Psychology: Mid-Term Exam Study PDF

Psychology: Mid-Term Exam I: Roots Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind”: Behavior = observable actions; mind = subjective experiences (i.e., personal feelings, thoughts & opinions) & science = systematic coll...

Psychology: Mid-Term Exam I: Roots Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind”: Behavior = observable actions; mind = subjective experiences (i.e., personal feelings, thoughts & opinions) & science = systematic collection & logical analysis of objectively observable data. Three Takes: Three ‘takes’ on psychology (psych) are Psych is: 1) a set of questions; 2) a set of theories & procedures for asking & answering questions & 3) a product of history (philosophical & scientific). Philosophy 1. Consciousness (Csness): Awareness of one’s own experience; sense that we control (most of) our own behavior; behavioral control probably mediated by Csness. 2. Descartes (17th C; shown below): Natural phenomena (like us!) should be objectively investigated & analyzed via reasoning (“rationalism”). Dualism: 1) Matter = physical things that don’t think; 2) Mind = thinking things; he argued that there was an interaction between mind & its physical housing. 3. Locke (17th C): Empiricism: Knowledge only comes from observation & experience; simple primary sensations & ideas linked (thru experience) to form complex ideas. 4. Berkeley (18th C): Not simply linking experiences, rather inferences/reasoned guesses that go beyond the basic data to generate new ideas. Physiology (early 19th C): 1. Muller: all neural messages the same; brain differentiates where originate from. 2. Flourens: “ablation” of brain area associated w/ specific deficits. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 1  4. Broca: Autopsy data indicated past linguistic deficit linked to certain brain region. ‘Actual’ (early) Psych 5. Wundt: P et al. (2023) tell you all about this G (German) guy & his structuralism; Ss (subjects) trained in introspection: They described a stimulus, their response to same; Wundt tried to use these data to infer how mental processes worked. Below, an actual S of Wundt is being all introspective (doesn’t that look like fun?) 6. Big deal in psych’s zeitgeist (G, “spirit of the times”): Move from subjective (what’s internal/personal/from the Csness) to objective (what’s external to the S and therefore ‘real’/untainted by personal experience). 7. Functionalism: Wm James a major functionalist. Functionalism tries to identify the biological significance or function of a given observable behavior. ‘Inspired’ by Darwin. (https://m.facebook.com/wilhelmwundtmh/posts) 8. Evolution: Darwin the main man. Held that a characteristic or behavior survives only to extent has adaptive function; believed evolution in animals and probably from them to humans (reptile brain example). 9. Freud (F; to the left): 180 degrees from zeitgeist; much of behavior unCsly motivated (unCs contains material too traumatic/anxiety-provoking for Cs awareness, therefore, it's repressed). (Editorial comment: totally cool theory.) Study of the mind (Cs or unCs) a tad subjective—consequently, many love to diss F. (Image credit: https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/496944140132618951/) 10. Behaviorism: Restricts psych to the study of observable behavior—the relation between observable environmental stimuli & associated responses. Pavlov (& his doggies) showed that learning is via experience (classical conditioning); Watson: (mean to Little Albert); classic behaviorist; psych should be absolutely restricted to observable events. Skinner: 1st systematic study of how different "contingencies" of reinforcement affect learning. Types of Research Methods A. Experimental Research Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 2  Definition and Key Features Experimental research involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable, establishing cause-and-effect relationships. Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher. Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV. Control Variables: Factors kept constant to prevent them from influencing the DV. Variables in Experimental Research Manipulation: Systematically changing the IV to observe its impact. Control Group: Using control groups to compare against experimental groups. Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups randomly to ensure equivalence. B. Correlational Research Definition and Key Features Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them, determining whether and how variables are related. Correlation Coefficient (r): A statistical measure that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Understanding Correlation Coefficients Range: -1.0 to +1.0 +1.0: Perfect positive correlation 1.0: Perfect negative correlation 0: No correlation Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other also increases. Example: Height and weight. Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases. Example: Stress levels and quality of sleep. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 3  Disadvantages: No Causation: Cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships, only associations. Third Variables: Potential confounding variables may influence the observed relationship. Directionality Problem: Unclear which variable influences the other. Key Takeways Aspect Experimental Research Correlational Research Purpose Determine causation Identify relationships/associations Manipulation Yes (IV is manipulated) No manipulation Control Over Low to moderate (natural High (controlled environment) Variables settings) Causality Can establish cause and effect Cannot establish causality Limited (ethical constraints on Ethical Flexibility More flexible (observational) manipulation) Key Takeaways: Experimental research is ideal for testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships but may lack ecological validity. Correlational research is useful for exploring relationships in natural settings but cannot infer causation. Random Sampling: Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the study. Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance. III: Brain and Behaviour Glial cells Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 4  –Support, nourish, protect Surround neurons and hold them in place Manufacture nutrient chemicals neurons need Absorb toxins and waste materials Gliotransmission Triparite synapse Axon terminal of one neuron Postsynaptic membrane of another Glial process Widespread 60% of synapses within hippocampus (linked to memory) Part 1: The Neuron Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, responsible for receiving sensory input, sending motor commands, and transforming and relaying electrical signals at every step. 1. Structure of a Neuron (Motor Neuron) A typical neuron consists of three main parts: Cell Body (Soma): Function: Contains the nucleus and organelles; integrates incoming signals. Dendrites: Function: Receive signals from other neurons and convey them to the cell body. Characteristics: Highly branched to increase surface area. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 5  Contain receptors for neurotransmitters. Axon: Function: Transmits electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles. Components: Axon Hillock: The initial segment where action potentials are generated. Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon, increasing the speed of impulse transmission. Produced by: Schwann cells (in the peripheral nervous system) or oligodendrocytes (in the central nervous system). Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid signal conduction via saltatory conduction. Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons): Release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft to communicate with target cells. Types of Neurons Sensory Neurons: Transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). Motor Neurons: Convey signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, facilitating movement and responses. Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS, processing information and facilitating communication between sensory and motor neurons. Function of Neurons Resting Potential: The neuron's membrane potential when not transmitting a signal, typically around -70 mV. Maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which actively transports Na⁺ out and K⁺ into the cell. Action Potential: Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 6  A rapid rise and subsequent fall in membrane potential. Phases: 1. Depolarization: Sodium channels open, Na⁺ enters the neuron, making the inside more positive. 2. Repolarization: Sodium channels close, potassium channels open, K⁺ exits, restoring negative membrane potential. 3. Hyperpolarization: K⁺ continues to leave the neuron, making the inside more negative than the resting potential before returning to normal. Synaptic Transmission: The process by which neurons communicate at synapses through neurotransmitter release. Role in Action Potentials: Repolarization: K⁺ ions exit the neuron during the action potential, restoring the negative membrane potential. Restoration of Resting Potential: The efflux of K⁺ helps bring the membrane potential back to its resting state after depolarization. Maintenance of Resting Potential: Leak Channels: K⁺ leak channels allow K⁺ to move out of the neuron, contributing to the negative resting membrane potential. Sodium-Potassium Pump: Actively transports K⁺ into the neuron while expelling Na⁺, maintaining ion gradients essential for neuronal excitability. Reuptake is the process by which neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have transmitted a neural signal. This mechanism helps terminate the signal between neurons and recycles neurotransmitters for future use. Part 2: The Brain Overview of the Nervous System A. Central Nervous System (CNS) Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 7  consists of the brain and spinal cord. Components: Brain and spinal cord. Functions: Integration: Processes and interprets sensory information. Coordination: Sends out instructions to the body. Control: Manages higher functions like reasoning, emotions, and memory. B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is comprised of the somatic(body sensations) and autonomic( automatic, not thinking about) systems. Components: All nerves outside the CNS, including cranial and spinal nerves. Functions: Connects the CNS to limbs and organs, facilitating communication between the brain and the rest of the body. 1. Somatic Nervous System Function: Controls voluntary movements by innervating skeletal muscles. Pathways: Transmits sensory and motor information to and from the CNS. 2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Function: Regulates involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. Divisions: Sympathetic Division: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses. Parasympathetic Division: Promotes "rest and digest" activities. a. Sympathetic Division Effects: Increases heart rate and blood pressure. Dilates pupils. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 8  Inhibits digestion. Neurotransmitters: Primarily norepinephrine. b. Parasympathetic Division Effects: Decreases heart rate. Constricts pupils. Stimulates digestion and energy storage. Neurotransmitters: Primarily acetylcholine Anatomy of the Brain The brain is separated by major fissures and divisions: Longitudinal Fissure: Separates the two cerebral hemispheres. Transverse Fissure: Divides the cerebrum from the cerebellum. Central Sulcus: Divides the frontal and parietal lobes. Lateral Sulcus: Divides the frontal and temporal lobes. Major Divisions of the Brain The brain is divided into three major parts: Forebrain (Prosencephalon) Midbrain (Mesencephalon) Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) Cerebral Hemispheres The cerebrum is split into two hemispheres (left and right), separated by the longitudinal fissure. These hemispheres communicate via a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. Left Hemisphere: Often associated with logic, language, and analytical tasks. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 9  Right Hemisphere: Handles creativity, intuition, and spatial abilities. The hemispheres are divided into four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital (already discussed). Midbrain (Mesencephalon) The midbrain is located between the forebrain and the hindbrain and plays an essential role in motor movement, particularly eye movements, as well as auditory and visual processing. Forebrain The forebrain, the most developed region in humans, is responsible for complex behaviors, cognition, and emotion. It contains several major components: Hindbrain The hindbrain controls basic life-sustaining functions and motor coordination. It includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Lateralization Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body Two hempisphers are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, that allows the two hemisphers to communicate with each other. Brain Platisicty A. Cerebrum The largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres (left and right), each controlling opposite sides of the body and specialized in different functions. 1. Frontal Lobe Location: Front part of the cerebrum. Functions: Executive Functions: Planning, decision-making, problem-solving. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 10  Motor Control: Houses the primary motor cortex, which initiates voluntary movements. Speech Production: Contains Broca’s area, essential for speech articulation. Personality and Behavior: Influences social behavior and personality traits. The homunculus is a visual representation of how the brain's motor and sensory cortices correspond to different parts of the body. The term "homunculus" refers to the "little man" because the layout shows a distorted human figure mapped across the brain's motor and sensory strips. 1. Motor Homunculus Located in the precentral gyrus (frontal lobe). Represents the body parts involved in motor control. Areas requiring more precise movements (like hands, face, and tongue) take up a larger portion of the motor cortex. 2. Parietal Lobe Location: Upper middle section of the cerebrum. Functions: Sensory Processing: Houses the primary somatosensory cortex, which processes tactile information like touch, temperature, and pain. Spatial Orientation: Assists in navigating and understanding spatial relationships. Language Processing: Involved in aspects of language comprehension. 1. Sensory Homunculus Located in the postcentral gyrus (parietal lobe). Represents the sensory input from different parts of the body. Body parts with higher sensory receptor density (like lips and hands) occupy a larger area. 3. Temporal Lobe Location: Lower middle section of the cerebrum, near the temples. Functions: Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 11  Auditory Processing: Houses the primary auditory cortex, responsible for processing sounds. Language Comprehension: Contains Wernicke’s area, crucial for understanding spoken language. Memory Formation: Involved in encoding and retrieving memories (hippocampus resides here). Emotion Processing: Contains structures like the amygdala. 4. Occipital Lobe Location: Back part of the cerebrum. Functions: Visual Processing: Houses the primary visual cortex, responsible for interpreting visual information. Visual Recognition: Assists in recognizing shapes, colors, and motion B. Diencephalon Located beneath the cerebrum, the diencephalon serves as a relay and processing center for sensory information. 1. Thalamus Function: Acts as the brain’s relay station, directing sensory and motor signals to appropriate cortical areas. Role in Consciousness: Involved in regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness. 2. Hypothalamus Function: Regulates autonomic functions and maintains homeostasis. Roles: Temperature Regulation: Controls body temperature. Hunger and Thirst: Manages appetite and fluid balance. Hormone Release: Connects to the pituitary gland to regulate hormone secretion. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 12  Emotional Responses: Influences emotions and behaviors. 3. Epithalamus Components: Includes the pineal gland. Function: Regulates circadian rhythms and melatonin secretion, influencing sleep-wake cycles. 4. Subthalamus Function: Involved in regulating movements produced by skeletal muscles. C. Limbic System A set of interconnected structures located deep within the brain, primarily responsible for emotion, memory, and motivation. 1. Amygdala Function: Processes emotions such as fear and pleasure. Role in Memory: Involved in emotional memory formation. 2. Hippocampus Function: Essential for the formation of new memories and spatial navigation. Role in Learning: Converts short-term memories into long-term memories. D. Brainstem Connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord and controls fundamental life-sustaining functions. 1. Midbrain Functions: Vision and Hearing: Processes auditory and visual information. Motor Control: Coordinates eye movements and reflexes. Alertness: Involved in regulating wakefulness. 2. Pons Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 13  Functions: Sleep Regulation: Plays a role in REM sleep. Respiration Control: Assists in regulating breathing patterns. Facial Expressions: Controls muscles involved in facial movements. Medulla Oblongata Functions: Autonomic Control: Regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. Reflex Actions: Controls reflexes like swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. E. Cerebellum Location: Underneath the cerebrum at the back of the brain. Functions: Motor Coordination: Ensures smooth, precise movements. Balance and Posture: Maintains equilibrium and posture. Motor Learning: Involved in learning new motor skills. Functional Areas of the Brain A. Broca’s Area Location: Left frontal lobe, typically in the inferior frontal gyrus. Function: Essential for speech production and articulation. Clinical Relevance: Damage can lead to Broca’s aphasia, characterized by slow, halting speech and difficulty in forming sentences. B. Wernicke’s Area Location: Left temporal lobe, typically in the posterior superior temporal gyrus. Function: Critical for language comprehension and processing. Clinical Relevance: Damage can result in Wernicke’s aphasia, where individuals produce fluent but nonsensical speech and have difficulty understanding language. Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 14  C. Primary Motor Cortex Location: Frontal lobe, along the precentral gyrus. Function: Controls voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles. Somatotopic Organization: Different regions correspond to different body parts (motor homunculus). D. Primary Somatosensory Cortex Location: Parietal lobe, along the postcentral gyrus. Function: Processes sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. Somatotopic Organization: Organized similarly to the motor cortex (sensory homunculus). Psychology: Mid-Term Exam 15