NCERT_CLASS_11_HISTORY_THEMES_IN_WORLD_HISTORY.pdf
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TEXTBOOK IN HISTORY FOR CLASS XI 2018-19 ISBN 81-7450-548-2 First Edition March 2006 Chaitra 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED...
TEXTBOOK IN HISTORY FOR CLASS XI 2018-19 ISBN 81-7450-548-2 First Edition March 2006 Chaitra 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, Reprinted recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. December 2006 Pausa 1928 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, re- sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any form December 2007 Pausa 1929 of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised December 2008 Pausa 1930 price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect January 2010 Magha 1931 and should be unacceptable. June 2011 Jyaistha 1933 February 2013 Magha 1934 November 2013 Kartika 1935 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION January 2014 Pausa 1935 DIVISION, NCERT December 2014 Pausa 1936 NCERT Campus Sri Aurobindo Marg February 2016 Magha 1937 New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 February 2017 Phalguna 1938 108, 100 Feet Road Hosdakere Halli Extension December 2017 Pausa 1939 Banashankari III Stage Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740 PD 100T HK Navjivan Trust Building P.O.Navjivan Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446 © National Council of Educational CWC Campus Research and Training, 2006 Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869 Publication Team Head, Publication : M. Siraj Anwar Division ` 160.00 Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly Manager Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer (Incharge) Production Assistant : Mukesh Gaur Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT watermark Cover and Layout Arrt Creations, New Delhi Published at the Publication Division by the Secretary, National Council of Educational Cartography Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, K Varghese New Delhi 110 016 and printed at Shree Ram Printers, D-6 & F-455, Sector-63, Noida - 201 301 (U.P.) 2018-19 FOREWORD The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the Advisory Group in Social Science, Professor Hari Vasudevan, Chief Advisor, History, Professor Neeladri Bhattacharya and the Advisor for this book, Professor Narayani Gupta, for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations, which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially 2018-19 iv grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G. P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. Director New Delhi National Council of Educational 20 December 2005 Research and Training 2018-19 ON READING WORLD HISTORY How is it possible, you may ask, to study the history of the world within one year? There is so much that has happened in different countries and so much that has been written about each country. How can we choose a few themes for study from a vast and boundless corpus? These are valid questions. Before we read any book on world history we need answers to such questions. A syllabus needs to make clear how it is organised. A book should explain what it is seeking to do. We need to remember that in studying or writing history the historian is always involved in a process of selection. This is a point that E. H. Carr made many decades ago in a wonderful small book What is History? After wading through an enormous pile of records in a musty archive, a historian notes down those facts which appear important to him. He relates them to other evidence that he has similarly collected from some other archive, from some other place. He cannot possibly copy down everything he has read, nor use all the evidence he has collected. The evidence that does not make sense to the historian goes unnoticed. At a later date, some other historian reads the same records with new questions in mind. She now discovers evidence that had earlier gone unnoticed. She interprets this evidence, makes new connections, and writes a new book of history. History writing cannot do away with this element of selectivity. So in reading history we need to see what events a historian chooses to focus on and how he interprets them. We need to understand the larger argument the historian is developing, the broader framework through which he makes sense of particular events. Till recently the history of the world that we read was often a story of the rise of the modern West. It was a story of continuous progress and development: the expansion of technology and science, markets and trade, reason and rationality, freedom and liberty. Individual histories of specific events were very often structured within this larger story of the triumphal march of the West. Imperial domination of the world was premised on this conception of the past. The West saw itself as the bearer of progress: civilising the world, introducing reforms, educating natives, expanding trades and markets. Should we not question this perception today? To do that we need to re-look at world history, travel across continents and long chronological periods, and see whether we can think of this history in a new way. Themes in World History will help you in this journey. It will do so in three different ways. First: it will introduce you to the darker histories that lie behind the glorious stories of development and progress. You will see how the arrival of explorers and traders in South America in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries did not simply open up the place for western commerce and culture; it led to the spread of disease, destruction of civilisations and the decimation of populations (Theme 8). Later, when white settlers moved into North America and Australia, what we had was not just progress (Theme 10). Behind the history of the development of modern capitalist societies in these places lie the disturbing stories of displacements of indigenous populations, and even genocide. 