, delineate the actual events, to establish hopes and fears. Social psychology, how things actually happened, while in which serves as a bridge between sociology the focus was to seek to psychology and sociology, maintains a establish causal relationships. primary interest in the individual but History studies concrete details concerns itself with the way in which while the sociologist is more likely to the individual behaves in social groups, abstract from concrete reality, collectively with other individuals. categorise and generalise. Historians Sociology attempts to understand today are equally involved in doing behaviour as it is organised in society, sociological methods and concepts in that is the way in which personality is their analysis. shaped by different aspects of society. Conventional history has been For instance, economic and political about the history of kings and war. The system, their family and kinship structure, their culture, norms and values. It is interesting to recall that Activity 9 Durkheim who sought to establish a Find out how historians have clear scope and method for sociology written about the history of art, of in his well-known study of suicide left cricket, of clothes and fashion, of out individual intentions of those who architecture and housing styles. commit or try to commit suicide in favour of statistics concerning various 20 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY social characteristics of these between those who studied and those individuals. who were studied as not remarked upon too often earlier. But times have Sociology and Social Anthropology changed and we have the erstwhile ‘natives’ be they Indians or Sudanese, Anthropology in most countries Nagas or Santhals, who now speak incorporates archaeology, physical and write about their own societies. anthropology, cultural history, many branches of linguistics and the study The anthropologists of the past of all aspects of life in “simple documented the details of simple societies”. Our concern here is with societies apparently in a neutral social anthropology and cultural scientific fashion. In practice they were anthropology for it is that which is constantly comparing those societies close to the study of sociology. with the model of the western modern Sociology is deemed to be the study of societies as a benchmark. modern, complex societies while social Other changes have also redefined anthropology was deemed to be the the nature of sociology and social study of simple societies. anthropology. Modernity as we saw led As we saw earlier, each discipline to a process whereby the smallest has its own history or biography. village was impacted by global Social anthropology developed in the processes. The most obvious example west at a time when it meant that is colonialism. The most remote village western- trained social anthropologists of India under British colonialism saw studied non-European societies often its land laws and administration thought of as exotic, barbaric and change, its revenue extraction alter, its uncivilised. This unequal relationship manufacturing industries collapse. Tea pickers in Assam SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 21 Today the distinction between a Activity 10 simple society and a complex one itself ´ Find out where in India did needs major rethinking. India itself is a ancestors of the community of complex mix of tradition and Santhal workers who have been modernity, of the village and the city, working in the tea plantations in of caste and tribe, of class and Assam come from. community. Villages nestle right in the ´ When was tea cultivation heart of the capital city of Delhi. Call started in Assam? ´ Did the British drink tea before centres serve European and American colonialism? clients from different towns of the country. Indian sociology has been far more Contemporary global processes have eclectic in borrowing from both further accentuated this ‘shrinking of traditions. Indian sociologists often the globe’. The assumption of studying studied Indian societies that were both a simple society was that it was part of and not of one’s own culture. It bounded. We know this is not so today. could also be dealing with both The traditional study of simple, complex differentiated societies of non-literate societies by social urban modern India as well as the anthropology had a pervasive influence study of tribes in a holistic fashion. on the content and the subject matter of the discipline. Social anthropology It had been feared that with the tended to study society (simple decline of simple societies, social societies) in all their aspects, as wholes. anthropology would lose its specificity In so far as they specialised, it was on and merge with sociology. However the basis of area as for example the there have been fruitful interchanges Andaman Islands, the Nuers or between the two disciplines and today Melanesia. Sociologists study complex often methods and techniques are societies and would therefore often drawn from both. There have been focus on parts of society like the anthropological studies of the state and bureaucracy or religion or caste or a globalisation, which are very different process such as social mobility. from the traditional subject matter Social anthropology was charac- of social anthropology. On the terised by long field work tradition, other hand, sociology too has been living in the community studied and using quantitative and qualitative using ethnographic research methods. techniques, macro and micro Sociologists have often relied on survey approaches for studying the method and quantitative data using complexities of modern societies. As statistics and the questionnaire mode. mentioned before we will in a sense carry Chapter 5 will give you a more on this discussion in Chapter 5. For in comprehensive account of these two India, sociology and social anthropology traditions. have had a very close relationship. 