Midterm Exam Study Guide PDF

Midterm Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior. Darwin - Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modification," the idea that species change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor. - The mechanism th...

Midterm Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior. Darwin - Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modification," the idea that species change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor. - The mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection. Because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations. - Natural selection causes populations to become adapted, or increasingly well-suited, to their environments over time. Natural selection depends on the environment and requires existing heritable variation in a group - Example: This environment features hawks, which like to eat mice and can see the tan ones more easily than the black ones against the black rock. Because the hawks can see and catch the tan mice more easily, a relatively large fraction of the tan mice are eaten, while a much smaller fraction of the black mice are eaten. If we look at the ratio of black mice to tan mice in the surviving ("not-eaten") group, it will be higher than in the starting population Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark - designed and conducted a series of experiments known colloquially as “the doll tests” to study the psychological effects of segregation on African-American children  - Drs. Clark used four dolls, identical except for color, to test children’s racial perceptions. Their subjects, children between the ages of three to seven, were asked to identify both the race of the dolls and which color doll they prefer. A majority of the children preferred the white doll and assigned positive characteristics to it. The Clarks concluded that “prejudice, discrimination, and segregation” created a feeling of inferiority among African-American children and damaged their self-esteem. Structuralism: The study of how our minds make meaning through small step-by-step cognitive processes. An example study might be one that focuses on the words used to explain emotions after watching a television advertisement. Functionalism: The study of how our minds adapt to external stimuli in order to help us survive and thrive in our environments. An example study might be one that explores how we use language to communicate and function as social beings. Behaviorism: a branch of psychology that focuses on how people learn through their interactions with the environment. It is based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, which is a process of reinforcement and punishment. For example, if you decide to change your morning routine by waking up early each day, you get rewarded with more time to do things. Gestalt therapy: emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. One of the ways we perceive images is by organizing stimuli into an object seen against its surroundings cognitive psychology: focuses on how the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving abilities affect how and why you think the way you do Hysteria: A mental disorder diagnosed until the 1930s, believed to be caused by a malfunctioning uterus. Chapter 2 correlation coefficient: a statistical measure of how closely two variables fluctuate together Occam’s razor: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. independent variable: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. dependent variable: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. experimental group: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. control group: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. Theory: A principle that when choosing between competing hypotheses, the simpler one, requiring the fewest assumptions, is usually better. population vs sample: The entire set of individuals we want to understand vs The subset of the population selected for actual study random sampling: Samples in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, and the selection of one person has no influence on who is selected next. Mean: the average measure for a group Median: the value that falls in the middle of all the scores Mode: the most common number Variance: measures the variability in a population of a sample standard deviation: Samples in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, and the selection of one person has no influence on who is selected next. p value (what p value is significant?): Samples in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, and the selection of one person has no influence on who is selected next (p> 0.05) relatability vs validity: The degree to which your measurement tool produces consistent, repeatable results vs The extent to which a test actually measures the trait it is intended to measure. Placebo: A pill or other treatment that has no known medical effect. Chapter 3 myelin: The fatty insulation around an axon, formed by glial cells, which increases the speed of conduction of nerve impulses agonist vs antagonist: A drug that activates a receptor in the same way as the normal neurotransmitter vs. a drug molecule that interferes with neuronal signaling by preventing a neurotransmitter from binding to its receptor. GABA: An acronym for gamma- aminobutyric acid. A neurotransmitter that usually reduces the activity of neurons. Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that seem to act as “endogenous (internal) morphine” to damp down pain signals Serotonin: A neurotransmitter made by neurons in the base of the brain that send their axons throughout the brain and spinal cord Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter made by neurons in the base of the brain that send their axons throughout the brain and spinal cord Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in movement and in signaling pleasure. how do drugs affect brain signals: Drugs interfere with the way neurons send, receive, and process signals via neurotransmitters. Some drugs, such as marijuana and heroin, can activate neurons because their chemical structure mimics that of a natural neurotransmitter in the body. This allows the drugs to attach onto and activate the neurons. what are the two sections of the nervous system, and what is included in each: Central nervous system (spinal cord and brain) peripheral nervous system (somatic; sensory and motor | autonomic: sympathetic and parasympathetic) Sympathetic nervous system: pumps up physiological processes to prepare your body for fight or flight Parasympathetic: rest and recover response - parts of the brain and what they do thalamus: trades motor and sensotry information with cerebrum hypothalamus: keeps your body in homeostasis Cerebellum: balance and movement, simple learning Cerebrum: complex activities, learning, memory, language frontal lobe: movement, behavior, problem solving, speech parietal lobe: intelligence, language, sensation, reasoning temporal lobe: language, memory, hearing, emotion occipital lobe: sight, visual reception corpus callosum: axsons sending signals and conducting information between left and right hemispheres amygdala: producing and recognizing fear and emotions hippocampus: formation of permanent memories Chapter 4 Nature: One side of a philosophical debate that attributes our behavior to genetics Nurture: One side of a philosophical debate that attributes our behavior to environmental influences Genotype: All the genetic information that one specific individual has inherited. Phenotype: The sum of an individual’s physical characteristics at one particular time. Chapter 5 developmental psychology: The study of how the mind and behavior progress as an individual grows up and ages. What did they do, and how did they do it? Jean Piaget: stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years old) Children learn about the world through their senses and motor skills, and develop object permanence and causality. Preoperational (2-7 years old) Children develop symbolic thought and language, and learn to imitate and play pretend. They also become more egocentric. Concrete operational (concrete operational) Children develop operational thought. Formal operational (12+ years old) Children develop abstract concepts Mary Ainsworth The Strange Situation- A test of attachment as revealed by a child’s reaction to a temporary separation from the caregiver Attachment types secure attachment- Empathetic and able to set appropriate boundaries, people with a secure attachment style tend to feel safe, stable, and more satisfied in their close relationships. While they don’t fear being on their own, they usually thrive in close, meaningful relationships. Avoidant attachment- are the opposite of those who are ambivalent or anxious-preoccupied. Instead of craving intimacy, they’re so wary of closeness they try to avoid emotional connection with others. They’d rather not rely on others, or have others rely on them. Ambivalent attachment- tend to be overly needy. As the labels suggest, people with this attachment style are often anxious and uncertain, lacking in self-esteem. They crave emotional intimacy but worry that others don’t want to be with them disorganized attachment- stems from intense fear, often as a result of childhood trauma, neglect, or abuse. Adults with this style of insecure attachment tend to feel they don’t deserve love or closeness in a relationship Kohlberg Most adults use conventional moral reasoning, based on society’s expectations. Young children use preconventional moral reasoning, based on personal consequences. Erik Erikson - what do these words mean? Teratogen- substance that disrupts development and results in malformations. Plasticity- Ability of the brain to change. Developing brains are much more plastic than adult brains. Habituation- A simple type of learning in which repeated presentation of a stimulus elicits a weaker and weaker response Schema- (piaget’s theory) a mental structure that organizes knowledge and guides behavior object permanence- the concept that objects continue to exist even if we no longer perceive them Egocentrism- in the context of cognitive development, the notion that everyone knows whatever you know Fluid intelligence—ability to think and reason abstractly and to solve problems. Crystallized intelligence—learning from past experience, based on a store of facts. Young adults have better fluid influence while elderly individuals have crystallized intelligence Dementia- progressive decline in cognitive function caused by damage or disease rather than normal aging. It is marked by growing forgetfulness; impairment in language, perception, and judgment; or a change in personality. The two major causes are a series of small strokes and Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s disease results from a buildup of abnormal clumps of dead and dying neurons called neuritic plaques in the brain what are the six stages of cellular development in the brain Neurogenesis-Dividing cells become neurons. Cells are added rapidly; most of our neurons form before birth. Cell migration- Neurons move and begin to form clumps of cells that will become brain regions. Differentiation- Neurons develop into different types. Synaptogenesis- Making the billions of connections, or synapses, between neurons. Neuronal cell death- Many cells formed earlier die, perhaps because they have inappropriate connections. This process stops before birth. Synapse rearrangement- Some synapses are lost and others form. This process continues throughout life. During childhood, more synapses are gained than lost. what are the three simple reflexes of a baby - grasp, root, suck which sense is developed in the womb and which one is not developed until age 1+ - hearing is developed in the womb and sight is not developed Chapter 6 Sensation: the process of the brain receiving and interpreting information from the environment through the senses Perception: the process of organizing, interpreting, and consciously experiencing sensory information from the environment what do these words mean? auditation (hearing) vs. olfaction (smelling) Weber’s fraction- the smallest change in the magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected, expressed as a proportion of the original stimulus. signal detection theory- A way to measure how well a real stimulus (a signal) is detected in the midst of irrelevant stimuli (noise). Noise- The firing of a sensory cell without a stimulus or to an irrelevant stimulus congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)- A genetic condition that prevents the feeling of pain. phantom limb pain- The perception of pain in a missing appendage. what are the parts of the eyes? (diagram below) what are the different wave-length cones short-wavelength cones- Also called S cones. Cone photoreceptors that are best at detecting light of short wavelengths, such as violet. medium-wavelength cones- Also called M cones. Cone photoreceptors that are best at detecting light of intermediate wavelengths, such as yellows and greens. long-wavelength cones - Also called L cones. Cone photoreceptors that are best at detecting light of long wavelengths, such as red - what are the parts of the ear Chapter 8 Learning: The acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitudes, or understanding as a result of experience Ivan Pavlov (dogs)- Ivan Pavlov's experiment on classical conditioning involved studying the salivation response in dogs. Pavlov noticed that dogs would salivate not only when food was placed in their mouths but also when they saw the food or even the lab assistant who fed them. To investigate this, Pavlov conducted an experiment where he paired the sound of a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, with the presentation of food. Initially, the bell alone did not cause the dogs to salivate. However, after repeated pairings of the bell with the food, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. This demonstrated that a neutral stimulus, through association with an unconditioned stimulus (food), could become a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (salivation), illustrating the process of classical conditioning Thorndike (puzzle box)- Edward Thorndike's puzzle box experiment was a key study in the development of the law of effect and the understanding of operant conditioning. He placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box, which could only be opened by performing a specific action, such as pulling a string or pressing a lever. Outside the box, he placed food as motivation. The cat initially struggled and tried various behaviors to escape, but eventually stumbled upon the correct action that opened the box. After several trials, the cat learned to escape more quickly, showing that behaviors followed by a satisfying consequence (escaping the box and getting food) were more likely to be repeated. This experiment led Thorndike to propose the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened. B. F. Skinner- Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. He proposed that behaviors followed by positive reinforcement (a reward) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by punishment are less likely to occur. Skinner used a device called the "Skinner box" to test this, where animals like rats or pigeons were rewarded or punished based on their actions, demonstrating how behavior could be modified through reinforcement schedules. Albert Bandura (Bobo Doll)- Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the principles of social learning theory, which emphasizes that people learn behaviors through observing and imitating others. In the experiment, children watched adults interact with a Bobo doll—some adults behaved aggressively, hitting and shouting at the doll, while others behaved non-aggressively. After observing, the children were placed in a room with the Bobo doll. Those who had seen the aggressive model were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior themselves, demonstrating that behavior can be learned by watching others. Bandura's theory highlights the role of observational learning, modeling, and the importance of cognitive factors like attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation in learning behavior. John Watson (Little Albert)- John Watson's Little Albert experiment was a landmark study in behaviorism, demonstrating how emotional responses can be classically conditioned in humans. Watson and his colleague, Rosalie Rayner, exposed a 9-month-old boy named Albert to various stimuli, including a white rat, which initially caused no fear. However, Watson began pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud, frightening noise. After several pairings, Albert became afraid of the rat, even without the noise. This fear generalized to other similar objects, like a rabbit or a fur coat. The experiment showed that emotions such as fear can be conditioned responses, supporting Watson's belief that behavior is largely shaped by environmental factors, not innate traits what do these words mean? Non-associative- Simple forms of learning involving changes in the response to a single stimulus) vs. associative learning (A type of learning in which a relationship is formed between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a behavior) classical conditioning- a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, causing a similar response. Unconditioned stimulus (US)—naturally evokes a specific response (reflexive). Unconditioned response (UR)—specific response naturally evoked by the US. Conditioned stimulus (CS)—neutral stimulus paired with the US, eventually triggers the response. Conditioned response (CR)—learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. stimulus generalization- stimuli that are similar to, but not exactly identical to, the CS used in training. Learned helplessness: The subject learns that an aversive stimulus cannot be avoided. - In experiments with two dogs harnessed together, both were given electric shocks, but onedog could stop the shocks by pressing a button. The other had no control. - When the dogs were later put in an active avoidance chamber, the dog that had no control over the shocks could not learn to jump the barrier; it had learned helplessness. Modeling: one individual imitates another’s behavior. social learning— changes in behavior brought about by interacting with other individuals shaping: providing reinforcers whenever the subject came close to making the desired response. Fear conditioning: Pairing a previously neutral stimulus with a painful stimulus. - Just about any stimulus can be associated with pain. - Little Albert was subjected to fear conditioning. Extinction: Repeated presentation of the CS (sound) without the US (food) results in weaker and weaker CR, until the CR disappears. What are the types of reinforcement and punishment? Positive reinforcement: When a behavior is followed by a favorable stimulus, like food. Negative reinforcement: When a behavior is followed by removal of an aversive stimulus (escape). Positive punishment: Usually an aversive stimulus, such as spanking. It is added after the behavior. Negative punishment: A penalty; something is removed after the behavior, such as grounding a teenager what are the types of reinforcement schedules? Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: Reinforcement is delivered after every Nth response (e.g., food after every 10 bar presses). Subjects tend to pause in the bar pressing after the reward. Variable ratio (VR) schedule: Subject cannot predict how many responses will result in the reinforcement. Fixed interval (FI) schedule: Reinforcement comes after a set time period. Variable interval (VI) schedule: Reinforcement that comes after different periods of time. 4 criteria that are needed to model behavior: Paying attention to the model’s behavior Retaining the information gained about the observed behavior Reproducing the behavior, and getting better at imitating the behavior with practice Motivation to reproduce the model’s behavior Chapter 9 Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information we have learned what do these words mean? short-term memory- A type of memory of limited capacity and duration of only seconds. Working memory- A system that keeps memories available for ready access during performance of a task Phonological loop—contains auditory information; we tend to repeat the information over and over. Visuospatial sketchpad—holds visual impressions, for instance, how objects were laid out on a table. Episodic buffer—contains more integrated information, spanning across the senses long-term memory- The nearly limitless store of memories that last more than a few minutes Turning short term memory into long term memory - Encoding- The process of taking raw sensory information and converting it into a form that we can understand and report - Chunking- An encoding strategy that reduces the total number of items to be remembered by combining them into meaningful units  - Consolidation- The process of transferring information from STM into LTM - Retrieval- The act or process of accessing information from LTM. Types of amnesia Amnesia- A severe impairment of memory. retrograde amnesia- Amnesia for events occurring prior to an event, typically a trauma. anterograde amnesia- Amnesia for events occurring after an event, such as a trauma Declarative memory- Also called explicit memory. Facts or information acquired through learning that can be stated or described. non-declarative memory- Also called implicit memory. Memory about perceptual or motor procedures that is demonstrated by performance. Chapter 14 Personality: The set of characteristics an individual possesses that influence his or her thinking and behavior Cattell: 16 source traits of personality Phineas Gage: In terms of personality, Gage displayed less agreeableness and conscientiousness than before the accident and was more extraverted and neurotic. He no longer fit in well in the community and could no longer perform his job. Analysis of Gage’s skull indicates that the bar passed through the frontal cortex, now recognized as important for inhibiting impulsive behaviors. what do these words mean? Psychoanalysis (Freud): the detailed analysis of a client’s mind through open-ended discussions about his thoughts and feelings. Unconscious: the part of the mind that functions outside our conscious awareness. The id was his term for the part of the mind that follows the pleasure principle—as babies we seek pleasure and avoid pain. The ego develops as we grow and reality sets in. The superego is the part of the mind that incorporates prescribed rules of behavior.  - Throughout life the ego is shaped by tension between demands of the id to follow the pleasure principle, and demands of the superego to do what society expects. Freud used the term defense mechanisms to describe unconscious processes that protect the ego from realizing and acting on the ugly, socially unacceptable urges of the id. types of defense mechanisms psychosexual stages of development - At each stage, different parts of the mind must reach some compromise between the demands of the id and the superego. - Each stage has a particular conflict to resolve, and particular behavioral problems if the conflict is not resolved.  - Freud thought homosexuality resulted from atypical psychosexual development, and thought he could “cure” them. - He thought a rejecting father and/or overly indulgent mother could lead a boy to overly identify with his mother, and thus would end up being attracted to men. - But correlations between early family relationships and adult sexual orientation are weak at best. Freudian slip: When a person in spontaneous conversation says something that is socially unacceptable but reveals the speaker’s true feelings. Freud also focused on dreams. He believed dreams resulted from demands of the id, and that all dreams depict wish fulfillment. But the ego and superego twist and distort dreams in an attempt to hide the potentially shocking desires of the person’s unconscious. Projective tests ask a client to generate words or stories in response to a stimulus, assuming the unconscious will affect the person’s responses. In the Rorschach test, client responses to inkblots are recorded and analyzed to reveal unconscious processes. thematic apperception test (TAT): a person is shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing what’s happening in the picture, including what happened earlier and what the people in the picture are thinking and feeling. Humanistic psychology emphasizes our free will and our ability to play a conscious, active role in shaping our own behavior. Example: Maslow’s humanistic concept of self-actualization, the process by which a person lives up to his or her full potential. Humanistic psychotherapy focuses on how people can take charge of their lives and change their behaviors to be happy and fulfilled. Carl Rogers, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, developed a “client-centered” or “person-centered” therapy, also known as Rogerian psychotherapy. Rogerian psychotherapy emphasizes the client’s goals as the only legitimate goals of psychotherapy. It provides a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment for clients to talk through their problems so that they can identify what they should do. Another of these traits is emotional instability or neuroticism, how readily a person’s emotional state is upset by the events of everyday life. Five-factor model: Five traits that vary in degree from one person to another, and together make up each individual’s personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). - What distinguishes people is how much of each of the traits they have. Each of the big five traits is measured on a continuum, reported as a score or level. The traits are considered to be at least partly independent. In other words, knowing an individual’s score in one trait should not offer any prediction about the person’s score in another trait. Openness: Reflects a person’s tendency to seek new experiences; may have appreciation for art, imaginative pastimes, and unconventional, even unpopular ideas. Conscientiousness: Tendency to be self-disciplined, reliable, and feel a need for achievement. Agreeableness: Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and competitive. Disorders to know FAS: Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause the child to have disabilities related to behavior, learning and thinking, and physical development. The symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome vary from child to child but are lifelong. ADHD: A problem in directing attention that is also accompanied by more physical activity and fidgeting. SIDS: or crib death: a baby less than a year old simply stops breathing while asleep. We know almost nothing about why this happens, but several correlates have been discovered: babies are much more likely to die of SIDS if they live with a cigarette smoker, and babies placed to sleep on their tummies are more likely to die of SIDS than babies placed on their backs ASD: A spectrum of disorders characterized by impaired social interactions, problems communicating, and severely restricted behavior and interests.