2018-19 vi Second: when you read about the making of states and empires in Section II, you will see that the drama unfolds not only in Rome (Theme 3), that is in Europe, but in the Central Islamic states (Theme 4), and the land of the Mongols (Theme 5). These chapters will tell you about the very different ways in which society and polity are organised in these places. Third: in reading Section IV you will see that there are different paths to modernisation. There was a time when it was believed that industrialisation first occurred in Britain and other countries tried to replicate this model in various ways. So the developments of all countries were judged in relation to the British model. Such an argument once again sees the West as the centre of the world. But we know today that it is certainly not true that all creativity flowed in only from the West. In opposition to this, however, we cannot simply assert that the West had no influence on what was happening elsewhere, or that historical developments in each country have to be seen in isolation, that we should only look at the indigenous roots of all developments. That would be a narrow and limited perspective, a form of parochialism. Instead we need to recognise that in different countries people act creatively to shape the world in which they live, and these developments in turn have impact on other countries and continents, including Europe. Theme 7 will help you see how even the cultural developments in Renaissance Europe were so significantly influenced by developments in other parts of the world. Your journey will begin with the evolution of early human societies (Theme1) and the early cities (Theme 2). You will then see how large states and empires developed in three different parts of the world, and how these societies were organised (Section II). In the next section, you will have a close look at how European society and culture changed between the ninth and the fifteenth centuries, and what European expansion meant for the people of South America (Section III). Finally, you will read about the complex history of the making of the modern world (Section IV). Many of the themes will introduce you to the debates in the field and show how historians continuously rethink old issues. Each section begins with an Introduction and a Timeline. These timelines are not for you to memorise for exams. They are meant to give you some idea of what was happening in different places at any one point of time. They will help you situate the history of one place in relation to another. Constructing a timeline is always difficult. How do we choose the dates to focus on? Not all historians would agree on the choices made. In fact, if you compare different timelines, given in different books, for the same period, you may find that the issues highlighted in them are different. So we need to read each timeline critically, see what it tells us and what it does not. Timelines frame history in particular ways. This year you are not reading about the history of South Asia. The book you read next year will be on ‘Themes in Indian History’. Over these two years (Classes XI and XII) you will learn not only about some of the critical events and processes in the history of the world, you will also discover how historians come to know about the past. You will see what sources they use and how they make sense of these; you will see how historical knowledge develops through re-interpretations and debates. NEELADRI BHATTACHARYA Chief Advisor, History 2018-19 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE FOR THE SECONDARY STAGE Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata CHIEF ADVISOR Neeladri Bhattacharya, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi ADVISOR Narayani Gupta, Professor (Retd), Department of History, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi (Theme 10) MEMBERS Jairus Banaji, Visiting Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (Theme 3) Arup Banerji, Professor, Department of History, Delhi University, Delhi (Theme 9) Bhaskar Chakravarty, Professor, Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata (Theme 7) Rajat Datta, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (Theme 6) Najaf Haider, Associate Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (Theme 4) Sunil Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of History, Delhi University, Delhi (Theme 5) Shereen Ratnagar, Professor (Retd), Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (Theme 2) Anil Sethi, Professor, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi Reetu Singh, Assistant Professor, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi Beeba Sobti, Sr Teacher, Modern School, New Delhi Chitra Srinivasan, Sr Teacher, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New Delhi Lakshmi Subramanian, Professor, Centre for the Study of Social Sciences, Kolkata (Theme 8) Brij Tankha, Professor, Department of East Asian Studies, Delhi University, Delhi (Theme 11) Supriya Verma, Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad (Theme 1) MEMBER–COORDINATOR Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi 2018-19 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many individuals contributed to the production of this book, by way of providing written and pictorial material, reading chapters, visualising its design, and with editing and proofreading. Kumkum Roy helped in many different ways in the preparation of the book. Niharika Gupta gave crucial inputs and literary references. Alan Mayne, Dan O’ Connor, Jaya Menon, Partho Datta, Peter Mayer and Philip Oldenburg offered comments on specific chapters. Shinjini Chatterjee and Shyama Warner gave unstintingly of their time for copy-editing, and Devika Sethi helped with the preparation of the maps. The typesetting and design were done with good humour and patience by Animesh Roy and Ritu Topa of Arrt Creations. Achin Jain and Albinus Tirkey worked on the corrections with speed and efficiency. Those who gave generously of their time to do arduous proofreading include Akhila Yechury, Anish Vanaik, Dipasree Baul, Pallavi Raghavan and Parth Shil. In the recent edition of the book, ‘The Story of Korea’ has been added. For this, we thank Lee War Bom, Professor of Politics, Center for International Affairs, The Academy of Korean Studies, Seoul, Republic of Korea, and Cho Young Jun, Professor of Economics, Center for International Affairs, The Academy of Korean Studies, Republic of Korea. Our grateful thanks to all of them. PICTURE CREDITS William A. Turnbaugh, Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, Harry Nelson, Understanding Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, Belmont, 2002 (for visuals on pp. 1, 9, 11, 19 and 28) J. Boardman, J.Griffin, O.Murray, Oxford History of the Classical World, Oxford University Press,1991 (for visuals on pp. 61, 63, 66 and 69) Barbara Brend, Islamic Art, British Museum Press, 1991 (for visuals on pp. 80 and 96) Bernard Lewis, Islam, Thames and Hudson, 1992 (for visuals on pp. 79, 91, 92 and 97) M.Hattstein and P.Delius (eds) Islam: Art and Architecture, Konemann, 2000 (for visuals on pp. 90, 95, 100, 101, 121) P. Gay and the Editors of Time-Life Books, Age of Enlightenment, Amsterdam, 1985 (for visuals on pp. 186 and 187) P.B. Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge University Press, 1996 (for visual on p. 244) Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, Century Hutchinson, 1990 (for visuals on pp. 247, 250 and 252) J.Colton and the Editors of Time-Life Books, Twentieth Century, Amsterdam, 1985 (for visuals on pp. 186 and 187) Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington D.C. (for visuals on pp. 224, 139) National Geographic, December 1996, February 1997 (for visuals on pp. 108, 110, 113, 116, 121) 2018-19 CONTENTS FOREWORD _______________________________________________ III ON READING WORLD HISTORY _________________________________ V Section I EARLY SOCIETIES Introduction ___________________________________________ 2 Timeline I (6 MYA TO 1 BCE ) ______________________________ 4 Theme I: From the Beginning of Time _________________ 8 Theme 2: Writing and City Life _______________________ 29 Section II EMPIRES Introduction __________________________________________ 50 Timeline II (C. 100 BCE TO 1300 CE ) _____________________ 54 Theme 3: An Empire Across Three Continents _______ 58 Theme 4: The Central Islamic Lands _________________ 77 Theme 5: Nomadic Empires ________________________ 104 Section III CHANGING TRADITIONS Introduction ________________________________________ 124 Timeline III (C. 1300 TO 1700) ________________________ 128 Theme 6: The Three Orders _________________________ 132 Theme 7: Changing Cultural Traditions ____________ 152 Theme 8: Confrontation of Cultures ________________ 168 Section IV TOWARDS MODERNISATION Introduction ________________________________________ 186 Timeline IV (C. 1700 TO 2000) ________________________ 189 Theme 9: The Industrial Revolution ________________ 196 Theme 10: Displacing Indigenous Peoples __________ 213 Theme 11: Paths to Modernisation _________________ 231 Conclusion __________________________________________ 260 Suggested Reading _________________________________ 263 2018-19 2018-19 1 2018-19 2 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY N this section, we will read about two themes relating to early societies. The first is about the beginnings of human existence, from the remote past, millions of years ago. You will learn how humans first emerged in Africa and how archaeologists have studied these early phases of history from remains of bones and stone tools. Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of early people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived, the food they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals, and the ways in which they expressed themselves. Other important developments include the use of fire and of language. And, finally, you will see whether the lives of people who live by hunting and gathering today can help us to understand the past. The second theme deals with some of the earliest cities – those of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples, and were centres of long-distance trade. Archaeological evidence – remains of old settlements – and an abundance of written material are used to reconstruct the lives of the different people who lived there – craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will notice how pastoral people played an important role in some of these towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities that went on in cities would have been possible if writing had not developed. You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years had lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the story is a long one and is related to several developments that took place at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the first cities. One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around 10,000 years ago. As you will see in Theme 1, prior to the adoption of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants – where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit and so on. 2018-19 EARLY SOCIETIES 3 From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia, wheat and barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown. In East and Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet and rice. Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time, people learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and animal fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat later, about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle and donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts. These developments led to other changes as well. When people grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that, people built more permanent structures in which to live. This was also the time when some communities learnt how to make earthen pots. These were used to store grain and other produce, and to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from the new grains that were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of attention was given to processing foods to make them tasty and digestible. The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes, which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging the earth to sow seeds. In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used for their distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way for the more extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools subsequently. There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones, including precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell, and obsidian (hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going from place to place, carrying goods and ideas with them. With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the movements of people, in place of the small communities of early people there now grew small states. While these changes took place slowly, over several thousand years, the pace quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes had far-reaching consequences. Some scholars have described this as a revolution, as the lives of people were probably transformed beyond recognition. Look out for continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes in early history. Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of early societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies, including farming communities and pastoral peoples. And there were other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well as city dwellers, apart from the examples selected. 2018-19 4 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY You will find a timeline like this one in every section. Each of these will indicate some of the major processes and events in world history. As you study the timelines, remember— Processes through which ordinary women and men have shaped history are far more difficult to date than events such as a war between kings. Some dates may indicate the beginning of a process, or when it reaches maturation. Historians are constantly revising dates in the light of new evidence, or new ways of assessing old data. While we have divided the timelines on a geographical basis as a matter of convenience, actual historical developments often transcend these divisions. Also, there is a chronological overlap in historical processes. Only some landmarks in human history have been shown here – we have highlighted the processes dealt with in the This timeline focuses on the themes that follow, which also have separate timelines. emergence of humans and the Wherever you see a*, you will domestication of plants and animals. also find an illustration related to the date along the column. It highlights some major technological Blank spaces do not mean that developments such as the use of fire, nothing was happening – sometimes these indicate that metals, plough agriculture and the we do not as yet know what was happening. wheel. Other processes that are shown You will be lear ning more include the emergence of cities and the about South Asian history in general and Indian history in use of writing. You will also find particular next year. The dates mention of some of the earliest selected for South Asia are only indicative of some empires – a theme that will be of the developments in the subcontinent. developed in Timeline II. 2018-19 T IMELINE - I 5 DATES AFRICA EUROPE 6 mya-500,000 BP Australopithecus fossils (5.6 mya) Evidence of use of fire (1.4 mya) 500,000-150,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (195,000 BP ) Evidence of use of fire (400,000 BP) 150,000-50,000 BP 50,000-30,000 Homo sapiens fossils (40,000) 30,000-10,000 Paintings in caves/rock shelters (27,500) Paintings in caves/rock shelters (especially France and Spain) 8000-7000 BCE 7000-6000 Domestication of cattle and dogs 6000-5000 Cultivation of wheat and barley (Greece) 5000-4000 4000-3000 Domestication of donkey, cultivation of Use of copper (Crete) millet, use of copper 3000-2000 Plough agriculture, first kingdoms, cities, Domestication of horse (eastern Europe) pyramids, calendar, hieroglyphic script*, writing on papyrus (Egypt) 2000-1900 Cities, palaces, use of bronze, the potter’s wheel, development of trade (Crete) 1900-1800 1800-1700 1700-1600 Development of a script (Crete)* 1600-1500 1500-1400 Use of glass bottles (Egypt) 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 1100-1000 Use of iron 1000-900 900-800 City of Carthage established in North Africa by the Phoenicians from West Asia; growing trade around the Mediterranean 800-700 Use of iron (Sudan) First Olympic games (Greece, 776 BCE) 700-600 Use of iron (Egypt) 600-500 Use of coins* (Greece); establishment of the Roman republic (510 BCE) 500-400 Persians invade Egypt Establishment of a ‘democracy’ in Athens (Greece) 400-300 Establishment of Alexandria, Egypt (332 Alexander of Macedonia conquers Egypt BCE ), which becomes a major centre of and parts of West Asia (336-323 BCE) learning 300-200 200-100 100-1 BCE 2018-19 6 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY DATES ASIA SOUTH ASIA 6mya-500,000 BP Use of fire (700,000 BP, China) Stone age site in Riwat (1,900,000 BP , Pakistan) 500,000-150,000 BP 150,000-50,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (100,000 BP, West Asia) 50,000-30,000 BP 30,000-10,000 BP Domestication of dog (14,000, West Asia) Cave paintings at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh); Homo sapiens fossils (25,500 BP , Sri Lanka) 8000-7000 BCE Domestication of sheep and goat, cultivation of wheat and barley (West Asia) 7000-6000 Domestication of pig and cattle (West Early agricultural settlements (Baluchistan) and East Asia) 6000-5000 Domestication of chicken, cultivation of millet and yam (East Asia) 5000-4000 Cultivation of cotton (South Asia); use of copper (West Asia) 4000-3000 Use of the potter’s wheel, wheel for Use of copper transport (3600 BCE), writing (3200 BCE, Mesopotamia), use of bronze 3000-2000 Plough agriculture, cities (Mesopotamia); silk- Cities of the Harappan civilisation, use of making (China); domestication of horse (Central script* (c.2700 BCE) Asia); cultivation of rice (Southeast Asia) 2000-1900 Domestication of water-buffalo (East Asia) 1900-1800 1800-1700 1700-1600 1600-1500 Cities, writing, kingdoms (Shang dynasty), use of bronze (China)* 1500-1400 Use of iron (West Asia) Composition of the Rig Veda 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 Use of iron, megaliths (Deccan and South India) 1100-1000 Domestication of the one-humped camel (Arabia) 1000-900 900-800 800-700 700-600 600-500 Use of coins (Turkey); Persian empire (546 Cities and states in several areas, first BCE ) with capital at Persepolis; Chinese coins, spread of Jainism and Buddhism philosopher Confucius (c. 551 BCE) 500-400 400-300 Establishment of the Mauryan empire (c. 321 BCE) 300-200 Establishment of an empire in China (221 BCE ), beginning of the construction of the Great Wall 200-100 100-1 BCE 2018-19 T IMELINE - I 7 DATES AMERICAS AUSTRALIA / PACIFIC ISLANDS 6 mya-500,000 BP 500,000-150,000 BP 150,000-50,000 BP 50,000-30,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils, earliest indications of sea-faring (45,000 BP) 30,000-10,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (12,000 BP ) Paintings (20,000 BP) 8000-7000 BCE 7000-6000 Cultivation of squash 6000-5000 5000-4000 Cultivation of beans ACTIVITY 4000-3000 Cultivation of cotton, bottle gourd Choose one date 3000-2000 Domestication of guinea pig, turkey, from each of the cultivation of maize six columns and discuss the 2000-1900 Cultivation of potato, chilli * , cassava, possible peanut, domestication of llama* and alpaca significance of the process/ 1900-1800 event for men 1800-1700 and women living in the 1700-1600 region. 