Module 2 Agricultural Arts_095911.docx

**Module Overview** This module 2 include the meaning and scope of agriculture/crop production/science, explain why crop production is a science, arts and business, describe the brief information of Philippine Agriculture and economy, review topics on classification of crop, plant propagation, till...

**Module Overview** This module 2 include the meaning and scope of agriculture/crop production/science, explain why crop production is a science, arts and business, describe the brief information of Philippine Agriculture and economy, review topics on classification of crop, plant propagation, tilling and cultivation, cultural management practices, harvesting, threshing, and post harvest handling and storage. **Learning Outcomes:** 1. **Familiarize the meaning and scope of agriculture/crop production and** 2. **Explain why agriculture is an arts, science and business** 3. **Know the general information about Philippine agriculture** 4. **Know the farm structure, agriculture vs economy** 5. **Familiarize the various classification of crop/plant** **familiarize the plant propagation, land preparation, cultural management practices, harvesting and post threshing and post-harvest handling methods and storage.** ***Let's Learn!*** **Terminologies** **Agriculture *is the art and science of growing plants and other crops and the raising of animals for food, other human needs, or economic gain.*** **-*is the systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the management of man* (Rimand, T.J., 2004).** **-*is the growing of both plants and animals for human needs*** (Abellanosa, A.L. and H.M. Pava, 1987). -***is the deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth's surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain.* (Rubenstein, J.M. 2003** **Crop Production***- is the quantity produced and actually harvested for a particular crop during the reference period. It includes those harvested but damaged, stolen, given away, consumed, given as harvesters\' and threshers\' shares, reserved etc. Excluded are those produced but not harvested due to low price, lack of demand and force majeure or fortuitous events, etc.* **Industrial Crops** *- are crops that are used as inputs to other industries.* **Major Crops** *- refers to the top 19 crops in the Philippines, other than palay and corn which collectively account for more than 60 percent of the total volume of crop production. These include coconut, sugarcane, banana, pineapple, coffee, mango, tobacco, abaca, peanut, mongo, cassava, sweet potato, tomato, garlic, onion, cabbage, eggplant, calamansi and rubber.* **Minor Crops** *- are all the remaining crops other than the major crops. This group accounts for about 40 percent of the total crop production.* **Non-Food Crops** *- are crops other than those used for food consumption. These are crops grown for their aesthetic values such as ornamental plants and cut-flowers. Example rice hay and coconut leaves.* **Permanent/Perennial Crops** *- are crops which occupy the land for a long period of time and do not need to be replaced after each harvest such as fruit trees, shrubs, nuts, etc. Examples are: avocado, coffee, coconut and other fruit tre*es. **Priority Crops** *- the identified national banner crops and various regional priority crops of the then Key Commercial Crops Development Program (KCCDP), now High Value Crops Development Program (HVCDP) and crops under the Key Commodity Road Maps of the Department of Agriculture, which are being developed because of their industrial and commercial potential*s. **Root Crops** *- are crops with well-developed underground edible roots. They are classified into roots and tubers. Roots, which are more starchy and rich in carbohydrates, include gabi, ubi and white potato. Tubers include beets, radish, carrots and turnips*. ***Temporary Crops** - are crops which are grown seasonally and with growing cycle of less than one year and which must be sown and planted again for production after each harvest. (Some crops thrive beyond one year.)* **Vegetable Crops** *- are mostly temporary crops which are either classified agronomically as such or based on purpose for which they are used, like jackfruit which on its young stage, is classified as vegetab*le. **White Corn** *- is corn grown and used mainly for human consumption, and manufacture of corn by-products such as cornstarch, corn oil, syrup, dextrins, glucose, gluten, etc.* **Yellow Corn** *- is corn used mainly as feed grains; includes all types of corn other than white.* **Yield** *- is an indicator of productivity derived by dividing total production by the area harvested.* **GENERAL INFORMATION** **Land Distribution:** **AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMY** - Philippine agriculture plays a vital role in the economy. As such, there is high priority to transform agriculture into modern, dynamic and competitive sector. A sustained expansion of the national economy required sustained growth in the agricultural sector. - Agriculture including forestry and fisheries plays a very important role in the Phil economy. The countries population is predominantly rural (70% of the total and 2/3 of the population depends on farming for their livelihood. In terms of employment about ½ of the labor force is engaged in agricultural activities. - Generally, agriculture consisted of rice, corn, coconut, sugarcane, banana, livestock, poultry, other crops and fishery production activities. - Agriculture sector's contribution to the economy of the country has been substantial 23% of gross domestic product. It registered a growth rate of 3.2%. The growth was mainly due to the expansion of the poultry, livestock, and palay subsectors. **ISSUES IN CROP PRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT**: - 1\. Climate Change 6. Land Tenure 11. Health - 2\. Financing 7. Taxation and subsidies 12. Education - 3\. Production 8. Economic Infrastructure 13. Population - 4\. Marketing 9. Attitudes, Values and culture 14. Religion - 5\. Industrialization 10. Public Administration **Review on the Meaning and scope of Crop Science** **A. Crop production as a science, art and business** **Plant** *-any organism belonging to the kingdom plantae, typically lacking of locomotion or obvious nervous or sensory organs and has photosynthetic ability.* **Crop** *- domesticated/cultivated plants that are grown for profit. It usually connotes a group or population of c*ultivated plants. **Science *-*** *systematically accumulated and tested knowledge.* *-it is not the set of facts but a way of giving unity and intelligibility to the facts of nature so that nature may be controlled and new facts predicted.* **Crop production** *-- Art and science of producing crops to increase the quality and quantity of products.* **B. Crop production as a science, art and business.