22 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY GLOSSARY Capitalism : A system of economic enterprise based on market exchange. “Capital” refers to any asset, including money, property and machines, which can be used to produce commodities for sale or invested in a market with the hope of achieving a profit. This system rests on the private ownership of assets and the means of production. Dialectic : The existence or action of opposing social forces, for instance, social constraint and individual will. Empirical Investigation : A factual enquiry carried out in any given area of sociological study. Feminist Theories : A sociological perspective which emphasises the centrality of gender in analysing the social world. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share in common the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them. Macrosociology : The study of large-scale groups, organisations or social systems. Microsociology : The study of human behaviour in contexts of face-to-face interaction. Social Constraint : A term referring to the fact that the groups and societies of which we are a part exert a conditioning influence on our behaviour. Values : Ideas held by human individual or groups about what is desirable, proper, good or bad. Differing values represent key aspects of variations in human culture. EXERCISES 1. Why is the study of the origin and growth of sociology important? 2. Discuss the different aspects of the term ‘society’. How is it different from your common sense understanding? 3. Discuss how there is greater give and take among disciplines today. 4. Identify any personal problem that you or your friends or relatives are facing. Attempt a sociological understanding. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 23 READINGS BERGER , PETER L. 1963. Invitation to Sociology : A Humanistic Perspective. Penguin, Harmondsworth. BIERSTEDT, ROBERT. 1970. Social Order. Tata Mc. Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, Bombay. BOTTOMORE, TOM. 1962. Sociology : A Guide to Problems and Literature. George, Allen and Unwin, London. C HAUDHURI, M AITRAYEE. 2003. The Practice of Sociology. Orient Longman, New Delhi. DESAI, A.R. 1975. Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. DUBE, S.C. 1977. Understanding Society : Sociology : The Discipline and its Significance : Part I. NCERT, New Delhi. FREEMAN, JAMES M. 1978. ‘Collecting the Life History of an Indian Untouchable’, from V ATUK, SYLVIA. ed., American Studies in the Anthropology of India. Manohar Publishers, Delhi. GIDDENS, ANTHONY. 2001. Sociology. Fourth Edition, Polity Press, Cambridge. INKELES, ALEX. 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the Discipline and Profession. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. JAYARAM, N. 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan India Ltd, Delhi. LAXMAN, R.K. 2003. The Distorted Mirror. Penguin, Delhi. MILLS, C. WRIGHT. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. Penguin, Harmondsworth. SINGH , YOGENDRA. 2004. Ideology and Theory in Indian Sociology. Rawat Publications, New Delhi. SRINIVAS, M.N. 2002. Village, Caste. Gender and Method : Essays in Indian Social Anthropology. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. SWEDBERG, RICHARD. 2003. Principles of Economic Sociology. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.  CHAPTER 2 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY terms and concepts to understand this. I Why does sociology need to have a special set of terms when we use terms INTRODUCTION like status and roles or social control The previous chapter introduced us to anyway in our everyday life? an idea both about society as well as For a discipline such as, say, sociology. We saw that a central task of nuclear physics that deals with matters sociology is to explore the interplay of unknown to most people and for which society and the individual. We also saw no word exists in common speech, it that individuals do not float freely in seems obvious that a discipline must society but are part of collective bodies develop a terminology. However, like the family, tribe, caste, class, clan, terminology is possibly even more nation. In this chapter, we move further important for sociology, just because its subject matter is familiar and just to understand the kinds of groups because words do exist to denote it. We individuals form, the kinds of unequal are so well acquainted with the social orders, stratification systems within institutions that surround us that we which, individuals and groups are cannot see them clearly and precisely placed, the way social control operates, (Berger 1976:25). the roles that individuals have and play, For example we may feel that since and the status they occupy. we live in families we know all about In other words we start exploring families. This would be conflating or how society itself functions. Is it equating sociological knowledge harmonious or conflict ridden? Are with common sense knowledge or status and roles fixed? How is social naturalistic explanation, which we have control exercised? What kinds of discussed in Chapter 1. inequalities exist? The question however We also found in the previous remains as to why do we need specific chapter how sociology as a discipline TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 25 has a biography or history. We saw how essentially harmonious. They found it certain material and intellectual useful to compare society to an developments shaped the sociological organism where different parts have a perspective as well as its concerns. function to play for the maintenance of Likewise sociological concepts too have the whole. Others, in particular the a story to tell. Many of the concepts conflict theorists influenced by Marxism reflect the concern of social thinkers to saw society as essentially conflict understand and map the social ridden. changes that the shift from pre-modern Within sociology some tried to to modern entailed. For instance understand human behaviour by sociologists observed that simple, small starting with the individual, i.e. micro scale and traditional societies were interaction. Others began with macro more marked by close, often face-to- structures such as class, caste, market, face interaction. And modern, large