1600-1500 1500-1400 1400-1300 1300-1200 1200-1100 Olmec settlements around the Gulf of Settlements in Polynesia and Micronesia Mexico, early temples and sculpture 1100-1000 1000-900 Development of a hieroglyphic script 900-800 800-700 700-600 600-500 500-400 400-300 300-200 200-100 100-1 BCE 2018-19 8 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY THIS chapter traces the beginning of human existence. It was 5.6 million years ago (written as mya) that the first human- like creatures appeared on the earth's surface. After this, several forms of humans emerged and then became extinct. Human beings resembling us (henceforth referred to as 'modern humans') originated about 160,000 years ago. During this long period of human history, people obtained food by either scavenging or hunting animals and gathering plant produce. They also learnt how to make stone tools and to communicate with each other. Although other ways of obtaining food were adopted later, hunting-gathering continued. Even today there are hunter- gatherer societies in some parts of the world. This makes us wonder whether the lifestyles of present-day hunter-gatherers can tell us anything about the past. Discoveries of human fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. Each of these discoveries has a history of its own. Very often, when such finds were first made, most scholars refused to accept that these fossils were the remains of early humans. They were also sceptical about the ability of early humans to make stone tools or paint. It was only over a period of time that the true significance of these finds was realised. The evidence for human evolution comes from fossils of species of humans which have become extinct. Fossils can be dated either through direct chemical analysis or indirectly by dating the sediments in which they are buried. Once fossils are dated, a sequence of human evolution can be worked out. When such discoveries were first made, about 200 years ago, many scholars were often reluctant to accept that fossils and other finds including stone tools and paintings were actually connected with early forms of humans. This reluctance generally stemmed from their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible, according to which human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God. For instance, in August 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (see Map 2, p. 18), a gorge near the German city of Dusseldorf, found a skull and some skeletal fragments. These were handed over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local schoolmaster and natural historian, who realised that 2018-19 F ROM THE B EGINNING OF TIME 9 they did not belong to a modern human. He then made a plaster cast of the skull and sent it to Herman Schaaffhausen, a professor of anatomy at Bonn University. The following year they jointly published a paper, claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was extinct. At that time, scholars did not accept this view and instead declared that the skull belonged to a person of more recent times. RECOVERING FOSSILS A painstaking process. The precise location of finds is important for dating. Shows the equipment used to record the location of finds. The Shows how a fossil fragment is square frame to the left of the archaeologist is a grid divided recovered from the surrounding into 10 cm squares. Placing it over the find spot helps to stone, in this case a variety of record the horizontal position of the find. The triangular limestone, in which it is apparatus to the right is used to record the vertical position. embedded. As you can see, this requires skill and patience. ACTIVITY 1 24 November 1859, when Charles Darwin’s On the Origin Most religions of Species was published, marked a landmark in the study have stories of evolution. All 1,250 copies of the first print were sold out about the the same day. Darwin argued that humans had evolved from creation of animals a long time ago. human beings which often do not correspond with scientific discoveries. Find out about some of these and compare them with the history of The skull of Neanderthal man. Some human evolution of those who dismissed the antiquity as discussed in of the skull regarded it as 'brutish' or this chapter. that of a 'pathological idiot'. 2018-19 10 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY A B The differences that you notice in the skulls shown in the illustration are some of the changes that came about as a result of human evolution. The story of human evolution is enormously long, and somewhat complicated. There are also many unanswered questions, and new data often lead to a revision and modification of earlier C understandings. Let us look at some of the developments and their implications more closely. It is possible to trace these developments back to between 36 and 24 mya. We sometimes find it difficult to conceptualise such long spans of time. If you consider a page of your book to represent D 10,000 years, in itself a vast span of time, 10 pages would represent 100,000 years, and a 100 pages would equal 1 million years. To think of 36 million years, you would have to imagine a book 3,600 pages long! That was when primates, a category of mammals, emerged in Asia and Africa. Subsequently, by about 24 mya, there emerged a subgroup amongst primates, called hominoids. This included apes. And, much later, about 5.6 mya, we find evidence of the first hominids. While hominids have evolved from hominoids and share certain common features, there are major differences as well. Hominoids have a smaller brain than hominids. They are quadrupeds, walking on all fours, but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids, by contrast, have an upright posture and bipedal locomotion (walking on two feet). There are also marked differences in the hand, which enables the making and use of tools. We will examine the kinds of tools made and their significance more closely later. Two lines of evidence suggest an African origin for hominids. First, it is the group of African apes that are most closely related to hominids. Second, the earliest hominid fossils, which belong to the genus Australopithecus, have been found in East Africa and date back to about 5.6 mya. In contrast, fossils found outside Africa are no older than 1.8 million years. 