Nature of Research PDF

RESEARCH METHODS WEEK TWO LECTURE NOTES INTRODUCTION Research is a process that advances knowledge and improves practice. This module seeks to bring students to a sense of direction in the implementation of inquiry methods that value new ways of advancing knowledge. Research is a process that can...

RESEARCH METHODS WEEK TWO LECTURE NOTES INTRODUCTION Research is a process that advances knowledge and improves practice. This module seeks to bring students to a sense of direction in the implementation of inquiry methods that value new ways of advancing knowledge. Research is a process that can be learnt easily by everyone anywhere. Research activity is the most intensely, fascinating, engaging, challenging and rewarding part of people management. Each time you observe people, ask questions and try to figure out what your subordinates are doing or going to do next, you are already conducting research. DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH Creswell (2004) Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing data for some purpose. Graziano and Raulin (2008) A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to increase our understanding of the pheneomena with which we are interested or concerned. According to Rusk “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions which have hither to not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure. It is not a mere theorising, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific knowledge of the subject. According to George J. Mouly “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of social problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be considered research.” Clifford Woody of the University of Michigan Research is a carefully inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; a diligent investigation to ascertain something, according to Webster’s New International Dictionary. This definition makes clear the fact that research is not merely a search for truth, but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. In the last analysis, research constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses. C.C. Crawford “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.” John W. Best thinks, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusions.” “Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavour or primitive hunting.” – James Harvey Robinson “Research is the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the practice of an art.” – Encyclopaedia of Social Science “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” – V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory C. Francies Rummel “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in purpose and form and always searching for truth.” P.M. Cook has given a very comprehensive and functional definition of the term research “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in the field studied.” He emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition: 1. It is an honest and exhaustive process. 2. The facts are studied with understanding. 3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centred. 4. The findings are valid and verifiable. 5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.  W.S. Monroe Monroe, University of Illinois states, “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questionnaires, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of social studies; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on eve a part thereof.” R.M. Hutchins The Chancellor of the University of Chicago, in “The Higher Learning in America” says, “Research in the sense of the development, elaboration, and refinement of principles, together with the collection and use of empirical materials to aid in these processes, is one of the highest activities of a university and one in which all its professors should be engaged.” J.H. McGrath and D.E. Watson have defined the term ‘Research’ more comprehensively. “Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry employed as the research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of stimulating progress and helping society and man relate more efficiently and effectively to the problems that society and man perpetuate and create.” From the above definitions, research is a process (not an event) which is done systematically (not haphazardly) to arrive at a dependable solution to problem through planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The search is a prolonged, intensive and purposeful one. Research can be done anywhere and by anyone. The word research is not used in a general way in science, but in the scientific sense. WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH? McMillan and Schumacher (1998) define a scientific research as formal and is the search of knowledge by using recognized methods in data collection, analysis and interpretation. The term scientific refers to an approach and is not synonymous with science. Science is a body of established knowledge, whereas scientific refers to the way knowledge is generated. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’ 1. Research originates with a problem or question. The problem needs to be stated in clear and simple terms. There must be a definitive question at the beginning of the research which should be developed into precise and grammatically complete  statement indicating exactly what the ultimate goal of research is. The problem is to be resolved by the researcher. 2. It deals with the main problem through appropriate sub-problems. To begin planning your research, you must inspect the main problem for its appropriate sub- problems. It is vital to identify the appropriate sub-problems which may help in the solution of the main problem. 3. It is guided by the specific hypothesis. 4. It accepts certain critical assumptions. An assumption is a position taken for granted without which the research would be impossible to investigate. It is a self-evident condition. 5. It requires a specific plan for the procedure. When you want to research, you need a plan of how you will collect the data to resolve the problem. It requires a specific plan for the procedure of data collection and analysis. It is therefore logical and objective. 6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses. 7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences. 8. It endeavours to organize data in quantitative terms. 9. Research is patient and unhurried activity. 10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval. 11. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and cautiously. THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH The main function of research is to improve research procedures through the refinement and extension of knowledge. The refinement of existing knowledge or the acquisition of new knowledge is essentially an intermediate step toward the improvement of the social studies process. The social improvement is associated with various aspects of Social Studies: (a) The function of research is to aid to making a decision concerning the refinement or extension of knowledge in this particular area. (b) The function of research is to improve the students learning and classroom problem with which teacher is encountering with problems. The more effective techniques for teaching can be developed. (c) Another function of research is to aid administrators to improve the Social systems. The Researches should contribute to the theory and practice of study studies simultaneously. It should have the image of a helpful mechanism which can be used by researcher/research scholar in one way or the other, for the improvement of the process. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH The following are the main characteristics of research: 1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research Robert R. Rusk observes. “In the application of scientific procedure to social studies a sound philosophy as well as a sound common sense must be invoked to save the scientific procedure from itself.” 2. Research is based on insight and imagination The same writer feels, “Social studies by its reliance on research must never fail to realize that in addition to its practical practitioner and skilled investigators, it stands in need of men and women of imaginative insight, who look beyond, he present and behold the vision splendid. If the vision should fade into the light of common day, not only will the people perish, but research itself will become a sterile futility.” 3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach Research is not the mere description of elementary and isolated facts of nature. It must be related to the study of complex relationships of various facts. It requires an inter- disciplinary approach. 4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process Eric Hylla writes in the ‘Nature and Functions of Research’, the science of mind commonly uses methods of description, explanation, interpretation, sympathetic or intuitive understanding methods which are mainly speculative and deductive in character and which rarely furnish results that can be subjected to measurement or mathematical procedures. 5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better Stephen M. Corey writes. “Better social study means better development or formulation of instructional aims, better motivation of pupils, better teaching methods, better evaluation and better supervision and administration, these are ‘activities’ or ‘operations’. 6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science No two human beings have ever been found to be alike. No scientific investigations of human behavior even those of so-called “identical twins” have resulted in the findings of individuals completely similar in structure or behaviour. “In the whole world there are probably no two things exactly alike similarly no two human beings are alike, they differ physically in size, weight, height, colour of eyes and hair texture of skin and in a thousand other details as well as in thousands of details of mental, social and spiritual life,” writes H.C. McKown. This fact stands in the way of making research as an exact science. 7. Research is not the field of the specialist only W.C. Redford writes, “In sum, I believe the teachers in every country have the opportunity and the capacity to undertake some research. Such research, carried out in the day-to-day work of the school, should be concerned directly with the problems of that school. It can properly concern itself with such matters as child development, class organisation, teacher- pupil relationships, interaction with the community, curriculum matters, teaching techniques and many others.” Similarly, V.V. Kamat, in an article entitled “Can a teacher do research?” published in ‘Teaching’ making these remarks: “Any teacher with commonsense, intelligence and insight can undertake research in a problem. In the beginning such workers may require some guidance and training but this can be made easily available to them at the hands of experts.” 8. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena Lundberg has pointed out that the physical phenomena may be known directly through sense, whereas social phenomena are known only symbolically through words representing such phenomena as tradition, custom, attitude, values and the whole realm of so called subjective worlds. 10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method According to Lundberg “Exact science tends to become increasingly quantitative in its units, measures, and terminology while most of the matter of social science is qualitative and does not admit of quantitative statement. We can talk of urbanisation, cultural assimilation etc. but we can’t measure quantitatively. We may talk of growing indiscipline, but unless we can measure it, unless we can ascertain the degree of indiscipline, we cannot find a perfect cure.” According to Mitchell, “Even in the work of the most statistically minded, qualitative analysis will have a place. Always our measurements, the pre-conceptions shape our ends, our first glimpses of new problems, our widest generalisations will remain qualitative in form.” The criticism of research, Hugh B. Wood states: “Every year about a thousand young men and women go off justly neglected corners of knowledge and assemble tiny scraps of more or less useless information into a little pile of dust, which, adopted with comparative tables, correlative graphs, and other forms of academic is served up as a thesis. The reward is the little of Doctor of Philosophy, which enables its recipient to ascend the social studies as ladder and in time teach other young men and women to scrap together their own heaps of dust or doctoral dissertations.” STEPS IN SOLVING A RESEARCH PROBLEM While a scientific research method is cyclic, there are basic steps that are involved in. RESEARCH PROBLEM As a researcher, you need to formulate (select and define) a problem and subsequently sub-problems. A research problem is a concern that needs to be addressed. Formulating