state or even community. Concepts scale societies by formal interaction. such as status and role begin with the They therefore distinguished primary individual. Concepts such as social from secondary groups, community control or stratification begin from a from society or association. Other larger context within which individuals concepts like stratification reflect the are already placed. concern that sociologists had in The important point is that these understanding the structured classifications and types that we inequalities between groups in society. discuss in sociology help us and are the Concepts arise in society. However tools through which we can just as there are different kinds of understand reality. They are keys to individuals and groups in society so open locks to understand society. They there are different kinds of concepts and are entry points in our understanding, ideas. And sociology itself is marked by not the final answer. But what if the key different ways of understanding society becomes rusted or bent or does not fit and looking at dramatic social changes the lock, or fits in with effort? In such that the modern period brought about. situations we need to change or modify We have seen how even in the early the key. In sociology we both use and stage of sociology’s emergence there also constantly interrogate or question were contrary and contesting the concepts and categories. understandings of society. If for Karl Very often there is considerable Marx class and conflict were key unease about the coexistence of concepts to understand society, social different kinds of definitions or concepts solidarity and collective conscience or even just different views about the were key terms for Emile Durkheim. In same social entity. For example conflict the Post-World War II period sociology theory versus the functionalist theory. was greatly influenced by the structural This multiplicity of approaches is functionalists who found society particularly acute in sociology. And it 26 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY cannot but be otherwise. For society II itself is diverse. SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIETY Activity 1 Sociology is the study of human social Choose any one of the following life. A defining feature of human life is topics for class discussion : that humans interact, communicate ´ democracy is a help or hind- and construct social collectivities. The rance to development comparative and historical perspective of sociology brings home two appa- ´ gender equality makes for a rently innocuous facts. The first that in more harmonious or more divisive society every society whether ancient or feudal or modern, Asian or European or ´ punishments or greater dis- African human groups and collectivities cussion are the best way to exist. The second that the types of resolve conflicts. groups and collectivities are different in Think of other topics. different societies. What kind of differences emerged? Any gathering of people does not Do they reflect different visions of necessarily constitute a social group. what a good society ought to be like? Aggregates are simply collections of Do they reflect different notions of people who are in the same place at the the human being? same time, but share no definite connection with one another. In our discussion on the various Passengers waiting at a railway station terms you will notice how there is or airport or bus stop or a cinema divergence of views. And how this very audience are examples of aggregates. debate and discussion of differences Such aggregates are often termed as helps us understand society. quasi groups. What kind of groups are these? TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 27 A quasi group is an aggregate or attention to how social groups emerge, combination, which lacks structure or change and get modified. organisation, and whose members A social group can be said to have may be unaware, or less aware, of the at least the following characteristics : existence of groupings. Social classes, (i) persistent interaction to provide status groups, age and gender groups, continuity; crowds can be seen as examples of (ii) a stable pattern of these inter- quasi groups. As these examples actions; suggest quasi groups may well (iii) a sense of belonging to identify become social groups in time and in with other members, i.e. each specific circumstances. For example, individual is conscious of the individuals belonging to a particular group itself and its own set of social class or caste or community may rules, rituals and symbols; not be organised as a collective body. They may be yet to be infused with a (iv) shared interest; sense of “we” feeling. But class and (v) acceptance of common norms and caste have over a period of time given values; rise to political parties. Likewise (vi) a definable structure. people of different communities in Social structure here refers to India have over the long anti-colonial patterns of regular and repetitive struggle developed an identity as a interaction between individuals or collectivity and group — a nation with groups. A social group thus refers to a a shared past and a common future. collection of continuously interacting The women’s movement brought about persons who share common interest, the idea of women’s groups and culture, values and norms within a organisation. All these examples draw given society. Activity 2 Find out a name that is relevant under each heading. Caste An anti caste movement A caste based political party Class A class based movement A class based political party Women A women’s movement A women’s organisation Tribe A tribal movement A tribe/tribes based political party Villagers An environmental movement An environmental organisation Discuss whether they were all social groups to start with and if some were not, then at what point can one apply the term social group to them, using the term as sociologically understood. 