2018-19 F ROM THE B EGINNING OF T IME 11 A B C Hominids belong to a family known as Hominidae, which includes all forms of human beings. The distinctive characteristics of hominids include a large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion and specialisation of the hand. Hominids are further subdivided into branches, known as genus, of which Australopithecus and Homo are important. Each of these in turn includes several species. The major differences between Australopithecus and Homo relate to brain size, jaws and teeth. The former has a smaller brain size, heavier jaws and larger teeth than the latter. Virtually all the names given by scientists to species are derived from Latin and Greek words. For instance, the name Australopithecus comes from a Latin word, ‘austral’, meaning ‘southern’ and a Greek word, ‘pithekos’, meaning ‘ape.’ The name was given because this earliest form of humans still retained many features of an ape, such as a relatively small brain size in comparison to Homo, large back teeth and limited dexterity of the hands. Upright walking was also restricted, as they still spent a lot of time on trees. They retained characteristics This is a view of the Olduvai Gorge in the Rift Valley, East Africa (see Map 1b, p.14), one of the areas from which traces of early human history have been recovered. Notice the different levels of earth at the centre of the photograph. Each of these represents a distinct geological phase. 2018-19 12 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY (such as long forelimbs, curved hand and foot bones and mobile ankle joints) suited to life on trees. Over time, as tool making and long- distance walking increased, many human characteristics also developed. The remains of early humans have been classified into different species. These are often distinguished from one another on the basis of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early humans are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive jaws (see illustration on p.10). These characteristics may have evolved due to what has been called the positive feedback mechanism. 2018-19 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 13 THE POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM For example, bipedalism enabled hands to be freed for carrying infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright walking gradually became more efficient. Apart from the advantage of freeing hands for various uses, far less energy is consumed while walking as compared to the movement of a quadruped. However, the advantage in terms of saving energy is reversed while running. There is indirect evidence of bipedalism as early as 3.6 mya. This comes from the fossilised hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania (see Section cover). Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provide more direct evidence of bipedalism. Around 2.5 mya, with the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice Age), when large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were major changes in climate and vegetation. Due to the reduction in temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of Australopithecus (that were adapted to forests) and the replacement by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions. Among these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo. 2018-19 14 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’, although there were women as well! Scientists distinguish amongst several types of Homo. The names assigned to these species are derived from what are regarded as their typical characteristics. So fossils are classified as Homo habilis (the tool maker), Homo erectus (the upright man), and Homo sapiens (the wise or thinking man). Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora and west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java. As the finds in Asia belong to a later date than those in Africa, it is likely that hominids migrated from East Africa to southern and northern Africa, to southern and north-eastern Asia, and perhaps to Europe, some time between 2 and 1.5 mya. This species survived for nearly a million years. MAP 1(a): Africa MAP 1(b): The East African Rift Valley 2018-19 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 15 In some instances, the names for fossils are derived from the places where the first fossils of a particular type were found. So fossils found in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called Homo heidelbergensis, while those found in the Neander valley (see p. 18) were categorised as Homo neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis. Both belong to the species of archaic (that is, old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals occupied Europe and western and Central Asia from roughly 130,000 to 35,000 years ago. They disappeared abruptly in western Europe around 35,000 years ago. In general, compared with Australopithecus, Homo have a larger brain, jaws with a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth (see illustration on p. 10). An increase in brain size is associated with more intelligence and a better memory. The changes in the jaws and teeth were probably related to differences in dietary habits. ACTIVITY 2 Plot the changes indicated in the chart above on an outline map of the world. Use different colours for the four time brackets. List the continents where you use (a) a single colour, (b) two colours, (c) more than two colours. 2018-19 16 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY If you look at this chart, you will notice that some of the earliest evidence for Homo sapiens has been found in different parts of Africa. This raises the question of the centre of human origin. Was there a single centre or were there several? The issue of the place of origin of modern humans has been much debated. Two totally divergent views have been expounded, one advocating the regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin), the other the replacement model (with a single origin in Africa). According to the regional continuity model, the archaic Homo sapiens in different regions gradually evolved at different rates into modern humans, and hence the variation in the first appearance of modern humans in different parts of the world. The argument is based on the regional differences in the features of present-day humans. According to those who advocate this view, these dissimilarities are due to differences between the pre-existing Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations that occupied the same regions. The replacement model visualises the complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans with modern humans. In support of this view is the evidence of the genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans. Those who suggest this