a problem is a process of moving away from the broad research problem to a specific topic. HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis is an educated or scientific guess. It is also a tentative explanation of the relationships between well defined variables. It is a claim that you make to say what the turnout of the study is i.e expected result. The tentative solution is based on certain rationale. There are two types of hypotheses namely the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. REVIEWING LITERATURE A survey of salient literature provides the hypotheses and initial problem identification/selection. In addition thorough review of literature may lead to suggested investigation methods. THE RESEARCH DESIGN This is similar to a plan for building a house. There are several designs in both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The methods should ensure that data collected is unbiased and represented the real situation on the ground. The methods include questionnaires, interviews, observations. ANALYSING THE DATA Data analysis should be done using appropriate methods of analysis. The data has to be analysed to answer the research question. It is important to plan how data will be analysed. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The research has the following three objectives: 1. Theoretical objective 2. Factual objective and 3. Application objective. 1. Theoretical Objective Those researches whose objectives are theoretical formulate the new theories, principles or laws. Such type of research is explanatory because it explains the relationships of certain variables. These researches contribute some basic knowledge to the human knowledge. The researches in different disciplines i.e., Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics etc. have the theoretical objective. 2. Factual Objective Those researches whose objective is factual find out new facts. This objective is by nature descriptive. These researches describe facts or events which happened previously. Such type of research is done in history. 3. Application Objective The research having application objective does not contribute a new knowledge in the fund of human knowledge but suggests new applications. By application we mean improvement and modification in practice. For example if anyone gives a new application of electricity then such type of research has application objective. WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT After the researcher has collected the data, analysed and interpreted it, he/she writes the research report. A conventional research project contains five chapters indicated below: Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Review of literature Chapter 3: Research methodology Chapter 4: Data presentation, Analysis and interpretation (i.e RESULTS and DISCUSSION) Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion and recommendations TYPES OR CLASSES OF RESEARCH In actual practice, research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate purposes. The level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends to accomplish. Generally research has two levels: 1. Basic research Trevers has defined basic level as basic research/fundamental/pure. It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. Those researches which embrace origin or unique investigation for the advancement of knowledge are basic. Research is primarily concerned with knowing, explaining and predicting natural and social phenomena. The results are related to previous research and knowledge. 2. Applied research Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary. Research may be characterized as the utilization in practice. Meaning and Definition of Action Research The concept of action research is very old but Stephen M. Corey has applied this concept first in the field of social studies. He has defined the term action research: “The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action is what a number of people have called action research.” According to Corey–“Action research is a process for studying problems by practitioners scientifically to take decision for improving their current practices.” “Research concerned with school problems carried on by school personal to improve schools practice is action research.” – Sara Blackwell. According Mc. Threte –“Action research is organized, investigative activity, aimed towards to study and constructive change of given endeavour by individual or group concerned with change and improvement.” On the basis of these definitions of action research, the following characteristics may be enumerated: 1. It is a process for studying practical problems of social studies. 2. It is a scientific procedure for finding out a practical solution of current problem. 3. The practitioner can only study his/her problem. 4. It is a personal research for clinical research work. 5. The focus is to improve and modify the current practices. 6. It does not contribute to the fund of knowledge. The concept of action research is being used in Social Studies since (1926) Fields of Action Research The action research projects may be designed in the following field of Social Studies: 1. In improving and modifying the classroom teaching strategies, tactics and teaching aids. 2. In developing interests; attitudes and values of the students towards their studies. 3. In dealing the classroom problems and school problem relating to discipline and code of conduct. 4. In assigning the home work so that students should take interest in completing them. 5. In improving the spelling errors and wrong pronunciation. 6. In dealing with the problems of poor attendance in class as well as In school and coming late in school. 7. In developing the habit of completing class notes and active participation. 8. In removing the practice of copying in the examination. 9. In solving the personal problems of students relating to school situations or poor adjustment. 10. In dealing with the problems of school administration organization. Characteristics of an Investigator/researcher A good research worker should possess the following qualities: 1. He should have the full understanding about the functions and activities of his job. 2. He should have the reflective thinking about various dimensions of his job activities. 3. He should be sensitive towards his job. A sensitive person can perceive the problem. Most of the teachers are problem blind because they are not sensitive towards the job. 4. He should be creative and imaginative. These abilities are essential in formulating the action hypotheses for his problem. 