28 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 3 Discuss the age group of teenagers. Is it a quasi group or social group? Were ideas about ‘teenage’ and ‘teenagers’ as a special phase in life always there? In traditional societies how was the entry of children into adulthood marked? In contemporary times do marketing strategies and advertisement have anything to do with the strengthening or weakening of this group/quasi group? Identify an advertisement that targets teenagers or pre-teens? Read the section on stratification and discuss how teenage may mean very different life experiences for the poor and rich, for the upper and lower class, for the discriminated and privileged caste. TYPES OF GROUPS However a complete contrast is As you read through this section on probably not an accurate description of reality. groups you will find that different sociologists and social anthropologists Primary and Secondary have categorised groups into different Social Groups types. What you will be struck with however is that there is a pattern in the The groups to which we belong are not typology. In most cases they contrast all of equal importance to us. Some the manner in which people form groups tend to influence many aspects groups in traditional and small scale of our lives and bring us into personal societies to that of modern and large association with others. The term scale societies. As mentioned earlier, primary group is used to refer to a they were struck by the difference small group of people connected by between close, intimate, face-to-face intimate and face-to-face association interaction in traditional societies and and co-operation. The members of impersonal, detached, distant primary groups have a sense of interaction in modern societies. belonging. Family, village and groups Contrast the two types of group TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 29 of friends are examples of primary groups. Activity 4 Secondary groups are relatively Collect a copy of a memorandum of large in size, maintain formal and any association that you know of or impersonal relationships. The primary can find out about for example a groups are person-oriented, whereas Resident Welfare Association, a the secondary groups are goal oriented. women’s association (Mahila Schools, government offices, hospitals, Samiti), a Sports Club. You will find students’ association etc. are examples of secondary groups. clear information about its goals, objectives, membership and other Community and Society rules that govern it. Contrast this or Association with a large family gathering. The idea of comparing and contrasting You may find that many a times the old traditional and agrarian way of that interaction among members of life with the new modern and urban one a formal group over time becomes in terms of their different and more close and ‘just like family and contrasting social relationships and friends.’ This brings home the point lifestyles, dates back to the writings of that concepts are not fixed, frozen classical sociologists. entities. They are indeed keys or The term ‘community’ refers to tools for understanding society and human relationships that are highly its changes. personal, intimate and enduring, those where a person’s involvement is considerable if not total, as in the family, with real friends or a close-knit In-Groups and Out-Groups group. A sense of belonging marks an in- ‘Society’ or ‘association’ refers to group. This feeling separates ‘us’ or ‘we’ everything opposite of ‘community’, in from ‘them’ or ‘they’. Children particular the apparently impersonal, belonging to a particular school may superficial and transitory relationships form an ‘in-group’ as against those who of modern urban life. Commerce and do not belong to the school. Can you industry require a more calculating, think of other such groups? rational and self-interesting approach An out-group on the other hand is to one’s dealings with others. We make one to which the members of an in- contracts or agreements rather than group do not belong. The members of getting to know one another. You may an out-group can face hostile reactions draw a parallel between the community from the members of the in-group. with the primary group and the Migrants are often considered as an association with the secondary group. out-group. However, even here the 30 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY actual definition of who belongs and but we do identify ourselves with that who does not, changes with time and group. Reference groups are social contexts. important sources of information The well known sociologist M.N. about culture, life style, aspiration Srinivas observed while he was carrying and goal attainments. out a census in Rampura in 1948 how In the colonial period many middle distinctions were made between recent class Indians aspired to behave like and later migrants. He writes: proper Englishman. In that sense they could be seen as a reference group for I heard villagers use two expressions the aspiring section. But this process which I came to realise were was gendered, i.e. it had different significant: the recent immigrants implications for men and women. Often were almost contemptuously des- Indian men wanted to dress and dine cribed as nenne monne’ bandavartu (‘came yesterday or the day before;) like the British men but wanted the while old immigrants were des- Indian women to remain ‘Indian’ in cribed as arsheyinda bandavaru their ways. Or aspire to be a bit like the (‘came long ago’) or khadeem proper English woman but also not kulagalu (‘old lineages’), (Srinivas quite like her. Do you still find this valid 1996:33). today? Activity 5 Peer Groups This is a kind of primary group, Find out about the experience of usually formed between individuals immigrants in other countries. Or who are either of similar age or who are may be even from different parts of in a common professional group. Peer our own country. pressure refers to the social pressure You will find that relationships exerted by one’s peers on what one between groups change and modify. ought to do or not. People once considered members of an out-group become in-group members. Can you find out about Activity 6 such processes in history? Do your friends or others of your age