** ***As a science** - Modern crop production is not based on guess-work or trial and error method. Its science is derived from the adoption or application of the basic sciences of chemistry, mathematics, physics, and from various applied sciences like physiology, meteorology, anatomy plant breeding and etc*. It is divided into two areas: **C. Major Crops of the Philippines** The most important and most commonly used method of classifying plants is the **botanical method** which is based on the phylogenetic relationship of plants. 1\. *THALLOPHYTES* -- Plant like organism (algae, bacteria and fungi) that lack differentiated stems, leaves and roots and that were formerly classified as a primary dins (Thallophyta) of plant kingdaom. 2\. *BRYOPHYTES* -- any of the division (Bryophyta) of non-flowering plants comprising the mosses, liverworts and hornworts. Develop embryo but no vascular tissue. 3\. *PTERIDOPHYTES* -- any of the division (Pteridophyta) of vascular plants (as fern) that have roots, stems, and leaves but lack of flowers or seeds. 4*. SPERMATOPHYTES* - all seed bearing plants which are in turn divided into 2 sub-divisions; **An example of a botanical classification /Binomial System:** **Classification units CORN RICE SOYBEAN** *Kingdom* Plantae Plantae Plantae *Division* Spermatophyte Spermatophyte Spermatophyte *Subdivision* Angiospermae Angiospermae Angiospermae *Class* Monocotyledon Monocotyledon Monocotyledon *Order* Graminales Graminales Rosales *Famil*y Graminae Graminae Leguminosae *Genus* Zea Oryza Glycine *Species* mays sativa max Carl von Linne better known as Carolus Linnaeus was the originator of this binomial system of plant nomenclature and the publication of his book entitled **Genera Plantarum** lead to the modern taxonomy or classification of plants. **ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS** All basic cultivated food plants are believed to have been derived from wild species. They unquestionably were adapted to the needs of man long before the dawn of recorded history. Evidence from archeology and from literature of the ancients bears out the ancient origin of present day cultivated food plants. The centers of origin of both agriculture and culture were peculiarly restricted to rather limited areas favored by a more or less equable climate Vavilov19 determined the center of origin of a crop by finding the region where the greatest diversity of type occurred in that crop. De Candolle 9 concluded that 199 cultivated plants originated in the Old World **CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS** Crop plants may be classified on the basis of a morphological similarity of plant parts. From the agronomic standpoint they may be classified on the basis of use, but some crops have several different uses. In Crop Science, plants are classified in many ways; either based on the ***manner of culture*** (agronomic or horticultural), **on *their use*** (Food, fiber, beverage, oil, or medicinal) **on their *climatic requirements*** (temperate, sub-temperate, tropical), **on the *length of their life*** (annual, biennials, perennials) etc., **on their *habitat*** whether aquatic, terrestrial or aerial. 1\. Horticultural Crops a\. Vegetables -- crops usually grown for culinary purposes 1\. leafy vegetables -- pechay, kangkong 2\. root and bulb crops -- sweet potato, bulb onions garlic etc. 3\. legumes or pulses -- sitao, bush sitao and pole sistao 4\. solanaceous vegetables -- eggplant, pepper tomato 5\. cucurbits -- cucumber, maskmelon watermelon, squash, ampalaya 1\. tree fruit -- mango, durian, lanzones, santol 2\. nut fruit -- pili, cashew 3\. small fruit -- strawberry and grapes 1\. cutflower -- roses, chrysanthemum, anthurium, carnation etc. 2\. flowering cut plant -- roses especially the miniature type, bougainvillea 3\. foliage ( both potted and as cut foliage) fern, asparagus, aglaonema etc. 4\. landscape plants -- usually consisting of trees ( both flowering and evergreens) and shrubs. 5\. turf grass -- lawn grass as well as other species used in recreational areas. d\. plantation crops -- are loosely defined as crops, usually perennial and require minor changes in the structure of the product ( primary processing) before utilization. 1\. oil crops -- coconut, palm etc. 2\. beverage -- coffee, cacao and tea 3\. spice -- black pepper, vanilla 4\. fiber crops -- abaca, buri, cotton etc. 5\. medicinal crops -- sambung, tsang gubat etc. 6\. latex or resin -- pili, rubber and almaciga 2\. Agronomic classification 1\. Green manure -- legumes, especially soybeans, cowpeas and other crops which are grown then plowed under to Plants. Agronomically, crop plants are most often grouped according to the way or ways in which they are used. 1\. Cereals -- corn, rice, barley , oats wheat and sorghum 2\. Seed legumes (pulses) soybean and mungbean 3\. Forage -- feed for animals whether in the form of hay, silage or pasture. 4\. Fiber -- grown for their fiber ex cotton, abaca 5\. Drug and beverages -- ex tobacco, tea and coffee 6\. Sugar -- grown for their sweet syrup ex. sugarcane and sweet sorghum 7\. Oil - soybeans , sunflower and coconut 2\. Silage -- corn and sorghum crops are most extensively grown to be cut and preserved in a succulent condition for silage. 3\. Green crop -- cut when green and succulent and are fed to livestock without curing. ex. corn and sundagrass. 4\. Catch/emergency crop -- used to fill-in when regular crops have failed or when planting is for some reason delayed. 5\. Cover crop -- crops seeded on land needing protection against wind and water erosion and nutrient loss through leaching. 6\. Supplement crop -- grown as secondary crops, when the primary crop are not sufficiently productive. 7\. Companion crop -- included are small grain crops like clover, alfalfa and crop is now used instead of the farmer's term nurse crop, in recognition of the fact that instead of nursing the new seedlings such crop really compete with them. 8\. Crop trap/sacrificial crop -- usually planted as trapping or barrier against strong winds, insect pest and diseases entry. ***Take Note!*** ***Things to know before planting*** 1. Know your soil pH and the soil pH requirement of your crop to be used. 2. Know your planting materials (propagation) as well as your methods of planting 3. Know your cultural management practices such as crop water requirement (as your basic for irrigation), 4. Know first the basic skills, scientific procedures in growing crops **Why do we need to know soil pH and the crop soil pH requirement?