5. He should have the knowledge and training of action research.. 6. He should have insightful into his area. During his teaching experience he can identify the real problem on the basis of his insight. 7. He should have the scientific attitude for studying and observing things. 8. There should be some objectivity in his thinking. 9. His behaviour should be democratic. The action research design should not intervene the activities of other teachers of school activities. 10. The most important characteristics are the patience and pursuant of the investigator. 11. He should have knowledge and skill of measuring instruments and elementary statistics. 12. He should have open mind so that he can discuss his problems with his colleagues and experts of the field to have correct picture of the problem. 13. He should have an urge to bring about excellence in job economical performance. 14. He should be economical in designing the project from time, energy and money point of view. Difference between Action Research and Fundamental Research The Research has two main functions: – To contribute new knowledge in Social Studies. – To improve the Social practices. The first function is of fundamental research and second function of action research. Difference between the two has been given in the tabular form. Applied/action research 1. Purpose The improvement in school and classroom teaching process. 2. Problem The form of the problem is very narrow. It is a local problem. It is practical problem. The problem is selected and finalized by the worker or investigator himself. No external approval is required. 3. Hypothesis The action hypotheses are formulated on the basis of the causes of the problem. An action hypothesis needs one design of research. One hypothesis is tested at one time. 5. Design The design of action research is flexible. It can be changed according to the convenience of the worker. It includes certain steps and measuring tools. Fundamental/basic/pure Research contributes new knowledge in the form of new theory, facts and truth. The investigator should have postgraduate degree in the subject. He should have specialization in the field. He may or may not be related with the problem. The problem is broad and relates to the broad field of Social Studies. The problem may be selected by the researcher but it is approved by the external experts. The hypotheses are formulated on the basis of some rationale. All the hypotheses are tested by one design of research. The hypothesis is not essential in all types of research. The design is rigid and it cannot be changed. Theoretical and practical knowledge is essential for the researcher. It involves method, sample and techniques of research. (i) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. (ii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists. A common mistake is to assume that levels differ according to complexity and that basic research tends to be complex and applied research. Some applied research is quite complex and some basic research is rather simple. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A conceptual framework proposes explanations for potential relationships. It helps to place the study in perspective among other studies and to justify asking the subjects to take part. It is used to support studies looking for relationships between variables. E.g. a relationship between employee motivation and their study might fit in the universe of people management. ETHICAL ISSUES Ethics in research refers to a code of behavior or expected behavior of the researcher. Therefore, ethics are laws that regulate the research process. When conducting research on human beings it is important to observe certain rules so that they are not harmed physically, emotionally and spiritually. In Zimbabwe, the national research Council has ethical research principles that govern social research. Ethical Standards—A set of enforceable rules created by the American Psychological Association and by legal authorities that relate to moral values of right and wrong. CONSENT 1. Informed consent: knowing the consent of individuals to participate as an exercise of their choice, free from any element of fraud, deceit, duress or any unfair manipulation. For minors or mentally impaired persons, consent must be sought from their legal guardians. Therefore participants or subjects know or sign a consent form. 2. Implied consent: participants indicate this by the level of devotion in the study. Can be indicated by subjects taking long time to complete a long questionnaire. The purpose of the study and potential risks are clearly stated at the beginning. CONFIDENTIALITY AND ANONYMITY TABLE 1.1 Ethical Issues Associated with the Tuskegee Study Ethical Problem Example Lack of informed consent The men thought they were being treated for “bad blood,” a common term at the time that referred to many possible diseases. They did not know they were  participating in research, nor did they know of risks associated with their participation. Physical and psychological harm Lack of effective treatment led to problems caused by syphilis, including behavioral changes, blindness, psychosis, and death. They also underwent a painful spinal tap as part of the research. They agreed to be autopsied after death, which was atypical for this population. After the research became public, black people often became suspicious of any government s sponsored health programs. Excessive inducements The men received free transportation to the clinic, a meal when they were at the clinic, and free medical treatment for minor problems. Lack of voluntary participation The excessive inducement may have been hard to refuse. In addition, the men were sharecroppers who were encouraged by landowners to participate, so they may have felt social pressure to participate. Failure to debrief At no point in the research did the men learn about the nature or the details of the study. Such information was available only after the existence of the research was leaked to the media CURRENT EXAMPLES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH In an attempt to monitor scientists’ behaviors, the U.S. federal government’s Office of Research Integrity (ORI) investigates claims of scientific misconduct in research associated with federal grants. In the period from 2001 and 2009, the office concluded that 101 researchers were guilty of misconduct related to data collection, analysis, and presentation. The number of