Food Classifications and Groupings PDF

Copyright 2017. Routledge. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. Chapter 3 Food classifications and groupings LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this chapter, you should be ab...

Copyright 2017. Routledge. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. Chapter 3 Food classifications and groupings LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this chapter, you should be able to: • describe several food classification systems used in Australia and examples of those used around the globe • define a food commodity and staple crop • identify key food groupings and nutrition profiles, including a wide range of food products contained within each group. Key food groupings There are many ways to classify food, and different systems of food groupings are used both informally and formally around the globe. The systems have evolved to assist people from chefs, with their need to be consistent in sourcing and selection of food, to health professionals working in dietary education. Common household classifications are made by flavour (such as sweet or savoury profiles) or by the meal occasion (such as breakfast or snacks). More complex systems include the glycaemic index (also known as GI; see Chapter 6) and levels of pesticide residues, and there are also systems relating to relative affordability, quality or grade; botanical structure; country of origin; and 90 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU) AN: 2489874 ; Sharon Croxford.; Understanding the Science of Food : From Molecules to Mouthfeel Account: s3681727.main.ehost Native Files.indd 90 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings nutrient density. Two key systems, discussed below, are food commodity-based groupings and food and nutrient-based groupings. Food commodity-based groupings Food is produced throughout the world, but it is mostly bought and sold, imported and exported, as a commodity by larger companies that trade globally. A commodity is defined as a raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, and a key example is coffee. Some of the major food commodities are known as staple foods, or staple crops. A staple food is one that is eaten regularly and in such quantities as to constitute the dominant part of the diet and that supplies a major proportion of energy and nutrient needs. Typically, staple foods are well adapted to the growth conditions in their source areas. Around the globe people rely on many staples, such as rice, wheat, maize (corn), millet, sorghum, roots and tubers (potatoes, cassava, yams and taro) and animal products such as meat, milk and fish. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is an agency that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. It attempted to bring international standardisation and consistency to reporting of commodities in 1994 to enhance food security planning. A draft list of commodities was proposed and is still in use today, with the following groupings of particular interest as foods: cereals and cereal products, roots and tubers, sugar crops and sweeteners, pulses, nuts, oil-bearing crops, vegetables, fruits, spices, vegetable and animal oils and fats, beverages, products from slaughtered animals and products from live animals (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). Food- and nutrient-based groupings Food-based dietary guidelines (also known as food guides) are intended to establish a basis for public nutrition and health, as well as education programs to promote healthy-eating habits and lifestyles. They are often developed by governments at a national level and underpinned by nutrient-based dietary guidelines, dietary modelling and scientific evidence. They give advice on food, food groups and dietary patterns necessary to provide the required nutrients to the general public, for the promotion of health and prevention of chronic diseases. Within these types of guides, foods are grouped together by the 91 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 91 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY significant nutrients they contribute to the diet. For example, the key nutrients of a milk, yogurt and cheese food group include calcium and protein, while a fruit group is a good source of certain vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients (substances found in plants believed to be important for human health). Two commonly used guides in Australia, with slightly different food groupings, are the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (National Health and Medical Research Council, 2015) and Nutrition Australia’s Healthy Eating Pyramid (Nutrition Australia, 2015). These are discussed below. Australian Guide to Healthy Eating The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating is underpinned by scientific knowledge of food composition and nutritional requirements, and is designed to be a practical guide that represents the recommended proportions of five food groups in the daily diet for optimal health and wellbeing (see Figure 3.1). The recommendations are informed by a food modelling system and the Australian Dietary Guidelines (National Health and Medical Research Council, 2015), which are in turn underpinned by an extensive systematic literature review and evidence report. The food modelling system utilises computer-generated diets that translate the National Health and Medical Research Council’s (2014) Nutrient Reference Values into dietary patterns that assess the interrelationships between nutrient requirements, food intakes, food groupings, typical dietary patterns and whole diets. People with specific medical conditions, people who are frail and older people Figure 3.1 Australian Guide to Healthy Eating are not covered by the Australian Dietary Guidelines or the Australian Guide to Source: National Health and Medical Research Council (2015). Healthy Eating, which are primarily 92 