argue that the enormous similarity amongst modern humans is due to their descent from a population that originated in a single region, which is Africa. The evidence of the earliest fossils of modern humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) also supports the replacement model. Scholars who hold this view suggest that the physical differences observed today among modern humans are the result of adaptation (over a span of thousands of years) by populations who migrated to the particular regions where they finally settled down. 2018-19 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 17 So far, we have been considering the evidence of skeletal remains and seeing how these have been used to reconstruct the histories of the movements of peoples across continents. But, there are other, more routine aspects of human life as well. Let us see how these can be studied. Early humans would have obtained food through a number of ways, such as gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. Gathering would involve collecting plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. That gathering was practised is generally assumed rather than conclusively established, as there is very little direct evidence for it. While we get a fair amount of fossil bones, fossilised plant remains are relatively rare. The only other way of getting information about plant intake would be if plant remains were accidentally burnt. This process results in carbonisation. In this form, organic matter is preserved for a long span of time. However, so far archaeologists have not found much evidence of carbonised seeds for this very early period. In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion by scholars. Increasingly, it is being suggested that the early *Foraging means to hominids scavenged or foraged* for meat and marrow from the search for food. carcasses of animals that had died naturally or had been killed by other predators. It is equally possible that small mammals such as rodents, birds (and their eggs), reptiles and even insects (such as termites) were eaten by early hominids. Hunting probably began later – about 500,000 years ago. The earliest clear evidence for the deliberate, planned hunting and butchery of large mammals comes from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England (500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago) 2018-19 18 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY (see Map 2 ). Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites. MAP 2: Europe From about 35,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting from some European sites. Some sites, such as Dolni Vestonice (in the Czech Republic, see Map 2), which was near a river, seem to have been deliberately chosen by early people. Herds of migratory animals such as reindeer and horse probably crossed the river during their autumn and spring migrations and were killed on a large scale. The choice of such sites indicates that people knew about the movement of these animals and also about the means of killing large numbers of animals quickly. Did men and women have different roles in gathering, scavenging, hunting and fishing? We do not really know. Today we find societies that live by hunting and gathering, where women and men undertake a range of different activities, but, as we will see later in the chapter, it is not always possible to suggest parallels with the past. We are on surer ground when we try to reconstruct the evidence for patterns of residence. One way of doing this is by plotting the distribution of artefacts. For example, thousands of flake tools and hand axes have been excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesailie (Kenya). These finds are dated between 700,000 and 500,000 years ago. 2018-19 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 19 How did these tools accumulate in one place? It is possible Left: The site of Olorgesailie. The that some places, where food resources were abundant, were excavators, Mary and visited repeatedly. In such areas, people would tend to leave Louis Leakey, had a behind traces of their activities and presence, including artefacts. catwalk built around The deposited artefacts would appear as patches on the landscape. the site for observers. The places that were less frequently visited would have fewer Above: A close-up of tools found at the site, artefacts, which may have been scattered over the surface. including hand axes. It is also important to remember that the same locations could have been shared by hominids, other primates and carnivores. Look at the diagram below to see how this may have worked. Archaeologists suggest that early hominids such as Homo habilis probably consumed most of the food where they found it, slept in different places, and spent much of their time in trees. How would bones have reached the site? How would stones have reached the site? Would bones have survived intact? 2018-19 20 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open- air sites began to be used. Evidence for this comes from sites in Europe. In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a 12x4 metre shelter was built against the cave wall. Inside it were two hearths and evidence of different food sources: fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, bird eggs and freshwater fish (trout, perch and carp). At another site, Terra Amata on the coast of southern France, flimsy shelters with roofs of wood and grasses were built for short-term, seasonal visits. Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone This is a tools, dated between 1.4 and 1 mya, have been found at Chesowanja, reconstruction of a hut at Terra Amata. The Kenya and Swartkrans, South Africa. Were these the result of a large stone boulders natural bushfire or volcanic eruption? Or were they produced through were used to support the deliberate, controlled use of fire? We do not really know. the sides of the hut. Hearths, on the other hand, are indications of the controlled The small scatters of stone on the floor were use of fire. This had several advantages – fire provided warmth places where people and light inside caves, and could be used for cooking. Besides, made stone tools. The fire was used to harden wood, as for instance the tip of the spear. black spot marked The use of heat also facilitated the flaking of tools. As important, with an arrow fire could be used to scare away dangerous animals. indicates a hearth. In what ways do you think life for those who lived in this