cases identified by ORI is small and seldom involves behavioral research, but we don’t know how often fraud goes undetected. According to several sources, one- third of respondents on a survey reported engaging in unethical behavior and over two- thirds said that they had observed others engaging in ethically questionable behavior (Fanelli, Innogen, & ISSTI, 2009; Martinson, Anderson, & de Vries, 2005; Wadman, 2005). The most common infractions investigated by ORI occurred from 2001 to 2009 (Handling misconduct, 2009; Office of Research Integrity Annual Report, 2001) involved falsifying or fabricating data and plagiarism, but several other severe problems also occurred. The number of infractions is greater than the number of people involved because some people violated the ethical rules in multiple ways. Some overriding causes for such behavior are financial and personal. Getting hired or promoted and getting grants often require completion of successful research. In addition, there is considerable status associated with publishing research. Most of the research associated with such problems has been biomedical in nature. The risks associated with it may involve life and death issues. Your research in psychology is likely to have less impact. However, the behavioral research you complete also has to conform to certain ethical principles and is bound by the same laws that professional researchers must follow. Finally, you might ask why individuals engage in these unethical behaviors. As you’ve just seen, receipt of money is obviously one reason. In addition, according to a researcher who has investigated why scientists cheat, there are four other, basic reasons: Intense pressure to publish research and to obtain grants Inadequate mentoring  Some sort of mental disorder Scientists from outside the United States who learned standards that differ from those in the United States (Charges of fake research, 2005) TABLE 1.2 General Ethical Principles and Examples of Violations Beneficence and Nonmaleficence (Acting to promote the welfare of the people a psychologists deals with (beneficence) and avoidance of harm to them (nonmaleficence)). A psychologist would be in dangerous territory in conducting research in which he or she has a financial interest because that interest could cloud professional judgment to the detriment of the participant and others. Further, psychologists who are aware that they are experiencing mental health problems may be acting unethically with clients if their own mental health may lead to poor judgment. Fidelity and Responsibility (—Psychologists must act professionally in ways that support the discipline of psychology and benefit their community, especially regarding the well- being of the people with whom they interact professionally). A psychologist would violate ethical principles by engaging in dual relationships with patients. One of the most notable transgressions occurs when a therapist engages in sexual relations with a person while providing therapy to that individual. Also a psychologist who knows that a colleague is engaging in unethical behavior would himself or herself be acting unethically by not taking steps to prevent further such behavior. Integrity—(Psychologists should promote the honest and truthful application of the discipline in science, teaching, and practice).. Psychologists who intentionally misrepresent their research results or who falsify data are engaging in ethical misconduct because they are not striving to maximize gain to the scientific and professional community, but rather are simply trying for personal gain. In addition, psychologists who knowingly use their knowledge to mislead others, such as in courtroom testimony, are engaging in unethical conduct. In this case, they are not using their professional expertise responsibly or contributing to the welfare of society in general. Justice —(Psychologists must recognize the implications of their professional activity on others and strive to make the best professional judgments they can) A psychologist who is not trained in the use of a test like the Minnesota Multi- phasic Personality Inventory but who uses it in his or her research or with clients might be engaging in unethical behavior because the validity of test interpretations may be low. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity Psychologists who violate the confidentiality of their research participants act unethically. This means that if you are doing research, you may not discuss with others how a particular participant responded during a testing session. (Such a discussion could be appropriate, however, if you discuss a research session with a colleague who is also working on that project and you need to resolve a methodological problem.) Informed consent—The process of providing to potential research participants the information they need in order to understand the nature of a research project and to be able to decide whether to participate in the project. Among the most important practical issues you will face if you conduct research are those associated with informed consent, that is, making sure that your participants know what they are going to do and understand the nature of the research. In addition, you must provide debriefing in which you inform participants of any deception involved in the research, called dehoaxing, and you make sure that you eliminate any potential sources of negative feelings by the participants, called desensitization. Anonymity—The practice of maintaining records so that nobody can identify which individual is associated with a certain set of data. An additional requirement when you conduct research is that you must protect the anonymity and confidentiality of your research participants. It is desirable that, after a study is over, you cannot link people’s behaviors in a research project with them personally. If there are no identifying characteristics in the data that allow you to know whose data you are examining, the data are anonymous. In some cases, you will not be able to separate a person’s identity from the data. For example, if you are tracking people over time, you have to be able to link their current data with past data. Confidentiality— The practice of making sure that nobody outside a research project has access to data that can be identified with a specific individual. Coercion — Pressure that a potential participant feels in agreeing to take part in research. Another ethical issue involved with interaction with participants involves coercion. If you were carrying out a study, you might want to solicit participation of your friends and classmates. They might not want to participate, but being your friends, they might feel social pressure. Their participation would not be truly voluntary. Plagiarism—An ethical breach in which a person claims credit for another person’s idea or research. Scientists regard plagiarism as extremely unethical. Unfortunately, there are quite a few ways to fall prey to it. For example, using somebody else’s words without attributing them to that person is unethical. Further, even if you take the ideas from somebody else’s writing or speaking and translate those ideas into your own words, you must attribute those ideas to the person who originated them. The issue is complicated, however. If you cite a well-known fact (e.g., humans are born without the ability to use language but learn to speak the language to which they are exposed), you don’t need to provide a citation. You can assume that everybody knows that your statement is true. But if you are citing information that is not widely known you should cite a trustworthy source to document your statement. The tricky aspect involves deciding what constitutes a “well-known fact.” One further issue involves self-plagiarism, which is the use of your own work multiple times. So if you published a paper, as a general rule, you could not ethically use the same material in a second publication. The issue of self-plagiarism is relevant to students who do not publish their work because some sources (e.g., Avoiding plagiarism, 2009) assert that students should not hand in the same paper for more than one course. Other sources, however, do not see this dual use of a single paper as necessarily problematic (What is plagiarism?, 2010). Research with humans ( the Nuremburg Code) 1. Research on humans absolutely requires informed consent. You cannot do research on people who are not able to give voluntary, informed consent. This requires that they be sufficiently aware of their rights to be able to make a choice that is good for them. You are also not allowed to use undue influence or power you have over a person. The individual must know what risks might be involved. 2. The experiment must have the possibility of contributing to our body of knowledge. You should not perform research that has no chance of being useful to society. This does not mean that an investigation has to produce major results, but the outcome should add to the accumulation of knowledge about human and nonhuman behavior. 3. Researchers should be informed about the topic they investigate to maximize the likelihood that the results will be useful. Especially for biomedical research, scientists should design their research based on previous work that has been conducted using animals. In addition, the scientist must be competent enough to design a study whose results will justify the experimentation. 4. The experiment should avoid unnecessary physical and mental suffering. Sometimes research by its nature involves discomfort of some kind (e.g., a study of sleep deprivation). Researchers should design their work to minimize the extent of the discomfort should it be necessary. Embarrassment and frustration are examples of mental suffering that might be associated with psychological research. 5. No experiment should be conducted if there is good reason to believe that death or serious injury will occur. When an investigation involves high levels of potential risk, this restriction can be relaxed if the researchers serve as participants in this research. 6. The degree of risk must be less than the potential gain from the research. Scientists must perform a cost-benefit analysis. If the costs exceed the potential benefits, the research is inappropriate. 7. Research participants must be free to terminate their involvement at any time. When an individual has reached the point that he or she no longer feels comfortable participating in research, the person has the right to leave without penalty. COMMON RESEARCH TECHNIQUES Role playing—An approach to research in which participants act as if they were participating in a study so the investigator can avoid using potentially unethical strategies that might lead to physical or psychological harm to the participants. Naturalistic observation— A research technique in which the investigator studies behavior as it naturally occurs, without any manipulation of variables or intervention into the situation. Simulation—An approach to research in which the investigator creates an environment similar to one of interest in order to study behaviors in a realistic way. This approach is also known as the simulated environment. Cover story—The story a researcher creates to disguise the actual purpose of a study when deception is considered necessary to conduct a study. If you want participants to act naturally, you might have to create a cover story that keeps them from acting in a self- conscious manner during the study. Active deception—The process of misinforming a research participant about some aspect of a study so that the individual is not aware of the investigator’s intent in the project. In active deception, you would actively mislead the participants by providing them with information that is not true. Passive deception—The failure to provide complete information to a research participant about some aspect of a study so that the individual is not aware of the investigator’s intent in the project. In passive deception, you would not actually tell a lie. Instead, you would withhold information that might give clues to the participants about the purpose of the study. That is, you give them incomplete information. Debriefing—Informing research participants at the conclusion of a research project of the purpose of the research, including disclosure of any deception and providing an opportunity for participants to ask questions about the research. There are two components to debriefing. One element involves dehoaxing, which means that you tell the individuals what you did, how you deceived them, and why it was necessary. The second element involves desensitization, which means that you eliminate any potential sources of negative feelings by the participants. Dehoaxing—The process of telling research participants of any deception or ruses used in a study. Desensitization—The process of eliminating any negative after-effects that a participant might experience after taking part in a project. Furthermore, you need to debrief your participants adequately after the session ends.