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 92 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings designed for healthy populations. The aim is to provide practical information on the types and amounts of foods to eat each day, based on age, gender, body size, activity level and other factors (such as pregnancy and breastfeeding). All components of this comprehensive system are collectively known as the National Health and Medical Research Council’s Eat for Health program. The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating is presented as a plate, or pie chart, model to show the appropriate proportions of the food groups in a healthy diet (see Table 3.1 for the key nutrients in each group). There is a reminder to drink water as a main drink in one corner. Foods that are described as extras, or discretionary choices, tend to be high in kilojoules, saturated fat, added sugars Table 3.1 N  utrition characteristics of the five food groups within the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating Food Group name Main distinguishing nutrients Grain (cereal) foods, mostly wholegrain and/or high cereal fibre varieties carbohydrate protein iron dietary fibre thiamin folate Vegetables and legumes/beans beta-carotene and other carotenoids Fruit Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives, mostly reduced fat Lean meat and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, legumes/beans vitamin C calcium protein dietary fibre protein iron riboflavin zinc vitamin B12 vitamin B12 (animal foods only) vitamin C folate dietary fibre iodine Other significant nutrients* energy magnesium zinc riboflavin niacin vitamin E carbohydrate (potato, sweet potato, sweet corn, legumes) magnesium iron potassium carbohydrate energy folate fat beta-carotene carbohydrate potassium magnesium zinc potassium long chain omega 3 fatty acids dietary fibre (plant foods only) energy essential fatty acids niacin vitamin E (seeds, nuts) * Some foods from the Five Food Groups (such as some bread, breakfast cereal and most cheese) can also contribute significant amounts of sodium Source: National Health and Medical Research Council (2013). 93 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 93 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY and added salt or alcohol, and are not needed to meet nutrient requirements. Discretionary choices are displayed as a separate group in the bottom-right corner, purposely off the main plate. Guidance to include unsaturated spreads and oils in small amounts is given in the bottom-left corner. A set of additional educational materials and a website provide information on what is counted as a serve, the serve sizes for food items within a group and the recommended number of serves per day for particular population subgroups. Healthy Eating Pyramid Another popular Australian food guide is the Healthy Eating Pyramid, which was first launched in 1980 as the Healthy Living Pyramid, by leading nonprofit education body Nutrition Australia (2015) (see Figure 3.2). The 2015 version of the pyramid was designed to align with the Eat for Health program’s Australian Dietary Guidelines. A review process informed that version and included a systematic literature review as well as consultation with various nutrition stakeholder groups and educators. The pyramid separates food into food groups within four layers. The foundation layers includes fruit, vegetables and legumes, plus the grains food groups. The middle layer includes the milk, yoghurt, cheese and alternatives along with the lean meat, poultry, fish, egg, nuts, seeds and legumes layers. The top layer refers to healthy fats. There are also messages to limit added sugar and salt and to drink water. ‘Enjoy herbs and spices’ was a significant new addition to the 2015 version, whose aim was to encourage Australians to minimise their use of sugar and salt and to experiment Figure 3.2 Healthy Eating Pyramid with cooking with natural, plant-based Source: Nutrition Australia (2015). flavours. 94 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 94 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings Food guides around the globe There are many different pictorial food guide models utilised by governments around the globe that align with research on the national food supply, food consumption patterns and nutrition status and standards. In line with Australia, the United States government has the MyPlate model, and the United Kingdom promotes the Eatwell Guide, which is also presented in a plate shape. Different images are used in the Chinese Nutrition Society’s Balanced Diet Pagoda (Figure 3.3) and the Japanese government’s Food Guide Spinning Top (Figure 3.4). Even though there is a wide spectrum of different presentation styles, research Figure 3.3 Chinese Nutrition Society’s Balanced Diet Pagoda Source: Chinese Nutrition Society (2016). 95 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 95 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY Figure 3.4 Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare & Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2010). has shown that similar dietary methods and approaches underpin each nation’s food guide (Painter, Rah & Lee, 2002). In addition to government food guides, pictorial guides have also been produced by leading health organisations, relevant to certain health-protecting dietary patterns or population groups. One key example is the Mediterranean Diet Pyramid, developed by a collaboration between the Mediterranean Diet Foundation and several international entities (see Figure 3.5). The pyramid includes social and cultural elements, such as shared meals, believed to be part of the successful formula and health protection offered by the Mediterranean diet and lifestyle. 96 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 96 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings Figure 3.5 Mediterranean Diet Pyramid Source: Mediterranean Diet (2010). Common food groupings Understanding different food classification groupings and systems is an important element in the study and application of food science and nutrition. The following sections provide a summary of typical ways in which foods are classified and the key nutrient contributions of each food group. However, it is important to realise that there are countless variations and exceptions across food systems, along with regional differences and a changing landscape as new scientific food and health research is constantly undertaken. In-depth information on several of the foods within these groups is given in the Food Focus sections within this book, as indicated below. 97 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 97 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY Grains and cereals Cereals belong to the Gramineae family of grasses and are grown and harvested for dry grain, which can then be milled or processed into a range of different products, including flour, meal and starch. Wholegrain foods have higher nutrient density and offer superior health benefits when compared with refined grains. Common products include bread, rice, bulgur, pasta, noodles, breakfast cereal and crackers. Key nutrients Cereal grains contain carbohydrates (65–75%) mainly as starches, proteins (6–12%) and fat (1–4%) along with dietary fibre and phytonutrients with antioxidant properties. Common types Wheat (see Food Focus 6.1), rice, barley, maize, rye, oats, millet, sorghum, buckwheat and triticale. Fruits According to botanical classification a fruit is a seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) by which seeds are disseminated. Fruit crops are generally characterised by their sweet taste, and nearly all are permanent crops, from trees, bushes and shrubs to vines and palms. Fruits and berries grow on the branches, stalks or trunks of plants, usually singly, but sometimes grouped in bunches or clusters. Fruit crops are consumed directly as food and are processed into dried fruit, fruit juice, canned fruit, frozen fruit, jam and alcoholic beverages. Key nutrients Fruits are high in water and have varying carbohydrate levels, very low protein content (less than 1%) and a negligible fat content (except avocado). Fruits are abundant in vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients with antioxidant properties. Common types citrus stone orange, lemon, lime, tangelo, mandarin, grapefruit apricot, cherry, peach, nectarine, plum 98 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 98 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings pome berries tropical apple (see Food Focus 10.1), pear strawberry, raspberry, blueberry mango, pineapple, banana Vegetables Vegetables are mainly annual plants cultivated as field and garden crops in the open and under glass. They are used almost exclusively for food. Vegetables are often classified by the part of the plant used as food, including root, tuber, bulb, leaf, stem, shoot and flower. Key nutrients Vegetables have a high water content (70–95%), varying carbohydrate content and very low protein and fat content. They are nutrient dense, low in joules and good sources of minerals and vitamins (such as magnesium, vitamin C and folate), dietary fibre and a range of phytochemicals, including carotenoids. Common types root, tuber bulb stem leaf seed flower carrot, beet, turnip, radish, potato onion, garlic celery, asparagus spinach, lettuce, cabbage bean, corn, pea broccoli, cauliflower Milk, yoghurt and cheese Derived from live animals, including cows (see Food Focus 11.1), sheep and goats, milk is a common beverage and food ingredient and is also made into yoghurt and cheese. Other products from milk (including butter, ghee, cream and ice cream) are classified as discretionary foods or fats and oils in many food guides. Key nutrients Milk, cheese and yoghurt provide calcium in a readily absorbable form, along with being good sources of many nutrients, including protein, iodine, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and zinc. The natural sugar in milk is mainly lactose. 99 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 99 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY Common types milk yoghurt cheese plain and flavoured, reduced fat, enriched, fortified plain, flavoured and indulgent, dessert hard, eye, blue, washed rind, white mould, stretched curd, aged Meat, poultry, fish, egg and alternatives This group contains meat from slaughtered animals, such as beef (see Food Focus 5.1), products of live animals, such as egg (see Food Focus 9.1), and protein-rich plant sources suitable for vegetarian diets (including legumes, nuts and seeds). Certain smoked, salted and preserved meats from this food group (such as ham, bacon and salami) are usually high in saturated fat and salt and contain chemical properties that may be responsible for increased health risks, so food guides often place them in the discretionary food group. Key nutrients Generally, this food group is an important component of main meals, supply­ ing dietary protein, varying levels of fat and essential nutrients. Red meat is a particularly good source of iron, zinc and vitamin B12 and, along with egg, contains a complete set of amino acids. Fish and seafood are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Common types meat beef, lamb, veal, pork, kangaroo poultry chicken, turkey, duck, emu, goose fish, seafood fish, prawn, crab, lobster, mussel, oyster, scallop Legumes Legumes, or pulses, are annual crops yielding grains or seeds of variable sizes, shapes and colours within pods. They are used for both human food and animal feed. In addition to their food value, legumes also play an important role in cropping systems because of their ability to produce nitrogen and thereby enrich the soil. In everyday terms they are often grouped as dried beans, dried peas and lentils, and are made into products like baked beans and tofu. Legumes provide many of the same nutrients as the