group influence you? Are you Reference Group concerned with their approval or disapproval about the way you For any group of people there are dress, behave, the kind of music always other groups whom they look you like to listen to or the kind of up to and aspire to be like. The groups whose life styles are emulated films you prefer? Do you consider are known as reference groups. We do it to be social pressure? Discuss. not belong to our reference groups TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 31 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION enter into details about estates here but very briefly touch upon caste and class Social stratification refers to the as systems of social stratification. We existence of structured inequalities shall be dealing in greater detail with between groups in society, in terms of class, caste, gender as bases of social their access to material or symbolic stratification in the book, Under- rewards. Thus stratification can most standing Society (NCERT, 2006). simply be defined as structural inequalities between different Caste groupings of people. Often social stratification is compared to the In a caste stratification system an geological layering of rock in the earth’s individual’s position totally depends on surface. Society can be seen as the status attributes ascribed by birth consisting of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with rather than on any which are achieved the more favoured at the top and the during the course of one’s life. This is less privileged near the bottom. not to say that in a class society there Inequality of power and advantage is no systematic constraint on is central for sociology, because of the achievement imposed by status crucial place of stratification in the attributes such as race and gender. organisation of society. Every aspect of However, status attributes ascribed by the life of every individual and house- birth in a caste society define an hold is affected by stratification. individual’s position more completely Opportunities for health, longevity, than they do in class society. security, educational success, fulfillment In traditional India different castes in work and political influence are all formed a hierarchy of social precedence. unequally distributed in systematic ways. Each position in the caste structure was Historically four basic systems of defined in terms of its purity or stratification have existed in human pollution relative to others. The societies: slavery, caste, estate and underlying belief was that those who class. Slavery is an extreme form of are most pure, the Brahmin priestly inequality in which some individuals castes, are superior to all others and are literally owned by others. It has the Panchamas, sometimes called the existed sporadically at many times and ‘outcastes’ are inferior to all other places, but there are two major castes. The traditional system is examples of a system of slavery; ancient generally conceptualised in terms of the Greece and Rome and the Southern four fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, States of the USA in the 18th and 19th Vaishyas and Shudras. In reality there are centuries. As a formal institution, innumerable occupation-based caste slavery has gradually been eradicated. groups, called jatis. But we do continue to have bonded The caste system in India has labour, often even of children. Estates undergone considerable changes over characterised feudal Europe. We do not the years. Endogamy and ritual 32 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY avoidance of contact with members of with us. This is because they feel so-called lower castes were considered and believe they are superior. It has critical for maintaining purity by the so- been like that for years. No matter called upper castes. Changes brought how well we dress they are not in by urbanisation inevitably prepared to accept certain things challenged this. Read well known (Franco et. al. 2004:150). sociologist A.R. Desai’s observations below. Even today acute caste Other social consequences of discrimination exists. At the same time urbanisation in India are commented the working of democracy has affected upon by sociologist A.R. Desai as: the caste system. Castes as interest groups have gained strength. We have Modern industries brought into also seen discriminated castes asserting b e i n g modern cities honey- their democratic rights in society. combed with cosmopolitan hotels, restaurants, theatres, trams, Class buses, railways. The modest hotels There have been many attempts to and restaurants catered for the explain class. We mention here, very workers and middle classes became briefly just the central ideas of Marx, crowded in cities with persons Weber and that of, functionalism. In belonging to all castes and even the Marxist theory social classes are creeds... In trains and buses one defined by what relation they have to occasionally rubbed shoulders with the means of production. Questions members of the depressed classes... could be asked as to whether groups should not, however be supposed are owners of means of production such that caste had vanished (Desai as land or factories? Or whether they 1975:248). are owners of nothing but their own labour? Weber used the term life- While change did take place, chances, which refers to the rewards discrimination was not so easy to do and advantages afforded by market away with, as a first person narrative capacity. Inequality, Weber argued suggests. might be based on economic relations. In the mill there may be no open But it could also be based on prestige discrimination of the kind that exists or on political power. in the villages, but experience of private The functionalist theory of social interactions tells another story. Parmar stratification begins from the general observed… presupposition or belief of function- alism that no society is “classless” or They will not even drink water from unstratified. The main functional our hands and they sometimes use necessity explains the universal abusive language when dealing presence of social stratification in TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 33 requirements faced by a society Tribes population lives below the of placing and motivating individuals poverty line. This proportion is only in the social structure. Social slightly less for the Schedule Castes at inequality or stratification is thus an about 43 per cent, and lesser still for unconsciously evolved device by which the Other Backward Classes at about societies ensure that the most 34 per cent (Deshpande 2003:114). important positions are deliberately filled by the most qualified persons. Is Status and Role this true? The two concepts ‘status’ and ‘role’ are In a traditional caste system social often seen as twin concepts. A status is hierarchy is fixed, rigid and transmitted simply a position in society or in a across generations in these societies. group. Every society and every group Modern class system in contrast is has many such positions and every open and achievement based. In individual occupies many such democratic societies there is nothing to positions. legally stop a person from the most Status thus refers to the social deprived class and caste from reaching position with defined rights and duties the highest position. assigned to these positions. To illustrate, the mother occupies a status, Activity 7 which has many norms of conduct as well as certain responsibilities and Find out more about the life of prerogatives. the late President K. R. Naraynan. A role is the dynamic or the Discuss the concept of ascription behavioural aspect of status. Status is and achieved status, caste and occupied, but roles are played. We may class in this context. say that a status is an institutionalised role. It is a role that has become Such stories of achievement do exist regularised, standardised and forma- and are sources of immense inspiration. lised in the society at large or in any of Yet for the most part the structure of the specific associations of society. the class system persists. Sociological It must be apparent that each studies of social mobility, even in individual in a modern, complex society western societies are far removed from such as ours occupies many different the ideal model of perfect mobility. kinds of status during the course of Sociology has to be sensitive to both the his/her life. You as a school student challenges to the caste system as well may be a student to your teacher, a as the persistence of discrimination. customer to your grocer, a passenger Significantly those, at the lower levels to the bus driver, a brother or sister to of the system are not just disadvantaged your sibling, a patient to the doctor. socially but also economically. In rural Needless to say we could keep adding India, more than half of the Schedule to the list. The smaller and simpler the 34 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY society, the fewer the kinds of status position, rather than to the person who that an individual can have. occupies it or to his/her performance In a modern society an individual or to his/her actions. The kind of value as we saw occupies multiple status attached to the status or to the office is which is sociologically termed as status called prestige. People can rank status set. Individuals acquire different status in terms of their high or low prestige. at various stages of life. A son becomes The prestige of a doctor may be high in a father, father becomes a grandfather comparison to a shopkeeper, even if the and then great grandfather and so on. doctor may earn less. It is important This is called a status sequence for it to keep in mind that ideas of what refers to the status, which is attained occupation is considered prestigious in succession or sequence at the varies across societies and across various stages of life. periods. An ascribed status is a social position, which a person occupies because of birth, or assumes Activity 8 involuntarily. The most common bases What kinds of jobs are consi- for ascribed status are age, caste, race dered prestigious in your society? and kinship. Simple and traditional Compare these with your friends. societies are marked by ascribed status. Discuss the similarities and An achieved status on the other hand differences. Try and understand the refers to a social position that a person causes for the same. occupies voluntarily by personal ability, achievements, virtues and choices. The most common bases for People perform their roles according achieved status are educational to social expectations, i.e. role taking qualifications, income, and professional and role playing. A child learns to expertise. Modern societies are behave in accordance with how her characterised by achievements. Its behaviour will be seen and judged by members are accorded prestige on the others. basis of their achievements. How often Role conflict is the incompatibility you would have heard the phrase “you among roles corresponding to one or have to prove yourself”. In traditional more status. It occurs when contrary societies your status was defined and expectations arise from two or more ascribed at birth. However, as roles. A common example is that of the discussed above, even in modern achievement based societies, ascribed Activity 9 status matters. Status and prestige are Find out how a domestic worker or interconnected terms. Every status is a construction labourer faces role accorded certain rights and values. conflict. Values are attached to the social TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 35 middle class working woman who has is mistaken. It suggests that to juggle her role as mother and wife individuals simply take on roles, rather at home and that of a professional at than creating or negotiating them. In work. fact, socialisation is a process in which It is a common place assumption humans can exercise agency; they are that men do not face role conflict. not simply passive subjects waiting to Sociology being both an empirical and be instructed or programmed. comparative discipline suggests Individuals come to understand and otherwise. assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction. This Khasi m