** One consideration in growing crop is soil pH. Inappropriateness between the two may cause failure or irregularities during crop production process. Why? As we all know that soil pH refers to the alkalinity and acidity of the soil. In this scenario, there are plants that can thrive in alkaline soil but not in acidic soil or vice-versa. (Note: soil pH can be measured using pH meter) Listed below are examples of crops and its pH range requirements +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Crop** **pH** **Crop** **pH** | | ----------------------- ---------- ---------------- --------- | | **Vines** **Vegetables** | | Alugbati 6.5- 6.8 | | **Ornamental Shrubs** | | Mountain laurel 5.5-7.0 | | **Grass** | | | | | | | | **Fruit Plants** | | 5.5-6.5 | | 5.5-6.0 | | 5.5-6.5 | | 4.5-5.5 | | 6.5-8.0 | | 5.5-6.0 | | 6.5-7.0 | | 6.5-7.0 Legumes 5.5-6.8 | | 6.5-7.5 Lettuce 6.0-7.0 | | 5.0-5.5 Mint 6.5-7.5 | | 6.5-8.5 Onions 5.5-6.5 | | 5.5-7.0 Peanut 6.0-6.5 | | 5.5-7.0 Peas 6.0-7.5 | | 6.0-7.5 Pechay 5.5-6.5 | | 5.5-6.5 Peppers 5.5-7.0 | | 7.0 Potatoes 4.8-6.5 | | 5.5-7.0 Sweet Potatoes 5.2-6.0 | | 4.5-8.2 Radishes 6.0-7.0 | | **Evergreens** Sorghum 5.5-7.5 | | Cotton Spinach 6.0-7.5 | | Pine Squash 6.0-7.0 | | Tomatoes 5.5-7.5 | +=======================================================================+ | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PLANTING MATERIALS SELECTION AND PREPARATION** **Preparation of Planting Materials** - **Choice of Variety or Cultivars** - **Varieties of fruit crops and their description** - **Varieties of plantation crops and their description** - **Propagating materials** - **Selection of shoot from scion and cuttings** - **Apomictic species** **How to choose appropriate variety to plant** - Choose the variety that is best adapted to your locality: - Irrigated - Rain fed - Drought- or saline-prone and; - Resistant to pests prevalent in the area ***Let's Learn!*** **PROPAGATION** **NATURE OF PLANT PROPAGATION** - The practice involving the multiplication of plants for mass production or for any other purpose is technically known as **plant propagation**. - Plant propagation occupies a definite and essential role in the art of crop production since it is from this point where the crops we tend in the field begins. - It should be thought of us an integral part of the production cycle for it directly influences all other activities and management practices that follow in the field. **PROPAGATING MATERIAL IN PLANTS** - **Seeds** - **Cuttings** - **Stems** - **Bulbs** - And other vegetative parts of plants - **Sexual Method -** use of seeds as planting materials - **Asexual Method (vegetative propagation) -** using the vegetative part s of the plants like leaves, branch, buds and roots. **BENEFITS OF PROPAGATION** - increase the number of plants using a certain method so that more of them can be grown for economic utilization. - Farmers have more plants to grow and sell which implies more income to the farmer. **PLANT PROPAGATION BY SEEDS** **SEED** *is the fertilized ripened ovule of a flowering plant containing an embryo and capable of germination to produce a new plant.* - In the use of seeds for plant propagation, the young plant normally comes from the embryo, the products of successful fertilization which is contained in the viable seed. There is an exception to this concept, however. Not all seeds have the embryo which gives rise to the young seedlings. This is referred to as **Apomixis**. - In some plants the embryo develops from a diploid ovular tissue passing the usual meiotic division. **Apomictic seeds** develop from bits of vegetative tissues composed entirely of female tissues. - The resulting plants are therefore of the same genetic stock as the parent plants. - Lanzones and mangosteen, some of our common fruit crops, are apomictic seeds, hence they are chiefly propagated by seeds, although they can also be propagated by asexual means. - Most of our agricultural crops are propagated by seeds. Cereals and vegetables are almost exclusively propagated by this method. - Using this material, propagation is easy since the skills involved are not as difficult as in vegetative method. **Disadvantages of Seed Propagation** - Plants grown from seeds normally require a longer time to bear fruits; in some cases their sizes grew excessively large and become unmanageable; and sometimes poorer quality of fruits are obtained compared to that of the mother plant. **Seed viability**- *the ability of seeds to germinate when placed under conditions favorable for germination.* **Seed longevity**- *refers to the length of time the seeds retain its viability.* **Seed Germination** **Germination** is usually defined as the resumption of growth of the dormant embryo (seed) after exposure to favorable conditions which result in the production of seedlings. Germination is the "birth" of a new plant. **Seed Testing** **Percentage of germination could be computed with the following formula:** No. of seeds germinated Percentage of germination = \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- x 100 No. of seeds planted In case the seeds are tested for the purpose of determining the amount needed to plant a certain area, an adjustment is necessary if the viability of the seeds is less than 100 %. Consider the following problems for purposes of demonstration: *Let's compute!* 1. To plant a hectare of rice land, it is recommended that 30 kilos of rice seeds be used. The seeds to be used were tested for germination and found that only 85 of the 100 seeds planted sprouted. How much will be needed to plant 2.5 hectares. a\. Compute first the percentage of germination: 85 \% of germination = \-\-\-\-\-- X 100 = 85% 100 b\. Compute for the adjusted amount of seeds: Recommended rate x No. of hectares Adjusted seeds = \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- Percentage of Germination 30 x 2.5 75 = \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-- \-\-\-\-- 0.85 0.85 = 88.25 kilos per 2.5 hectares = 35.29 kilos per hectare 2\. In the furrow planting of mungbean, it is recommended that seeding should be done at the rate of 20 seeds per linear meter to have 20 plants per one-meter long furrow. How many seeds should be planted per linear meter if the percentage of germination is 70%? Adjusted seeds = \-\-\-\-\-\-- 0.70 = 28.57 or 29 seeds per linear meter instead of 20 seeds only. **Four Classes of Seeds** **1. Breeder Seed --** is seed or vegetative propagating material directly produced or controlled by the originating plant breeder or institution. Breeder seeds provide the source for the increase of foundation seed. It is issued with [white tag.] **2. Foundation Seed --** is the direct increase from the breeder seed. The genetic identity and purity of the variety of the variety is maintained in foundation seed. Foundation seeds is the source of all certifies seed classes, either directly or through registered seeds. It is issued with [red tag.] **3. Registered Seed** -- is the progeny of foundation or registered seed. Registered seed maintains satisfactory genetic identity and purity of the variety for the production of certified seeds. It is issued with [green tag]. **4**. **Certified Seed** -- is the progeny of foundation, registered or certified seed. Certified seed must be handled so as to maintain sufficient genetic identity and purity of the variety. These classes of seeds are intended for farmers' use since it does not segregate anymore. It is issued with [blue tag.] **Seed Production** - Is composed of a series of related activities usually performed in the nurseries using suitable methods. They may be raised in pots, on beds, or in seed boxes, depending on the applicability of the method to specific seed materials. **Preparation of Soil Media** - The nurseryman should pay attention to the kind of soil media he is going to use as soil determines to a large extent the vigor and size of seedlings needed for planting. The proportion used in preparing the soil media is 1:1:1 - The important roles that organic materials play are in terms of improving the aeration and water-holding capacity, increasing the fertility level of the medium, and hosting a multitude of microorganisms which are essential in the mineralization of nutrients. **Soil Sterilization** - This process is done to free the growing medium from harmful organisms which may inflect the plant, e.g. damping off. - Sterilization also kills weed seeds, insects and insect eggs present in the soil. - Heat caries practically all organisms in the soil including pathogens but chemicals may be specific or non-specific. - Heat sterilization is done by subjecting the soil to high temperature until the soil is thoroughly heated. - Wet soil heats faster than dry soil and the steam heat that builds up in the moistened soil is a more effective sterilant than dry heat in a dry soil. - Heat method of sterilization is also done by pouring boiling water in the soil mix. **Chemical Sterilization** - Can be done with a liquid drench such as formalin or Butachlor or a powder treatment such Brassicol and fumigant such as methyl bromide. In the liquid drench method, the liquid is poured over and thoroughly mix into the soil and covered with a plastic sheet for a few days. After removing the sheet cover, the soil is stirred several times a day to allow the chemical to escape. **Planting/sowing seeds** - After the soil medium has been properly sterilized and treated, it should be placed in seed boxes or pots. The seed then may be planted in this receptacles. - Normally, seed boxes are more conveniently used when the seed are small as in the case of pechay, cabbage, and other vegetables and other small-seeded fruit trees like citrus, chico, and others. - Many fruit tree seeds which are large enough are planted directly in pots instead of sowing them on seed boxes. There are several locally available materials which could be used for this purpose. A few of this are; tin cans, bamboo tubes, plastic pots, clay pots, and etc. **Zoning, Shading and Watering of seedlings** - Regardless of whether the nursery is big or small, seedlings grown should be arranged according to kinds plants. Seedlings of the same kind must also be zoned according to size or age. We call this as zoning. - The placement of the seedlings in the nursery should allow space for pathways as well as for drainage canals. Seedlings are very delicate to be exposed to full sunlight during the day. - To maintain an optimum moisture level in the growing medium of the seedlings, watering must be done also preferable in the morning and should be regulated from day to day. - Seedlings should be allowed to sleep with "wet feet" to prevent the attack of damping off. **Fertilization of seedlings** - If the soil is not applied with fertilizer before sowing/planting the seeds, a soluble fertilizer should be added to the water at recommended rates two to three weeks after the seedlings have emerged, if the soil has been fertilized. - A **starter solution** is highly soluble fertilizer dissolved in water at recommended rates and is usually applied before transplanting to promote quick start, although this practice has now been expanded to seedling still growing in the nursery to keep the nutrients adequate to the plants. Commonly used starter solution is ammonium sulphate at the rate of 2 tablespoon per gallon of water. **Prevention/control of pests/diseases** - To prevent the destruction of seedlings caused by the attacks of insect pests, periodic spraying of suitable insecticides should be done, although organic culture of crops now discourages the use of pesticides. Insects that infest the plants could be controlled by physical destruction or by chemical means. - This could be done by proper disposal of waste materials including plant which had been infected with diseases. Prevention and control of diseases could also be facilitated by regular spraying of fungicide or bactericides. **Hardening and balling of seedlings** - A week or two before the seedlings are transplanted to the vegetable garden orchard, they are moved to the hardening area. In this section of the nursery, the seedlings are gradually exposed to outdoor conditions. This will enable the seedlings to become used to field or outdoor environments, hence preventing stress when transplanted. - Hardened seedlings usually incur lower rates of mortality when planted in the field than those that are planted directly without hardening. **Vegetative Propagation of Plants** - The vegetative parts of the plants are commonly used as propagating materials. This method has been long used in improvement and expansion of our orchards. Farmers find it a practical method of reproducing fruit crops, the fruit industry in the country now seems to consider asexual propagation among fruit trees as become acceptable to the farmers for economic reasons; they are also important as seeds. - Artificial asexual like budding and grafting require skills to be successful. They are only possible among trees that are botanically related and usually are applicable to dicot plants. **ASEXUAL PROPAGATION METHODS** Asexual propagation could generally be done in two ways, when natural and artificial means. Technically, these are called **natural asexual** and **artificial asexual plant propagation**, respectively. What the grower does is separate them from the mother plant(sucker) or divide a certain part of the plant(corm) and grow them separately as an independent plant. **Artificial asexual plant propagation** involves artificial mean that requires skills and experience. **Natural Asexual Propagation Methods** **Separation** is a propagation method applied to such crops as pineapples, banana, abaca, gabi and other root and stoloneferous crops. Pineapple could also be propagated by the use of crown and slip. Propagation by division is typical that of a corm of banana or rhizomes or ginger. Banana or abaca corms contains buds, hence could be used for propagation purposes. Tuber crops like sweet and Irish potato can also be propagated by division. Tubers are split into pieces each containing bud and are used as planting materials. **Artificial Asexual Propagation** - It has a broader scope than natural asexual propagation. - It covers several methods such as cutting, marcoting, grafting, budding, layering, inarching. **Benefits from Asexual Propagation** - Producing large quantities of seedlings that allows quick establishments of commercial orchards with plant that are true-to-type and early bearing. - Give bright livelihood opportunities to skilled plant propagators to commercialize plant propagation. **Method under Artificial Asexual Propagation** 1. **Cutting 2. Marcoting or air-layering 3. Budding 4. Grafting 5. Inarching** - **Cutting** - this method involves the use of any portion of the growing plants (roots, stem or leaves) cut away from its mother for planting purposes. - The fruit plant which can be propagated either by stem or roots cutting are: guava, rimas, breadfruit, passion fruit, camias, sineguelas and many more. - The fruit plant which can be propagated by leaf are: begonias, African violet oregano and many ornamentals and herbal. They are cut 15 to 20 cm long. Remember: - To increase the germination of survival of these cuttings, they should be left undisturbed for quite sometimes to allow the roots to grow. - Adequate watering should be done regularly. **Marcoting or Air-Layering** **Marcoting** is a well-known method of propagating trees. This method is easy to perform and usually has a higher percentage of success than the rest. - Marcoting is also called **air-layering** which is a method of sexual propagation whereby the twig or branch of a growing tree is induce to develop roots while attached to the mother plant. - This method is applicable to majority of our fruits like citrus, lanzones, guava, tiesa, santol and many more - - Watered thoroughly and keep moist all the time to induce root to grow. - They are placed on a shaded area to allowed them to develop more roots and leaves. - They are ready for transplanting when new flashes of leaves have appeared. ***LAYERING*** - Marcoting is also a type of layering but this method includes other types such as tip common, serpentine, and mound layering. - **STOLON-** when the tip of the plant naturally bends over, touches the ground thickens, develops grow roots and establishes into a new plant. - **Tip-layering-** is the process of hastened or aided by artificial bending and the branch tip is covered with soil to induce rooting - **SERPENTINE LAYERING**- if the branch is long and flexible and covered with soil at several point so that roots will be induced at different nodes. - **COMMON LAYERING**- if the median section of branch or vine is fastened down and covered with soil for rooting. - **MOUND LAYERING**- when the shoots are erect and still and do not lend themselves to bending and fastening on the ground and the soil is mound up around their bases to encourage roots to develop.    **Mound Layering Serpentine Layering Tip Layering** **GRAFTING** This is a method of propagation where a part of one plant (the scion) is attached or fastened to another (the stock). - It is an easy method of vegetative propagation perhaps less expensive. - Grafting is limited only to plants which develop the secondary plant body. This is true to conifers and dicot plants to include fruit trees **Types of Grafting** - Cleft Grafting - Saddle Grafting - Tongue Grafting - Whip Grafting - Side Grafting - Bark Grafting Two things to know about Grafting - SCION- is the upper portion of the grafted plant desired to be propagated and usually obtained from matured or fruiting trees or shrubs. - STOCK- is usually seedlings that are inferior quality than the scion. Remember: - Monocot plants cannot be grafted readily. - Only those plants that are closely related botanically could be grafted successfully. - Twig used for scions must be matured but green in color. - The sizes of the stock and the scion must be the same in diameter to secure satisfactory cambial contact when joined together. - They should be kept under partial shade. - Adequately watered - The wound being protected from contamination - Land provided with good nutrition. **BUDDING** - This method is a special kind of grafting in which the wood of the stock is not cut at the point where the scion is brought in contact with it. - The preparation of stock for budding is similar in grafting. - Budding is usually done during the month when the bark of the particular fruit tree slips readily. - Some fruit trees observed to be responsive to budding as a means of propagation are citrus, chico, duhat, durian, guava, cashew and others. - If the bud remains green with no indication of drying after a week or two, success is apparent. Success is confirmed when the bud continues to develop with the leaf scale appearing. - In about three weeks if budding is successful, the buds will evidently develop Types of Budding - T-Budding - Inverted T-Budding or Should Budding - Pitch Budding - Chip Budding - Flute Budding **INARCHING** - It is also known as **grafting by approach** or **approach grafting** is another modified form of grafting whereby two stems which are botanically related are joined together while growing on their own roots until union takes place. - This method of propagation is done by slicing away the bark on one side of both the scion and the stock about **one to two inches in length.** - Fruit trees that are observed responsive to both grafting and budding are also expected to be successfully propagated by inarching. Remember: - The stock and the scion should not be disturbed throughout the growing period, during which time the two plants grow together. - As soon as the union has completely taken place, the branch from the matured tree (scion) is cut off at the lower portion of the graft union. The portion of the stock above the graft union is removed. **Pointers for a Successful Vegetative Propagation** To be a successful plant propagator, a nurseryman should possess a working knowledge and skill about the work. To become one, here are some pointers to observe while doing the task. - Develop genuine and keep interest about plants and the way they multiplied. - Develop manipulative skills relevant to the work by frequent practice and cognizant observation. - Use stocks and scion that are properly prepared/grown. - Use sharp and sanitary tools and equipment suggested for a specific work. - Observe recommended procedures in any work under taken. - Provide adequate care to newly propagated plants until they are ready for transplanting to the orchard. **SELECTION OF SHOOT FROM SCION AND CUTTINGS** - **Selection of scion wood** - Select scion wood from healthy, virus-free plants. Try to avoid trees older than eight to 10 years of age as they have likely bloomed for at least five to seven years or more and possibly contracted pollen-born virus diseases. - Commercial nurseries prune "mother-block" trees back each year to avoid bloom and generate vigorous scion wood. **Selection of cuttings** Taking cuttings involves damaging the plant in some way (in this case by removing a piece of stem) so that the plant starts to repair itself. In this regenerative process cells within the plant become '[meristematic](http://www.oakleafgardening.com/glossary-terms/meristem/?t=p)', meaning that they start to divide to create more cells, which can mature to become any type of cell. - In stem cuttings some of these new cells will mature to form the plant's roots. In [root cuttings](http://www.oakleafgardening.com/how-to/get-new-plants-from-your-existing-ones/root-cuttings/), some will form a new stem and others new leaves. - This process happens more or less easily depending on the types of plant. Ivies, for example, are pre-disposed to form new roots (this is how they cling to surfaces), whereas some tree stems will form hard calluses (like a scab) over a wound through which it can be difficult for new roots to grow. - Hard calluses can also be caused by planting the cutting in growing media which is too aerated or where the [pH](http://www.oakleafgardening.com/how-to/understand-your-soil/soil-ph/) is too high (alkaline). Hard calluses can be carefully scraped off the cutting to encourage rooting. **Tissue Culture** - Also called micropropagation, tissue culture is the production of plants under sterile laboratory conditions. - A variety of tissue culture techniques are used to propagate plants. - In one method, growers remove a tiny piece of leaf or stem from a plant and place it in a sterile test tube on a gel-like medium enriched with hormones and nutrients. A yellow-brown mass of cells called callus develops from the piece of plant. Small chunks of the callus are separated, and each piece is placed in a petri dish with a hormone and nutrient mix that stimulates the development of the callus pieces into plants. - The young plants are removed from the petri dish and placed in pots with soil, or into the ground, where they grow to maturity. **LAND PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION** **Tillage and Cultivation** - Any operation which tends to break or stir the soil purposely to bring about good tilt favorable for the production of economic crops is called tillage. In general usage, tillage is preparing the land before planting the crop or cultivating the field while the crops are growing. It is a practice observed in both traditional and modern farming. **Purpose of Tillage and Cultivation:** 1\. To prepare the field for planting. 2\. To increase the feeding area of the roots. 3\. To eradicate growing weeds. 4\. To increase the holding water capacity of the soil. 5\. To improve aeration. 6\. To increase microbial activity. 7\. To prevent soil erosion. 8\. To level water for uniform irrigation. 9\. To control soil insect pests. 10\. To produce good tilt in the soil. 11\. To encourage chemical reactions in the soil. **Harmful Effects of Tillage and Cultivation:** 01\. Hastens the decay and loss of organic matter in the soil. 02\. Encourages erosion. 03\. Results to surface compaction. 04\. Brings sub-soil to the surface. 05\. Disturb the roots of growing crops. **Classes of Tillage** Tillage operations done to the soil for the purpose of growing or tending economic crops are classified as follows; 01\. General or open tillage - 02\. Surface tillage 03\. Sub-tillage 04\. Inter-tillage **Steps Used in Preparing the Land for Common Crops** In preparing the land for common field crops like rice, corn, sorghum, sugarcane and vegetable crops like legumes, okra, cabbage, pechay and etc., the following steps may be followed: 1\. clear the land from objects that may hamper tillage operation. these objects may include trees, tall grasses, stones, rocks and the like. those that could not be removed, especially rocks and stumps of big trees should be properly marked since this would destroy the farm implement/equipment if blindly stumbled over during tillage operations. 2\. start cultivating the soil with general tillage using appropriate tools and equipment. in newly opened lands deep cultivation should be resorted immediately, especially if manual tools and equipment are used. this may not be observed, however, when tractor-mounted equipment is employed. 3\. allow a period of about two weeks or so before surface tillage, primary harrowing is done. this period of interval between plowing and harrowing operations provides time to decay of organic litter on the soil before they are again thoroughly incorporated by harrowing. 4\. an alternate plowing and harrowing operations are observed for a number of times until a desirable tilt is attained in the soil. ordinarily, the soil is thoroughly prepared with 2-4 alternate plowings and harrowing. 5\. the final step of land preparation may be crisscross harrowing, furrowing in the case of furrow-planted crops or plotting in the case of plot-grown crops. crisscross harrowing is observed in lowland rice, furrowing in such row crops as mungbean, sugarcane among other, and plotting in the case of cabbage, pechay, green onions and mustard. **Erosion** - the wearing away of surface soil by the action of water and wind. **Erosion Control Practices** **PLANTING** ***[Planting]*** - *refers to the setting of the crop on the field or medium where it would grow until maturity.* *-applies to crops wich seeds are considerably large in size* *Ex. Corn,beans,avocado,or coffee.* **Sowing** *-refers to a method of planting whereby seeds, particularly those are that small in size where it would grow until transpalanting time or the period when the plants matures* *Ex: rice, cabbage, eggplant and tomato*  **[Fruit Crops]** **\ -Practically all fruit trees and plants are grown by transplanting** **Methods of Planting Crops in the Farm** In general, there are two methods of planting crops: 1. direct seeding and 2. transplanting. Direct seeding is either by broadcast, hill or dibble, or by drill method. The hill and the drill methods are alternative options in row planting. Direct seeding or direct sowing is a method of planting in which seeds are directly planted on the ground in the farm or any growing surface Transplanting makes use of pre-grown plants, seedlings or vegetatively propagated clones. The term transplanting is also used to refer to the practice of replanting an already established plant in one location and moving it elsewhere. Spacing and Plant Population - A Hill- refers to a plant or group of plants planted on specific location in the field. - A Row- a group of hill forming a straight line towards a particular direction. **Concept of Plant Spacing** -the main concept of plant spacing revolves on the factors that affect the biological requirements of the crop for growth. Whethere to plant closer or farther the crop is determined by such biological requirements a sunlight,water,nutrients, and space, among others. Spacing requirements of common agric'l crops  *Lets compute!* *Suppose.* A farmer has 3 ha of farm to be cropped with tomato. If he plants the crop at distance of 75 x 100cm, how many seedlings will be needed to plant the whole area? If he expects the mortality rate of 20%, how many seedlings will he really need to raise? a. Use a formula: Where: 10,000 -- no. of sq m per ha NP - no. of plants/seedlings needed A - Area to be planted in ha S1 - Distance between hills in meters S2 - Distance between rows in meters Proceed with the computation as follows: NP=[10,000(3)] = [30,000] 0.75(1) 0.75 =40,000 seedlings for 3 ha =13,333 seedlings per ha **PLANT NUTRITION** **Essential Elements Need by Crops** Plants in reality absorb inorganic nutrients indiscriminately from the growing medium, particularly the soil. But the presence of these nutrients in the plant tissues does not clearly indicate that these elements are essential to its growth. **Principle that an element could only be essential or indispensible to the plants when:** 1\. A deficiency of that element makes at possible for the plant to complete its life cycle. 2\. The deficiency symptoms of that element in question can be prevented or corrected only by supplying the elements. 3\. The element is directly involved in the metabolism or nutrition of the plant. The second criterion seems to be inconclusive and refutable. Because of this J.B. Nicholas postulated a single a single criterion and stated that " **an element is essential when it functions in the metabolism of the plant whether this function is specific or not**.'' **ELEMENTS ESSENTIAL FOR PLANT NUTRITION** The Protoplasm of the plant is basically, composed of only six elements, namely: C, H, O, P, and S. In addition to this, 14 other elements had been likewise found essential. This are C, Mg,. K, Fe, M, Mo, Cu, B, Zn, Cl, Na, Co, V and Si. It must be noted further that "not all of these elements are required by all plants, but all have been found essential in some plants''. **CLASSIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS** Elements found essential to plant are classified according to the quantity they are used. **1. Major or macro-elements -those that are needed in relatively large amounts.** **2.Minor or micro-elements -those that are required in small quantities.** **Macro-nutrient** **-include nine elements such as C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S.S** **Trace elements** **-Elements aside from those classified above which are needed by the plants in minute amounts.** Elements essential to the plants and the form they are usually absorbed.  **Methods of Applying Fertilizers.** Fertilizers materials can be applied in various ways. These methods, however, have both advantages which should always be taken into consideration by the farmer. A well chosen method would mean more effective and efficient way of fertilizer use. **1. Broadcast Method** **2. Localized application** **3. Foliar application** **Fertilizer Computations** To avoid wastage and under estimation, therefore, it is most of utmost importance to know the right amount to apply. To come up with the desired amount based on a fertilizer recommendation, it is important to us to learn how to compute. The recommendation may be based on soil tests, field test, plant tissue analyses, etc., or a combination of these sources. Although fertilizer recommendations are normally an approximate of the actual amount needed, Important Unit Conversions - 1 ha = 10,000 sq m - 1 sq m = 10, 000 sq cm - 1 sq ft = 0. 093 sq m - 1 t = 1, 000 kg - 1 kg = 1, 000 g - 1 bag fertilization = 50 kg Note: ha = ha sq = square m = meter cm = centimeter t = ton kg = kilogram g =gram *Let's Compute!* 1\. How many percent of nitrogen are there in urea? Chemical formula of urea is CO(NH2)2 Solution: Atomic weight of urea = 60. 02 g \% N= [Total atomic weight of N in the compound x 100] Total atomic weight of the compound = [28.02 x] 100 60.02 = 46.06% or approximately 46.0% **IRRIGATION** *Take note!* *Crop water requirement. Each crops varies in their crop water requirement (You need to know first prior to irrigation process)* \- is application of water into the soil to sustain the needs of crops in order to survive and become harvested in a certain period of time. Category of Irrigation - **Natural irrigation** water is brought to the field by nature without intervention of human. - **Artificial Irrigation** water brought to the field by using machine like man-made facilities or aid of human. Ex. Reservoirs, ditches, pipes, culverts and canals. **Benefits from Irrigation** - **Makes the soil more workable.** - **Maintains temperatures and other conditions in the soil favorable for plant growth.** - **Provide necessary conditions for efficient use of other agriculture inputs like fertilizer and pesticides.** - **Activates chemical and physical process in the soil necessary for soil conditioning (biological activities, nutrient movements and transformations, organic matter decomposition, etc.).** - **Helps in the control of weeds and pest of crops.** - **Lowers the cost of production and increases farm profits.** - **Irrigated lands command higher assessed values than non-irrigated areas** - **Leads to a more stable and permanently settled community.** **Different Irrigation Systems** 1. **Surface irrigation**. 2. **Sprinkler irrigation** 3. **Drip or trickle irrigation** **Weeding Control Methods** Weed control is important to prevent losses in yield and production costs, and to preserve good grain quality. Specifically, weeds - decrease yields by direct competition for sunlight, nutrients, and water - increase production costs e.g., higher labor or input costs - reduce grain quality and price - For example, weed seeds in grain can cause the buyer price to be reduced. - Prevent yield loss due to weed competition - Maintain purity and/or quality and market price of harvested grain - Prevent build-up of weed seeds in soil - Prevent weeds that may attract insects or rodents (rats) or act as a host for diseases - Prevent clogging of field irrigation channels and facilitate water flow - Reduce time and cost of land preparation and weeding operations **Control Method** 1. manual method (hand weeding) 2. Mechanical method (e.g. the use of rotary weeder) 3. Chemical method (use of herbicides) **Pest Management Practices** Definition of Pest - Means an injurious , noxious or troublesome living organism but does not include a virus, bacteria, fungus or internal parasite that exist on humans or animals. - Is a general term that includes problem insects, weeds, plant pathogens, birds, mammals and other organism. - Organism become PESTS when their numbers are high enough to be damaging Traditional Definition - any organism that interferes with production of crop. - an organism that is damaging to livestock, crops, humans, or land fertility. We generally think of pests as insect. Diseases and Weeds, but there are many other types including nematodes, arthropods other than insect and vertebrates. Kind of pests - **Potential pests** comprise the vast majority of resource consumers and competitors; never cause enough damage to inflict significant loss of yield under prevailing management practices. - **Migrant pests** cause occasional losses in a special way, highly mobile and will infest the crop periodically for short periods of time, often inflicting severe damage. - **Non pest** are those organism in the ecosystem that have no potential for becoming injurious because of their place on the food chain relative to the resource. Importance of Insects to Man and Agriculture - Pollinating activities - Provider of products with commercial value - Served as food -- birds, fish, other useful animal - Performed valuable services -- scavengers - Used to checked harmful animals and plants -- scientific research **Control Method** ***Take note! Control method especially chemical could be implemented if the damage is beyond the Economic Threshold Level (ETL)*** 1. Manual/natural methods (ex, baiting, traps) 2. Chemical method (use of chemicals) **When to Harvest** The question as to when to harvest a crop is largely determined by a number of factors. Some of these factors are: 1. Crop maturity-is the period in the crop's growing cycle where its fruit, grains, or other edible parts have attained maximum growth and development. Maturity ends up w/ the crop's growth cycle after this the crop dies. 2. Type of crop 3. The purpose for which the crop is grown 4. Market situation- The time of harvesting is directed by the low of supply and demand in the market. When the fruits and vegetables are limited in the market. 