meat, poultry and fish group and 100 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 100 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings the vegetable group, so in some food guides they are included in both groups. While typically classed as a nut, the peanut is a legume. Key nutrients Pulses contain carbohydrates, mainly starches (55–65%); proteins, including essential amino acids (18–25%); dietary fibre; and fat (1–4%). The remainder consists of water and substances that resist digestion. Common types Kidney bean, haricot bean, chickpea, red lentil, puy lentil. Nuts Tree nuts are dry fruits or kernels enclosed in woody shells or hard husks, which in turn are generally covered by a thick, fleshy or fibrous outer husk that is removed during harvesting. Key nutrients Nuts are typically high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and protein, moderate in dietary fibre and rich in phytonutrients, vitamins and minerals. Common types Almond, pine nut, walnut, macadamia (see Food Focus 13.1), hazelnut, cashew, pistachio. Fats and oils Various plant crops are harvested for their fats and oils, including olive (see Food Focus 8.1) and canola, or processed into margarine spreads. Fats and oils in the diet also come from animal sources, including butter from cow’s milk. Key nutrients Fats and oils range in fatty acid profiles, with vegetable sources containing predominantly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats and animal sources high in saturated fat. 101 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 101 2/08/2017 11:12 AM FOOD COMPONENTS, INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY AND FOOD SAFETY Common types oil-bearing crop soy, safflower, sunflower, rice bran, hemp seed nut, seed oil olive, sesame, poppy, linseed fat from live animals butter, ghee (clarified butter) fat from slaughtered animals lard (pig fat), suet (raw fat from around the kidneys), tallow (rendered suet) Alcoholic beverages Typically, alcoholic beverages are made through fermentation of different fruit, vegetable and grain crops, including the commonly known wine from grape. Key nutrients Alcoholic beverages contain water, and in some cases beneficial phytonutrients, such as flavonoids in red wine. The alcohol content of beverages ranges from 3% to greater than 80% strength by volume, in liquors and spirits. Common types grain beer from barley, sake from rice fruit wine from grape, cider from apple vegetable vodka from potato, kava from root of Piper methysticium (Department of Health and Human Services, 2016) Herbs and spices Fresh herbs are highly perishable and are unlikely to be sold on a global scale. Spices are vegetable products (including leaf, flower, seed and root) that are rich in essential oils and aromatic properties (see Chef’s Insight 12.1). Australian native herbs and spices, or bush foods (see Chef’s Insight 13.1), such as lemon myrtle, are grown in commercial quantities and prized by fine dining restaurants. Key nutrients Although consumed in relatively small quantities, herbs and spices contain potent phytonutrients with antioxidant properties. 102 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 102 2/08/2017 11:12 AM Food classifications and groupings Common types Vanilla, cinnamon, cassia, clove, allspice, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, star anise, fennel, caraway, coriander, cumin, juniper berry, ginger, galangal, bay leaf, saffron, thyme, turmeric (see Nutrition News 12.1), pepper (peppercorn), pimento, paprika, cayenne, chilli, basil, parsley, sage, rosemary, thyme and oregano. SUMMARY There are many ways to classify food, and different systems of food groupings are used both informally and formally around the globe. Food commodity based groupings are used by organisations such as the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) to classify and monitor staple crops and foods. Food and nutrient based groupings include dietary guidelines (also known as food guides) and are intended to establish a basis for public nutrition and health, plus education programs to promote healthy-eating habits and lifestyles. Two commonly used guides in Australia are the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating and Nutrition Australia’s Healthy Eating Pyramid. References Chinese Nutrition Society (2016). The Chinese Dietary Guidelines. http://dg.en.cnsoc.org/ index.html Department of Health and Human Services (Victoria) (2016). Kava. www.betterhealth. vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/kava Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2016). Definition and Classification of Commodities. www.fao.org/es/faodef/faodefe.htm Mediterranean Diet (2010). Mediterranean Diet Pyramid: A lifestyle for today. http://mediterradiet.org/dietamed/piramide_INGLES.pdf Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare & Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2010). Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top. www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/kenkou/ pdf/eiyou-syokuji5.pdf National Health and Medical Research Council (2013). Educator Guide. Canberra: NHMRC National Health and Medical Research Council (2014). Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand. www.nrv.gov.au/nutrients National Health and Medical Research Council (2015). Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating Nutrition Australia (2015). Healthy Eating Pyramid. www.nutritionaustralia.org/ national/resource/healthy-living-pyramid Painter, J., Rah, J.-H. & Lee, Y.-K. (2002). Comparison of International Food Guide Pictorial Representations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102(4), 483–9. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90113-6 103 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/6/2023 11:53 PM via EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY (ECU). All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Native Files.indd 103 2/08/2017 11:12 AM