shelter would be different from that of To start with, it is useful to remember that the use of tools and the hominids who lived on trees? tool making are not confined to humans. Birds are known to make objects to assist them with feeding, hygiene and social encounters; and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use tools that they have made. However, there are some features of human tool making that are not known among apes. As we have seen (see p. 11), certain anatomical and neurological (related to the nervous system) adaptations have led to Some early tools. the skilled use of hands, probably due to the These tools were found in Olduvai. important role of tools in human lives. The one above is a Moreover, the ways in which humans use chopper. This is a large and make tools often require greater memory stone from which and complex organisational skills, both flakes have been of which are absent in apes. removed to produce a working edge. The earliest evidence for the The one below is a making and use of stone tools hand axe. comes from sites in Ethiopia and Can you suggest what Kenya (see Map 1). It is likely that these tools may have been used for? the earliest stone tool makers were the Australopithecus. 2018-19 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 21 As in the case of other activities, we do not know whether tool making was done by men or women or both. It is possible that stone tool makers were both women and men. Women in particular may have made and used tools to obtain food for themselves as well as to sustain their children after weaning. About 35,000 years ago, improvements in the techniques for killing animals are evident from the appearance of new kinds of tools such as spear -throwers and the bow and arrow. The meat thus obtained was probably processed by removing the bones, followed by drying, smoking and storage. Thus, food could be stored for later consumption. There were other changes, such as the trapping of fur-bearing A spear-thrower. Note the carving on animals (to use the fur for clothing) and the invention of sewing the handle. The use of needles. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about the spear-thrower 21,000 years ago. Besides, with the introduction of the punch enabled hunters to blade technique to make small chisel-like tools, it was now hurl spears over possible to make engravings on bone, antler, ivory or wood. longer distances. Can you suggest any advantage in using such equipment? THE PUNCH BLADE TECHNIQUE A C D B E (a) The top of a large pebble is removed using a hammer stone. (b) This produces a flat surface called the striking platform. (c) This is then struck using a hammer and a punch, made of bone or antler. (d) This leads to the production of blades that can be used as knives, or modified to serve as chisels or burins which could be used to engrave bone, antler, ivory or wood. (e) An example of engraving on bone. Note the drawings of animals on it. 2018-19 22 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language. There are several views on language development: (1) that hominid language involved gestures or hand movements; (2) that spoken language was preceded by vocal but non-verbal communication such as singing or humming; (3) that human speech probably began with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates. Humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage. Gradually, these may have developed into language. When did spoken language emerge? It has been suggested that the brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have developed as early as 2 mya. The evolution of the vocal tract was equally important. This occurred around 200,000 years ago. It is more specifically associated with modern humans. A third suggestion is that language developed around the same time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago. The development of spoken language has been seen as closely connected with art, since both are media for communication. A drawing of a bison at Altamira, northern Spain. 2018-19 F ROM THE B EGINNING OF TIME 23 Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000 and12,000 years ago) have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux and Chauvet, both in France, and Altamira, in Spain. These include depictions of bison, horses, ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions, bears, panthers, hyenas and owls. More questions have been raised than answered regarding these paintings. For example, why do some areas of caves have paintings and not others? Why were some animals painted and not others? Why were men painted both individually and in groups, whereas women were depicted only in groups? Why were men painted near animals but never women? Why were groups of animals painted in the sections of caves where sounds carried well? Several explanations have been offered. One is that because of the importance of hunting, the paintings of animals were associated with ritual and magic. The act of painting could have been a ritual to ensure a successful hunt. Another explanation offered is that these caves were possibly meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities. These groups could share hunting techniques and knowledge, while paintings and engravings served as the media for passing information from one generation to the next. The above account of early societies has been based on archaeological evidence. Clearly, there is much that we still do not know. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hunter-gatherer societies exist even today. Can one learn anything about past societies from present-day hunter-gatherers? This is a question we will address in the next section. The following is an account by a member of an African pastoral group about its initial contact in 1870 with the !Kung San, a hunter-gatherer society living in the Kalahari desert: When we first came into this area, all we saw were strange footprints in the sand. We wondered what kind of people these were. They were very afraid of us and would hide whenever we came around. We found their villages, but they were always empty because as soon as they saw strangers coming, they would scatter and hide in the bush. We said: ‘Oh, this is good; these people are afraid of us, they are weak and we can easily rule over them.’ So we just ruled them. There was no killing or fighting. You will read more about encounters with hunter-gatherers in Themes 8 and 10. 2018-19 24 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY
