Technology and Society Midterm PDF

Introductory concepts 1st week Course: Technology and Society ROOM B211  Technology Combination of two words Techne+Logia Technology Techne: art, handmade, craft Logia: knowing something and working on it What Technology? All kinds of ma...

Introductory concepts 1st week Course: Technology and Society ROOM B211  Technology Combination of two words Techne+Logia Technology Techne: art, handmade, craft Logia: knowing something and working on it What Technology? All kinds of man-made and unnatural objects It includes all production stages of a product with its human dimensions Transforming nature to serve human needs Features of technology-1 Process Technology is the entire infrastructure required for the design, production, operation and repair of technological tools. From universities and companies, it is necessary to consider everything together with the process called technology Combination of natural science and engineering WHAT SCIENCE? A collection of knowledge accumulated over time Generating knowledge about nature. Engineering involves the knowledge of the design and creation of man-made products, and the process of solving problems. First Industrial Revolution Science and technology gets closer… ‘The Industrial Revolution was a technological and socio-cultural transformation that began quietly in England in the eighteenth century. In essence, industrialization entailed a shift away from agriculture as the primary object of human labor and the main means for the creation of wealth to the mechanization of production of goods in factories.’ (Mclellan and Dorn, 2006) Britain Country's own resources accounts for only a quarter of its wealth Colonies’ resources!!! Inventors have produced what can be called technological innovation by integrating their skills with their intuition, generally without relying on theoretical knowledge. In the aftermath of the industrial revolution, technology was based on a much wider knowledge than any craftsman could know, and accordingly large-scale organizations started to develop new technologies. The meaning of technology has been changed in the 20th century…. In the 19th century, technology, which simply refers to the practical arts of producing physical products from wagon wheels to telephones, from cotton clothes to steam machines, ranges from the tools that meet the material demands and desires of the human being to the factories where these are produced, to the organizations that process scientific knowledge, engineering knowledge and technical products themselves. The relation between technology and innovation In its simplest definition, innovation is defined as the development of ideas that add value to a product and service and the implementation and implementation of these ideas, in other words, the transformation of an idea into a marketable product or service, a new or improved production process or distribution method. What Society? There are mainly two approaches Individualistic approach:society can be defined as the sum of people's behaviors. In this definition, of course, the unit of analysis is "individual". The second approach, on the other hand, regards the society as "a reality peculiar to itself" and "determinant in individuals' relationships and behaviors". This distinction means the emergence of different approaches in different fields of social sciences (Giddens, 1984: 1-5). What communication? The literal meaning of communication is common information sharing. According to Shannon and Weaver (1949), all actions that one's ideas can affect others are communication. These actions include not only writing and speech, but also music, painting, theater, ballet and all human actions. In this context, technology is a concept that increasingly mediates social communication processes, but is also included in the relations of production, distribution relations and domination relations that form the basis of social life. Technology changes the world 1. Internet, which was invented as a result of scientific and technical research and by its nature, includes all the previous ways of entertainment and communication, our traditional institutions and forms of social relationships, our basic perception of reality and therefore our relationships with each other and the world; it has even changed the scale and structure of societies. 2. The Internet has become accessible as a result of scientific and technical research and serves a new type of large-scale and atomized society required by globalization. 3. The internet, discovered as a possibility by scientific and technical research, has been chosen for investment and development in order to meet new social needs in a globalizing world. Three approaches to technology:What are the sources of technological innovation?" Individualistic approach:individual creativity and imagination Societal approach:Overcoming the shortage of raw materials,saving labor, increasing production volume The third approach: technological development is the process of sorting, selecting, investing and developing new products to include in the culture of a society among competing inventions, and that economic and military needs, social and cultural trends and the search for technological fashion also affect this sorting process.  TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY 2ND LECTURE «whoever controls the telegraph lines, s/he controls the news " Communication tools The need to transmit news and information over long distances Different methods have been used in different historical periods In terms of long distance communication, perhaps the most famous event in history is the Marathon Run. Birincisi, gerçekler: Pheidippides adında eski bir Yunan vardı ve M.Ö. 490'da Perslere karşı yapılan savaşta kurye olarak çalışıyordu. Antik tarihçi Herodot'a göre kurye gerçekten destansı bir yolculuk yaptı. Ancak Pheidippides, Maraton Muharebesi'nde zaferin müjdesini vermiyordu; Persleri geri püskürtmek için birlikler toplamaya çalışıyordu. Herodot, kuryenin Atina ile Sparta arasında 36 saat boyunca inanılmaz bir şekilde 153 mil ileri geri koştuğunu yazıyor. İşe yaradı ve Atinalılar Persleri yenerek kazandı. Ancak inanılmaz atletik becerisine rağmen Pheidippides'in zafer haberini verdiği ya da sonrasında öldüğü kaydedilmiyor. Bunun yerine kaynaklar, bunu yapan habercinin adının Thersippos mu yoksa Eukles mi olduğu konusunda ihtilafa düşüyor. MS 347'de Plutarch şunları kaydetti: "Çoğu kişi, savaştan dolayı sıcak zırhıyla koşan... sadece 'Mutlu ol!' diyen kişinin Eukles olduğunu söyler." Biz kazandık!' dedi ve geçerliliğini hemen sona erdirdi." Communications tools The tragic story of the soldier, who set out after the Greeks won the battle that took place near the town of Marathon on the Aegean Sea in 490 BC and died after completing his 40-kilometer run and reaching Athens and conveying the message "we won" Communication tools Messages with pre-determined arm marks are one such method. In regions where there is no place to see each other or in forest areas, drum telegraphs replaced the postmen. Playing drums! Again, it is known that the ancient Greek and Roman empires had an organized remote communication network created using torch signals!  In this communication network, which can only be used at night, the signals produced by the torches, each with its own casing, at the receiving and transmitting stations built on the hills are decoded by the receivers and transmitted to the next station by the transmitters. It is known that not only the Indians but also the Romans in AD 150 used smoke signals. The Romans could transmit news up to 4500 kilometers with their smoke telegraph network. This network consisted of hundreds of towers at a distance to see each other established for military purposes (Matellart, 1994: 8). Limitations of those communication tools Based on visual signals (loss of signals or misunderstanding due to the lack of common symbols) The Industrial Revolution has brought innovations that would greatly overcome these limitations. The rise of telegraph Early efforts The Englishman William Sturgeon (1783-1850) invented the electromagnet in 1825 and established the large- scale electronic communications. In 1830, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), an American, revealed the potentials of the electromagnet in terms of distant communication, which Sturgeon discovered.  Using an electromagnet, the electric signals and the ringing of the bell at the end of the 1 mile long wire heralded the emergence of the electric telegraph. However, Samuel Morse's intervention was required for Henry's invention to be commercialized and become real (Anderson, 1986: 129).  While Samuel Morse was a professor of Art and Design at New York University in 1835, he proved that electrical signals could be transported along a cable and made these signals meaningful by developing the Morse alphabet. In the following years, the vehicle was produced to put short and long signals on a paper and was exhibited to the public in 1838. Morse's first system was a system that printed points and lines on paper. An operator later translated these points and lines into letters (Bruno, 2009)  Samuel Morse and his associates found special funding to extend the telegraph line between Philadelphia and New York. Small telegraph companies were established all over the country. The process of managing the shipment of trains by telegraph began in 1851. That same year, Western Union also entered the field of telegraphy. In 1861, telegraph lines were established that traversed the continent along the railway. On July 27, 1867, the first Atlantic submarine cable was laid and the continents of Europe and America were united. In 1913, Western Union developed multiplexing. Thus, 8 messages can be transmitted simultaneously on a single line (Bruno, 2009).  While the telegraph was developing rapidly, the issue of regulating the telegraph services at national and international level became increasingly important. The first thing to know about this issue is that communication network technologies, which started with telegraphy, were produced in developed countries. These countries also physically shared almost the entire world as a result of colonial expansion in the 19th century. For these reasons, the establishment of the international telegraph network and the spread of the telegraph lines in non-capitalist social structures were also under the initiative of these countries during the 19th century. In order to answer the question of how national and international telegraph networks are organized, the year 1898 should be considered as a turning point (Başaran, 2000: 60-61).  That is to say, in all industrialized capitalist countries, especially in the US, the telegraph has begun to take shape with the "profit" oriented policies of private companies. However, after England's "Telegraph Purchasing Act" in 1868, the telegraph companies that made all local line investments were nationalized by paying the shares of their partners. With the purchase of a limited amount of privately owned telegraph lines in France in 1878 and in Italy in 1889, fully state ownership was established. The tendency to combine postal and telegraph services under a state enterprise that started in Europe in the 1860s has become a common practice in all countries of the world except America (Mattelart, 1994: 10; Başaran, 2000: 58).  The year 1898, in addition to the state-sovereign regulation of the national telegraph networks in Europe, also refers to the control of the international telegraph network by the states. There are two interrelated reasons for state control in international telecommunications: First, the entire world was shared by colonial powers at the end of the 19th century, and there was an intense tension between industrialized and countries that shared the world with the re- division of colonial lands. This tension played an important role in the increasing importance of the speed of communication to be established with the colonies far from the home country Second is the increasing understanding of the relationship between communication and strategy by all countries. However, the dominance of the private sector in the world telecommunications network has meant that the network reaches commercially important regions on the basis of profitability. However, regions that are not commercially profitable have gradually gained importance in political and strategic terms due to the international tension. Since 1898, telecommunications began to be seen as a strategy tool rather than a neutral infrastructure open to public use, and the tendency for state interventions was strengthened (Headrick, 1995: 38-9).  In addition to these, after 1898, France realized that it needed to give importance to telecommunications in order to maintain its competitive position in terms of colonialism, and in 1900, it started to make new investments, especially to avoid reaching China and Africa via British lines. It was at the same time that Germany, which was industrialized and looking for foreign markets, turned its attention to telecommunications. Unlike France, Germany, which has a strong electricity industry, established its own Atlantic line in 1900, and at the same time began to compete with the UK in the telegraph industry. The Atlantic line, which was operated with great success, was backed up a few years later, and German companies started to establish a telegraph line in the Far East, where the UK's telegraph lines are located. During all these developments, Germany never saw telegraph as a business field, and, aware of its strategic and political importance, preferred to control German telegraph companies largely through subsidies (Headrick, 1995: 40).  On the other hand, regulation in the American telecommunications sector started at the state level in 1907 in New York and Wisconsin in parallel with the American state structuring. This regulation, which is mostly based on prices, was made by the "public utility commission", and then the commissions established in other states controlled the telegram and telephone prices with the legal powers they received. With the Kingsburry decision in 1913, a monopoly was created by merging all small phone operators under AT&T. The regulation at the federal level was carried out by the Interstate Commerce Commision until 1934, and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which was established in 1934, has continued its function as a telephone regulator with the goal of service accessible to all Americans (Horwitz, 1989: 96). What about Turkey? Two years after the invention of the telegraph, the service was tried twice in 1839 and 1847, attempts were made to establish telegraph lines, but unfortunately, the use of telegraphs in the Ottoman Empire could not be started until the Crimean War in 1854. In 1854, in accordance with the requirements of the Crimean War that started, the Ottoman State established a Telegraph Commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs for the Edirne-Shumen-Istanbul and Edirne-Filibe-Sofia-Nis lines  During the Crimean War, after the construction of the line connecting Europe and Istanbul, the spread of the telegraph lines in Rumelia gained speed. Until 1866, there was no region left in Rumelia where the telegraph did not reach. It shows that the Ottoman Empire's need to communicate with Europe is as important as the need for communication with the Ottoman centers of European countries in shaping the Rumelia lines. Another reason is the need to be informed and intervened in time about the increasing independence movements aiming to break away from the empire in the lands owned by the Ottoman Empire in the European continent (Başaran, 2000: 67).  One of the important reasons we need to consider in terms of the development of the telegraph network and the widespread use of telegraphs in the Ottoman Empire is the geographical location of the Ottoman lands connecting Asia, Africa and Europe. The fact that the Ottoman lands served as an important bridge between the imperialist states of Europe and their colonies played an important role in the development of the Ottoman telegraph network. For example, telegraph lines passing through Ottoman lands are key to the communication with India, the largest colony of Great Britain.  The center of the Ottoman telegraph network is Istanbul, the capital of the period. In the beginning, telegraphs coming from Anatolia to Üsküdar center were delivered to the European side by boats. In 1862, it was decided to establish a line between Anadolu Hisarı and Rumeli Hisarı and connect this line to the telegraph houses in Üsküdar and Galata. As the first line broke off after a short while, the same line was installed for the second time. After the installation of the cable between the fortresses, a telegraph house was established in the Rumeli Fortress in 1867 (Başaran, 2000: 80).  After the spread of nationalist uprisings in the Balkans and the suspension of the Ottoman debt in 1875, The Abdülhamit II period represents the difference in terms of telegraph policies. An important event that developed in this period and affected not only the Ottoman Empire, but all of Europe, was Prussia defeating the French in 1870, establishing the German unity and changing the balance of power in Europe. This event not only led to the emergence of a new state. At the same time, with the strength it gained in terms of industry and technology, Germany started to compete with European states on colonialism. The Abdülhamit period was determined by this contradictory and increasingly different international policy environment and the tension of the Ottoman Empire's maneuvers. The first reflection of this tension in the field of telecommunications is the beginning of telegraph censorship. The main reasons of the telegraph censorship are the news in the European press about the opponents of Abdülhamit and the Armenians, as well as the Ottoman-Russian war.  When examining the telegraph's connection with the organization of the political sphere, it is necessary to extend to the Chappe telegram. Chappe's optical telegraph, which can be considered as the first effective telecommunication system, was established in France, which is in civil war, due to the need for communication between the center and the army units. Optical telegraph has been used for military purposes for a long time, and two applications made by Chappe to Bonaparte regarding the "opening to civilians for industry and trade were rejected" (Mattelart, 1994: 3-4). The Chappe telegram has been one of the most important elements uniting the national territories for the French State to ensure territorial domination. The meaning of the unification of national lands is the integration of France as a "nation-state", which is evident with views such as removing interstate barriers, determining administrative regions, unifying the tax system and laws, making French the national language.  Nation-state with the telegraph that destroys geographical divisions; He differentiated from his predecessors with the administrative integrity provided by his power over the production, reproduction, collection, accumulation and control of information. Differentiation is evident in the concentration of authority by controlling and accumulating information. In addition to the increase in surveillance capabilities, the increased effectiveness of state monopoly violence tools such as the army and police force, thanks to technological developments, are the main determinants of the nation state.  When considering the connection of the telegraph with the organization of the economy, we have to think multi-faceted. First of all, it should be emphasized that technological developments usually mean establishing monopoly power and increasing profit rates in terms of competing powers in the market. The realization of this is possible through the expansion of the market scale, the increase in control possibilities, and the concentration of economic information resources. Telegraph, on the other hand, is a tool that has strong effects in terms of the expansion of the market scale, the increase of the control possibilities and the concentration of economic information resources. It is known that due to the high costs of accessing remote locations in the United States, companies competing in local markets increased their annual revenues by a thousandfold with the advent of the railways and the telegraph in the early 1860s, and with the introduction of remote locations into the market, the largest commercial ventures in history were possible during this period.  On the other hand, the connection of the telegraph with the concentration of information resources also reveals its connection with the organization of the communication field. The New York Associated Press was established in the USA in 1848 with the merger of 6 New York newspapers. Sharing the costs of accessing telegraphs and other means of information lies at the heart of this merger decision. This organization, which will soon become the Associated Press, has created a complete complementary monopoly, with Western Union's monopoly in the field of telegraphy and their monopoly in the field of news. When the most important cost of receiving news from long distance turned into the fee paid to telegraph companies, the Associated Press at the national level in the USA solved this problem by making an agreement with Western Union. It is known that the British news agency Reuters, working together, brought together and sold the news from the UK and Europe during the domination of the Eastern Company on international routes. The sovereignty of England on international lines meant that the news flow all over the world was under the control of England at that time. This situation is summarized as "whoever controls the telegram lines, he controls the news". Technology and Society 3rd Lecture  The logical structure that emerged during the social use of the telegraph can be easily found in the social use of other important inventions of the industrial revolution. A certain line of scientific and technological development interacts with other social development lines in the context of industrial capitalism. Commercial life determined by the level of industrial capitalism, rapid urbanization, the introduction of developing science to the service of administrations and the development of new social control mechanisms, new social class relations formed within the context of industrial capitalism and new home-living space and business life structure. The invention of photography The invention of photography combined with rapid urbanization to accompany the telegraph and telephone, can be considered as a result of the industrial revolution and accelerated the emergence of mass society. The period when photography was invented (1839) was the period when bicycles, steamships, railways, automobiles and finally aircraft were brought into social use. In other words, it is a period in which people's local and limited sense of space is completely and radically changed by new transportation technologies. Photographs and phonographs Photographs did not fix and save the whole world of images, making them consumable with text in newspapers and all other printed media. While photo stabilizing images, the phonograph (1877) was also invented and made available to social use as a device that stabilized human voice and music. There were new technologies such as telephone. When it was patented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, Bell himself thought that this technology could be used to carry publicly important information, especially music and news, to homes (Beniger, 1986: 19), But it would be necessary to wait for the radio for such "broadcasting". Cinema After the presentation of moving images became possible in the 1890s, it found its first serious use in vaudeville shows, city fairs and other entertainment venues that were already common in urban life. The cinema event, which is particularly suitable for vaudeville theaters, was presented to the audience as an "innovation" that fills the time between two performances. Cinema has become one of the most important entertainment activities in all kinds of entertainment venues in just a few years. Thus, cinema has become an important part of the newly emerging consumption Radio It is a natural result of radio wireless communication technology, in a more concrete and practical way, wireless telegraphy. Technique and usage knowledge of this technique, in short, radio technology emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. However, World War I slowed down the developments and it was necessary to wait until the 1920s for the first regular radio broadcasts to begin. However, the interest of political powers in wireless communication begins before. As early as 1912, the Wireless Act was enacted in the USA. After that, both social use and legal regulation of radio gain a certain Television Television, both as a cultural tool and as a political tool, is directly included in broadcasting conventions, in which radio draws its boundaries. Although successful attempts were made in the 1930s, Television became widespread only in 1950s due to World War II. Broadcasting is regulated directly depending on the political cultures and economic policies of the countries. For example, while a broadcasting system managed by "commercial" advertising-based financing was legalized in America until the 1980s, public service broadcasting based on public finance was essential in Europe. While broadcasting was organized in different ways, telecommunications which is considered to be the backbone of the communication infrastructure, remained under direct state control almost everywhere until the 1980s. Internet In all these technological developments, the history of the internet gains a special importance. The internet has become the fabric of life today. In a sense, the technological basis of the "information age" is the internet. In the words of Manuel Castells, who has gained great reputation in recent years with his "network society" thesis, the internet is at the center of the "network society". Internet use has become widespread rapidly, especially in the second half of the 1990s. The year 1995 can be regarded as a turning point in this sense. This year, the Internet reached a large number of users worldwide and in the following years the number increased rapidly: the number of users increased from 16 million in 1995 to 400 million in 2001 (Castells, 2001: 3)  On the other hand, before it became a very popular concept and technology since the mid-1990s, the internet was a "technical system" developed for 30 years. Even as late as 1993, only 8% of Americans were able to meet online information services (Flichy, 2007: 35). However, the developments that gave birth to the internet date back to the 1940s. Winston (1998: 322) states that a series of developments that emerged in the 1940s are important for internet history. The first study that made possible the communication between computers that created the Internet was made by George Stibitz in 1940 with first digital electronical computer namely complex number calculator. In fact, an article in which the idea of the web on the computer was expressed for the first time was published by Vanneur Bush in 1945. Here, the author was talking about a machine system within which all knowledge of humanity can be reached and research can be done. This system would be an intricate system that could associate between files in an associative manner similar to the human brain (Winston 1998: 322 as cited in Bush 1945).  Taking concrete steps regarding internet development only dates back to the 1960s, and the period from the establishment of the ARPANET system until the 1990s provides very important predictions in understanding the relationship between communication, technology and society today (Castells, 2001: 8).  The Internet is based on the computer network (ARPANET) established in 1969 at the United States Agency for Advanced Research Projects (ARPA). ARPA is an organization that was established in 1958, one year after the Soviet Union's first satellite launch, Sputnik, in 1957. Established by the US Department of Defense, the purpose of the organization was to mobilize research carried out especially at universities to meet military needs. Soon this initiative came to fruition, and an idea was developed at Rand Corporation, a think tank working for the Ministry of Defense, to establish a communication system that could survive a nuclear war.  In 1969, the first computer network was established among various universities and research institutions, and this network soon began to expand. In 1972, this network was introduced in an international conference and protocols that provide communication between the necessary infrastructure and computers were developed with the contribution of many organizations for the past time (p 11).  In 1975, ARPANET was directly connected to the Defense Communication Agency (DCA) and MILNET, which stands for Military Computer Network, was established. During this period, more military research was conducted. In 1984, the American National Science Foundation (NSF) established its own computer network, NSFNET, and in 1988 the name of this network was changed to ARPA-INTERNET and connected to the main network. In 1990, ARPANET was discontinued on the grounds that it was technically obsolete. After that, the Internet emerged from a military environment and joined a civilian environment where the control was under the American National Science Foundation. However, the National Science Foundation's control over the internet did not last long. The period was a period of rapid deregulation and privatization in the entire economic infrastructure and especially in the communication technology infrastructure. As early as the 1980s, the Ministry of Defense was financing infrastructure manufacturers to produce the necessary transmission protocols (TCP / IP) customizing the Internet. Thus, before the 1990s, many computers had the capacity to communicate through the network. As a result of these plans, NSFNET was closed in 1995 and all obstacles to the commercial non-operation of the internet were removed. Since the early 1990s, private internet service providers had already begun to set up the necessary infrastructure for commercial business.  An important development that enabled the widespread use of the Internet infrastructure was the development of communication services over computer networks, a job mostly undertaken by universities since the 1970s. Universities did not have the main role in the future of the Internet, but with the development activities they carried out, they had revealed innovations that could be regarded as the ancestors of the applications that created the Internet today For example; (BBS-Bulletin Board System) is one of them and it was put into use in 1970s. UNIX operating system was launched in 1974, the MODEM system, which enables the exchange of files between computers, in 1977, and the Usenet News system, which enables sharing news among interest groups, in 1980 and soon became widespread on the network.  Again, the "open source movement", which is still very active among UNIX users, started in this period. In 1984, he started a movement against Richard Stallman's UNIX operating system being closed without the knowledge and access of people at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) University. According to this move, all source codes and developments related to the operating system used should be freely shared with users. However, this movement has been limited in the commercialization process of the internet. Today's "hacker" movement and the period's revolt against closed software are closely  The 1990s was a period when such "counter" movements continued to be suppressed with the commercialization of the internet. At the same time, the 1990s was a period when very important innovations emerged in the widespread use of the internet. The www (world wide web) system, which can be translated as "world wide web", was developed by Tim Berners-Lee from the CERN research center in Switzerland and the browser software of this system was distributed over the web in 1991. Later, many "hackers" made their own versions of these browser systems. Mosaic browser software, which brings together multimedia applications with the internet, has almost opened the doors of a new era. With the browser introduced by Mark Andressen in 1993, visual graphics have also become an active part of the internet. During this period, young software developers trained in leading universities such as Andressen entered into closer relations with the capital owners investing in Silicon Valley, which is the innovation center of America's computer software. For example, with the collaboration of Andressen and businessman Jim Clark, the famous browser Netscape Navigator emerged in early 1994. This is an important period when the creations of independent and hacker-spirited young software developers are financed and controlled by capital owners for commercial purposes. In fact, the roots of this structural trend go back to the 1980s. The internet field enters a new era in 1995 with Microsoft, which is already an important new technology company, entering the internet business with Internet Explorer.  By 1995, the internet domain was almost completely privatized. As a result, Internet, in the words of Castells, "started in the minds of computer scientists in the 60s, came to life with the expanding and enriched networks between scientists during the 70s and afterwards, but for the vast majority of people, it only started in 1995 (2001: 17). Nevertheless, the initial principles set forth within the framework of military needs were more or less realized on the Internet: flexibility, operation without a command center, and the specificity of each point in the  America's great scientific potential was first mobilized and financed by the Department of Defense, then an environment was created for the group of scientists to work freely, and finally left under private sector control at the expense of suppressing the "free". This development is suitable for privatization and deregulation practices that have emerged concretely since the 1980s. The development in other parts of the world, especially Europe, which contributes to the development of the Internet, is in this direction. The development of institutions that have authority over the Internet is another remarkable issue. There were many research and management groups within ARPA, where the internet was launched in the 1960s. These include the Network Working Group (NWG) responsible for technical standards, the Internet Configuration Control Board (ICCB) and the Internet Activities Board (IAB). Through the technical standards established in these boards, many institutions have joined the internet network and provided the network to expand. National Science Foundation (NSF), NASA and the American Department of Energy were among these organizations (Castell, 2001: 30).  In the 1990s, the global use of the internet started to be discussed, and the organizations that manage this kind of internet depend on the American state. Moreover, the commercialization of the Internet has made the positions of these organizations more problematic. Eventually, the American government handed over internet management to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to an organization that was seemingly more independent of state control (Castells, 2001: 31). IANA was one of the oldest non-profit organizations on the internet, founded in the 1970s. However, after a while, in 1998, IANA was connected to the Internet Assigned Numbers and Permissions Authority (ICANN) and this structure is still preserved today. ICANN, in its official website "as a private-public partnership", for the purposes of "preserving the determination of the internet to work, supporting competition, ensuring the representation of global internet communities with a wider participation and developing policies appropriate to its mission through consensus-based processes from the grassroots" and with the mandate of the American government, it is one of the important symbols behind the scenes of the age of market-centric communication.  As stated above, 1995 is an important date in many ways. This year, Yahoo, the first search engine, came into use as a web page that allows access to information on certain topics. Today Yahoo is one of the most popular email and news portals. A few years after Yahoo, Google, one of the biggest new media companies of today, was founded. Like many internet companies, Google started as a research project in a university and has reached a huge market value today with innovations such as "Page Ranking" in the search of pages and information from the internet. Dial-up systems operating at low speeds, which most of the users had to use in the 1990s, left their places to broadband applications such as cable modems and DSL (digital subscriber line) modems since the second half of the 90's, and these innovations contributed greatly to the spread of the internet.  Equipping the Internet with useful and entertaining content is another important issue in parallel with the development of the infrastructure. Companies such as AOL (American Online) trying to make the internet available to users with little technical knowledge have turned the internet into a suitable communication environment for everyone. The ease of free e-mail application, which is one of the most important applications in the spread of the Internet, is a good example of this situation. E-mail, which was developed in 1972, is today the most common application of the internet in daily and business use. In the beginning, all users needed their own servers to exchange e-mails. Today, this service is offered free of charge by many internet companies. Yahoo mail, Hotmail, Gmail are companies that provide such services that are used globally. Another important innovation is the diversification and enrichment of environments where information can be accessed. During the 1980s and early 90s, the only area where information could be accessed on the Internet was the Notice Board System (BBS). BBSs were simply bulletin boards where small internet communities shared information. After the emergence of web pages, BBSs have turned into internet "forums" that are still in widespread use today. Today, forums on almost every subject can be reached on the internet. Today, the Internet has become a seemingly limitless area where all kinds of content can be accessed from academic / scientific web pages, online dating sites, computer games, news portals.  In addition to all this content diversity, another innovation has given the internet its current identity: Social Networks. Social Networks have deepened the influence of the internet, which has already become a part of our daily life. It is now easier than before to stay in touch with our friends, the social groups and organizations we want to be involved in and open to us Social networks such as Myspace and Facebook have reached a huge number of users with such services in the last few years. Facebook in particular has become a global phenomenon. Blogs are one of the important innovations that give the Internet its current identity. Blogs have gained great popularity in recent years. Blogs allow individuals and institutions to regularly share content with their followers on the internet. Some of these blogs also regularly provide audio-visual content. Blogs that offer video content are also called vlogs. The Twitter application, which has become popular recently, is nothing more than a micro-blog application that allows sharing of shorter messages.  It is claimed that the internet, which has a deeper impact on people's lives with all these innovations and has started to radically change communication habits, has entered a new era since the early 2000s. Web 2.0, a nomenclature specific to the computer world, is used to name this new era. The term Web 2.0 is used to indicate a second period in internet history, in which users could be much more effective in contributing to content than in the 90s. This era, which is characterized by applications that people directly contribute to making such as blogs, social networks, and wiki, is seemingly truly user-centered. This concept was first used in a 1999 article published by Darcy DiNucci, who worked as an information design consultant. In this study, DiNucci pointed out that web content, which at that time consisted of a static web page loaded into a browser window, was only the "embryo" of the future Internet (Cervischi and Butucea 2010 as cited in DiNucci 1999).  However, the term Web 2.0 is mostly referred to by Tim O'Reilly, the founder of the O'Reilly Media company, due to the conference titled Web 2.0 he organized in 2004. According to O’Reilly, an activist who also supports open source software, Web 2.0 has a more user-centric structure as a new and improved version of the world wide web (www). As it can be understood from the table prepared by Tim O'Reilly while comparing Web 1.0 with Web 2.0, the claim that Web 2.0 is a web environment that blurs the distinction between content provider and reader / user stands out. In this table, Web 1.0 is matched with personal web pages and publishing concepts, while Web 2.0 is matched with blogging and participation concepts. These concepts have moved from an environment where Web 1.0's content creator and reader / user interact with little to an environment where anyone can easily create content and create content together in Web 2.0.  However, according to some experts, the claim that Web 2.0 is a new web era is a bit exaggerated. For example, Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the www system, described the claim as "a piece of jargon" and rejected it. Indeed, it is necessary to be more careful against such claims made without considering how the current potential of the internet comes to life in practice. For example, Google's social networking applications in almost every category in Turkey when we look at the statistics given about the most searched word on the internet, games, popular singer, movie star or footballer is seen that the top rankings. In such an environment, it is possible to obtain information about how most of the users realize the existing potential of the internet in practice. Obviously, with this kind of use, we should not mention an internet environment where the user is active. Technology and Society 4th Lecture  What are the differences between the communication technologies that emerged in the 1970s and traditional communication technologies? What is the historical context in which such communication technologies arose?  In the last few decades, information and communication technologies have aimed to eliminate the limitations created by time, space and geographical distance It has evolved in a way that makes it possible to integrate all information transfers in the form of sound, image, moving image and data into a single and flexible network. In one aspect of this development, quantitative transformations such as digitization, satellite, fiber optic cables, increasing transmission capacities and reducing costs, on the other, as a result of the convergence of telecommunication and information technologies, "the intertwining of mass communication with point-to-point communication services" communication technologies, that is, qualitative changes. What are new communication Technologies? New communication technologies are communication tools that provide or improve the mutual communication between users and between users and information with the microprocessors inside them. In fact, new communication technologies differ from old communication technologies in many ways. The two most defining features of new communication technologies are: Digitization Interactivity  Digitization basically describes the process of converting a whole communication content, ie image, sound or text into 'data' that computers can understand, that is, encoding it into a binary (0,1) number system. The communication content had the opportunity to merge with the rapidly developing computer infrastructure. Personal computers, mobile phones, digital television receivers and many other innovations have been made possible by this merger. Results of digitization-1 It overcomes the limitations of analogue transmission possibilities peculiar to old communication technologies. Analog communication means that the physical properties of a message, that is, its content, are sent directly to the receiver as electrical signals and unified there. However, in digital communication, the message is encoded in abstract symbols (0,1) and sent and these codes are opened at the receiver. Thus, the message becomes compatible with the computer infrastructure and occupies much less space in the channel. This creates a more efficient communication environment in terms of engineering. Results of digitization-2 The communication content can be divided into very small pieces, compressed and processed. Content has become accessible in much shorter times Interactivity By accessing content in a non-linear fashion, we mean "interactivity", another distinctive feature. The digital communication infrastructure provides access to the communication content (movies, music, news, etc.) with a much larger capacity, allows all changes allowed by computer technology to be added to the content, reduces the time and space limitations between the source and the receiver  We can call interaction where the source can be the receiver and the receiver the source. However, according to this definition, radio, television, or newspapers also perform the interaction processes through feedback channels (sales figures of newspapers, watching rates of televisions, letters of viewers or readers, or telephone connections). Even when we think of it in this sense, having a chance for the viewer to choose between channels can be considered as interaction.  So we have to make a definition that lies between two definitions, that is, between the ideal situation in which the source can be the receiver and the receiver can be the source, and the definition that includes feedback channels or selection, one of which is too narrow and the other too broad. We can reach this definition only by looking at the way the interaction process, which is described in the broad definition, is realized in mass media to include the features found in new communication technologies. In vehicles such as radio-television-newspapers, which we call mass media, interaction is actually possible with the allocation of a channel other than the specified transmission channel of that vehicle. That is, although radio broadcasting is done with radio frequencies, the feedback channel is letter or telephone, or the feedback channel of the newspaper is the number of prints. Definition of Interaction The main feature of our ideal definition of interaction, then, should be that the interaction process takes place through the same channel. Interaction is the fact that the receiver is the source and the source is the receiver, this process also activates the receiver in the communication process and these transactions take place on a single channel.  That is to say, while traditional communication corresponds to a linear form of communication between two points as in postal or telephone services, traditional mass communication, as in radio or television, is one point, that is, a radio or television station, to a large number of receivers at the same time and their interventions to the content are made in a very limited way. However, radio and television content recorded in digital satellite or cable television services or on the Internet is received at any time, access to the current radio and television broadcasts, and simultaneously sending e-mails, entering the communication process on social networks or a news.The news is being read on the portal.  Moreover, thanks to the new generation smart phones, these communication processes can be accessed from almost anywhere at any time. In other words, existing forms of communication have become accessible in a new format and environment and by overcoming time and space limitations to a great extent.  Due to these quantitative and qualitative transformations, new communication technologies are increasingly being addressed with today's political and social debate issues. The changes are causing the political, social and economic expectations of all social groups and institutions to be increasingly associated with the development of new communication technologies. New communication technologies to make the world economy more competitive and efficient at the global level; equalizing the countries of the world by closing development differences; It is expected to make world communication accessible, fast and effective for everyone. The developments in communication and computer technologies and their widespread use are defined as the founding elements of a new social structure in which all the deficiencies of the industrial society will be eliminated. On the other hand, new communication tools are on the agenda of social groups that cannot be included in the traditional media because of their possibilities of organization, education and their use to explain themselves to the public, and their functions as a platform of opposition are discussed. The handling of new communication technologies without ignoring all these claims and expectations; to reveal their potential and limitations.Their relationship with economic, social and political changes should be discussed. In fact, every communication technology that has just emerged when we think in terms of time is new. All the tools that integrate technology and communication, such as telegraph, radio, and television, were called "new" when they first appeared. However, the main feature of "new communication technologies" is not that they are new in time. In fact, new communication technologies are new, precisely because they are put in front of mass communication technologies, which has given the communication environment its color and caused the formation of a field called communication, and we can even say that the field of communication and sociology, psychology, and political science. Mass communication is defined by two basic characteristics: 1) Mass communication is directed at a large section of the population. 2) In order for the message to reach a large segment of the population, technical means must be used: The concept of Broadcasting is also born from this. The history of communication tools outside of this definition is at least as old as these tools or even older. These are tools such as telephone, telegraph, and telex. These tools are the so-called point-to-point communication tools that haven't caught the attention of communication researchers so far. We should immediately state that the tools that we call new communication technologies and that we define with their difference from mass communication are tools that have been shaped on these infrastructures that have not attracted the attention of communication researchers until today.  Social change can be understood by looking at the development of communication tools. In the 1930s, Innis (2006) claimed that every means of communication has a bias in terms of organization and control of information. According to Innis, stone and clay have characteristics that spread the societies they are used over time, as they are heavy and permanent, and on the other hand, the easy-to-move communication tools geographically spread the communities in which they are used. According to Innis, all modern means of communication, the telegraph in particular, are spatially biased and in this sense express the territorial expansion of capitalist society.  It is due to the sharpness of the struggle for power over the media as a means of control that today, no group other than the capital and the rulers has the opportunity to express themselves in a healthy way, especially in communication tools such as radio and television, or in daily newspapers that have gained their dominance through distribution. However, the new communication tools that emerged as a result of the combined use of advanced computer and communication facilities make this power overcome, unlike traditional communication tools, with their characteristics. The idea that communication efficiency is changing thanks to new communication technologies, as it provides more opportunities for two-way-horizontal communication than media, broadcasting and radio and television, gives hope to all segments that are not represented in traditional communication tools. These hopes also, coupled with the need to resist the cultural uniformity of globalization and to share knowledge in a non-commercial way in a world where everything is commercialized, shape the efforts of workers, human rights defenders, ethnic groups and anti-systems to develop strategies and international initiatives worldwide (Başaran, 1998: 37).  The internet, which comes to everyone's mind when it comes to new communication tools, is a tool that serves as a source for different expectations and plans of different social groups. While entrepreneurs or business people consider the internet as a basic tool in the process of transforming information into a commercial commodity, unions, voluntary organizations, academicians can freely publish their work on the internet. Today, those who hold the power, or in other words, the rulers accept the internet as a tool to reinforce their sovereignty, while those who cannot benefit from the current order as much as they deserve, or in other words, groups that struggle on behalf of the oppressed and exploited use the internet as an international solidarity environment. While large companies provide cheap labor by shifting their software units to underdeveloped regions with the opportunities created by the internet, workers' organizations accept the internet as a tool of solidarity and education in their struggle against capital (Başaran, 1998: 38).  Indeed, the internet is an alternative communication medium that overcomes many limitations, barriers and problems of traditional communication tools. Unlike traditional communication tools, the possibility of interaction, the ability of everyone to be both a receiver and a diffuser in the communication process, the ability to be substituted for almost all existing communication tools from newspaper to TV, from radio to letter and telephone communication, on the other hand, a visible censorship and control mechanism. Its absence has led to the discovery of the Internet by groups that are usually marginalized on traditional communication channels, who normally have little voice. Although the emergence of the Internet, as discussed in detail in the previous week, is based on DARPA-Defense Advanced Research Project Agency, the research and development arm of the US Federal Government Department of Defense, at the point reached, having only one computer and modem, dreams and thoughts can be shared with the whole world, by voice or video. The most detailed information is available - at least potentially, there is no technical obstacle to such wide and free use.  For example, a program titled Trade Union Education on the Internet has been run by a university since 1996. In this program, where educational materials are provided electronically over the internet and it is possible to participate in the course from anywhere, at any time with discussion lists, it is primarily explained how to use internet tools and a free discussion environment is provided. However, all these should be evaluated as optimistic efforts. Because the question of how long these opportunities created by the internet can be used is the most important question that comes up when we look at the developments in the internet. Because, in recent years, commercial, political and legal obstacles that will restrict such usage are surrounding the internet sphere.  In order to provide the basis for the answer to this question, we need to look at how the internet has shaped today and where it has evolved. Advertisements that we come across while surfing the Internet are only one leg of the trade. Ads turn all internet users into commodities beyond perceiving them as consumers. how many surfers visit the site also determines the cost of the advertisement given to that site. Moreover, these ads also contain a difference from those that invest in the future we know. Electronic commerce and hyper material, which is another element of commercialization on the Internet, has the ability to connect to other materials kept on other servers, enabling internet advertisements to be transformed into instant shopping (Başaran, 2005: 237-258).  First, efforts were observed to make the Internet compatible with business transactions. Security standards were developed, especially for the use of credit cards in commercial transactions on the Internet. Although the Internet became widespread since the mid-1990s, it took 3-4 years to establish the necessary security standards for electronic commerce. In addition to credit card payments, encryption techniques have been created to make financial transfers on the internet securely. As early as 1997, Dell company in the US had reached a million dollars in online sales, although there were security concerns about electronic shopping with credit cards. Of course, in the meantime, consumer behavior and interests on the Internet have begun to be investigated by companies as an important issue. The web and the search engines working on the web both ensure that online sales companies are found by users without very expensive advertising campaigns and they provide companies with very important information in terms of online customer habits.  The "push technologies" that emerged in 1996 were directly relevant to advertisers and were based on the purpose of gathering and stabilizing (fixing) internet viewers. Certain information, or more accurately, the advertisement, reached the screen of the user directly connected to the Internet. In the beginning, there was a serious movement in this regard among advertisers. Companies that produce internet browser programs have also adapted their own programs to suit this. However, it soon became clear that this method was not a meaningful method to reach the audience. Most users didn't like it. Finally, push technologies started to be used only for certain products. New methods are being sought to stabilize (stabilize) the relationship between the audience and certain web services.  In the meantime, automatic first pages came up. Internet browsers such as Internet Explorer or Netscape enabled users of their software to access their own pages automatically as the first page, thus trying to make the relationship permanent and unchangeable. Another frequently visited type of site was the pages of the search engines. In addition, sites providing free e-mail, some exclusive content, games and shopping opportunities were hitting a lot. Thus, such pages started to get big shares from the advertising pie. On the other hand, sites providing free web pages also participated in this process by entering banners or advertising banners on web pages kept free on their own machines. Thus, new genres began to emerge in internet advertising. In addition, the sites preferred for advertising started to differ depending on who the web content is targeting.  We have plenty of evidence that advertising captures and reorganizes the social goals of every media, creating a process that affects organization, content, and relations with the audience. It's not just a question of lack of ethics or faulty standards of guiding systematics. As advertisers begin to pay a substantial proportion of all media costs, they become dominant in the everyday consciousness of the environment that creates limitations and pressures on audience relationships. This impact extends not only to the exclusion of certain topics from content, but to the determination of content by advertisers. If the current trend is not interrupted in a meaningful way, the internet will become the commercial consumption environment determined by the companies that aim for profit (Başaran, 1998: 49).  Online shopping, consulting, marketing and banking applications are becoming more common. This is an expression that the internet is rapidly approaching to become an area dominated by the laws of commerce. That is, the main features of the Internet - interaction and its use to establish direct and bi-directional relationships, as well as the unique monitoring and observation capacity that must be added - have become impressive forms of advertising, direction, and control for the rulers. On the other hand, the market of internet software and hardware is growing. While the number of users is increasing day by day, internet service providers and infrastructure providers are also searching for new technological opportunities and making new investments to increase their profits. The costs of these investments are reflected in internet users as access costs.  Today, apart from this commercialization on the internet, inequalities in access are also a serious problem. While it is possible to share information by having a personal computer and a modem, there is a cost to owning this hardware. In addition, in order to efficiently benefit from the opportunities created by the internet, it is necessary to have the ability to use this hardware. The capitalist system is looking for ways to defend itself against the use of the Internet by anti-system forces in a way that disrupts the plans of the ruling classes. Censorship laws, which are always applied against the possibility of using the media efficiently by the focal points struggling against the system, are on the agenda all over the world. The Internet is being popularized as a "entertainment" and "business" medium.  However, all this does not mean that there are no alternative uses of the internet. There are only data that need to be taken into account by the ongoing efforts in the world to educate new communication technologies, organize, or carry out any other alternative activity, and should be evaluated when formulating long-term strategies. However, they should definitely not cause a result that can be accepted and adapted immediately. In addition to being a tool of education, a tool of solidarity, and a struggle, all communication tools have to be considered as the subject of the struggle. Along with the demands for freedom of thought and expression against the commodification of knowledge and paid education, and the demands for freedom of thought and expression against the laws of censorship and oppression, it is also necessary to defend the right to freedom of communication and equal access to communication facilities. The importance of new communication tools, which are an important position against the isolating effects of liberalism and create opportunities for the globalization of labor and alternative forces against the globalizing capitalist system, should not be denied, and the possibility of free communication should be defended and used. Embodimenting the struggle that is tried to be continued in real life in the virtual space formed in computer networks, in telecommunication networks, perhaps will provide access far beyond the classical methods of struggle. As a result, new communication technologies offer people brand new and wide usage possibilities as "potential" with their technical superiority. However, how much of these possibilities can be realized appears as a matter of social power struggle.