5. Field condition- the farmers have to make hard decision whether to harvest or not in times of bad weather conditions in view of the lack of post-harvest facilities. 1. Manual method (hand picking or with the use of hand tools e.g. yatab) 2. Mechanical harvester (ex. reaper) 3. Combine harvester **Threshing Methods** Things to know! Not all crops need threshing. Those crops that produces grains such rice, wheat, millets are crops that need threshing. Fruits, root crops and vegetables etc are excluded. 1. Trampling by feet 2. Mechanical methods (thresher) 3. Combine harvester Not all produce from crops need drying. Majority of cereal crops need drying to maintain its grain quality. However in terms of fruits and other vegetables need storage necessary to preserve its quality since it is highly perishable. 1. Sun drying 2. Mechanical dryer 3. Flash dryer 1. Cold storage facilities 2. Dry storage facilities **Experiential Learning Activities! (To submitted during the last retrieval period)** Try one of any asexual propagation method. Conduct actual propagation process using your desired plants and propagation method. Note: If it is successful, you may submit the actual propagated plant with name on it. But if you fail the just write the name of plant, describe your method used. You may include the some pictures on it. **REFERENCES:** Abellanosa, A.L. and H.M. Pava, 1987 Introduction to Crop Science. Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon: Publications Office. **Rimand, T.J., 2004. Crop Science 1: Fundamentals of Crop Science. U.P. Los Baños: University Publications Office.** **Rubenstein, J.M. 2003. The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography. 7^th^ ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.** Lecture Notes in Crop Production compiled by FL Baranda, 2019 *Take note!* Detached this portion and send back to your course facilitator. Evaluation Name \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Course and Year: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Rating: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Direction: Select the correct answer from the given options. Write the letter of your choice in the blank provided before the question. \_\_\_\_\_1. Who is the originator of binomial system of plant nomenclature a\. Carl von Linn b. Carl von Linne c. Carlos Palanca d. Carl Linnesous \_\_\_\_\_2. The following are types of grafting except a. saddle b. underneath c. hip d. side \_\_\_\_\_3. The following are asexual propagation except a. layering b. marcoting c. inarching d. balling \_\_\_\_\_4. It is the process by which the tip of the plant naturally bends over, touches the ground thickens, develops grow roots and establishes into a new plant is called a\. stolons b. layering c. marcoting d. inarching \_\_\_\_\_5. Which of the following statement support crop production as an arts a\. It uses skills and scientific knowledge in growing crops b\. It deals with the quality and quantity of products c\. It deals with binomial system of plant nomenclature d\. It usually connotes a group or population of cultivated plants \_\_\_\_\_6. The following are macro elements except a. **N b. K c. P d. Fe** \_\_\_\_\_7. Which of the following statements supports crop production as business a\. It is **growing plants and raising of animals for food** b\. It occupies the land for a long period of time and do not need to be replaced after each harvest c\. It realizes some profit in the process of producing it. d\. It includes all types of crops \_\_\_\_\_8. In pest management, Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is the indicator in controlling pests by means of chemical method, which of these statement/s is correct about ETL a. When the damaged is below the ETL b. When the damaged is beyond the ETL c. When the damaged is near the ETL d. When the damaged is beneath the ETL \_\_\_\_\_9. The following are the importance of Insects to Man and Agriculture, except a\. Pollinating activities \_\_\_\_\_10. When the soil is considered as marginal, it simply implies that the soil is a. very alkaline b. alkaline c. moderately alkaline d. acidic Evaluation Name \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Course and Year: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Rating: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Direction: Select the correct answer from the given options. Write the letter of your choice in the blank provided before the question. \_\_\_\_\_1. Who is the originator of binomial system of plant nomenclature a\. Carl von Linn **b. Carl von Linne** c. Carlos Palanca d. Carl Linnesous \_\_\_\_\_2. The following are types of grafting except a. saddle **b. underneath** c. hip d. side \_\_\_\_\_3. The following are asexual propagation except a. layering b. marcoting c. inarching **d. balling** \_\_\_\_\_4. It is the process by which the tip of the plant naturally bends over, touches the ground thickens, develops grow roots and establishes into a new plant is called **a. stolons** b. layering c. marcoting d. inarching \_\_\_\_\_5. Which of the following statement support crop production as an arts a\. It uses skills and scientific knowledge in growing crops **b. It deals with the quality and quantity of products** c\. It deals with binomial system of plant nomenclature d\. It usually connotes a group or population of cultivated plants \_\_\_\_\_6. The following are macro elements except a. **N b. K c. P d. Fe** \_\_\_\_\_7. Which of the following statements supports crop production as a business? a\. It is **growing plants and raising of animals for food** b\. It occupies the land for a long period of time and do not need to be replaced after each harvest **c. It realizes some profit in the process of producing it.** d\. It includes all types of crops \_\_\_\_\_8. In pest management, Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is the indicator in controlling pests by means of chemical method, which of these statements is correct about ETL a\. When the damaged is below the ETL **b. When the damaged is beyond the ETL** c\. When the damaged is near the ETL d\. When the damaged is beneath the ETL \_\_\_\_\_9. The following are the importance of Insects to Man and Agriculture, except a\. Pollinating activities \_\_\_\_\_10. When soil is considered as marginal, it simply implies that the soil is d. very alkaline b. alkaline c. moderately alkaline **d. acidic**