Midterm 1 Study Guide Part 2 PDF

Correlation does not imply causation Just because two variables are correlated doesn't necessarily mean that one causes the other. There could be other factors influencing both variables. Correlation is different from an experiment: Correlation measures the relationship between variables,...

Correlation does not imply causation Just because two variables are correlated doesn't necessarily mean that one causes the other. There could be other factors influencing both variables. Correlation is different from an experiment: Correlation measures the relationship between variables, but doesn't prove causation. Experiments can establish causation by manipulating variables and controlling for other factors. Extraneous variable are factors that can influence the dependent variable but are not of primary interest in the study. They can introduce error or bias into the research, making it difficult to determine the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables. researcher bias occurs when a researcher's personal beliefs, expectations, or behaviors influence the study's results. It can lead to errors in data collection, analysis, or interpretation. Self-fulfilling prophecy: (or Pygmalion effect): A cycle by which others' beliefs or our own can affect behavior in ways that make the beliefs true. Single blindness are research designs where participants don't know their group assignment, but researchers do. This helps reduce the placebo effect. double-blind studies research designs where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments. This minimizes both placebo effects and researcher bias. observer bias occurs when an observer's expectations or beliefs influence their observations and interpretations of behavior. This can lead to systematic errors in data collection and analysis. placebo affect Positive response to a fake treatment due to belief in its effectiveness. socially desirable responding; why tendency for individuals to provide answers that they believe will be viewed favorably by others, rather than responding honestly. This can occur in various contexts, such as surveys, interviews, and experimental studies. To avoid negative social consequences: To please others: To conform to social norms: Sampling Bias: Sample is not representative of the population. Solutions: Random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling. Measurement Error: Inaccurate or unreliable measurement instruments. Solutions: Reliability checks, validity checks, standardized procedures. Confounding Variables: Variables that influence both the independent and dependent variables. Solutions: Experimental control, random assignment, matching. Participant Bias: Participants' behavior is influenced by their expectations or social desirability. Solutions: Blind/double-blind designs, deception techniques, debriefing. Researcher Bias: Researcher's beliefs or behaviors influence study results. Solutions: Double-blind designs, standardized procedures, peer review. Ethical Concerns: Research violates ethical principles. Solutions: Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), informed consent, confidentiality. :  Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population being studied. This ensures that the findings from the sample can be generalized to the larger population. Standardization: The process of ensuring that procedures, materials, and scoring are consistent across all participants in a study. This helps to control for variability and increase the reliability of the results. Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions randomly, so that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition. This helps to control for confounding variables and increase the internal validity of the study. Personality A unique combination of traits, temperament, character, and self-concept that shapes how a person thinks, feels, and behaves Personality Theories: Psychoanalytic Theory Key figure: Sigmund Freud Focus: The unconscious mind and early childhood experiences as shaping personality. Key concepts: Id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages. Humanistic Theory Key figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers Focus: The individual's potential for personal growth and self-actualization. Key concepts: Self-actualization, unconditional positive regard, client-centered therapy. Trait Theory Key figures: Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the Big Five personality traits Focus: Identifying and measuring stable personality traits. Key concepts: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. Social-Cognitive Theory Key figures: Albert Bandura, Walter Mischel Focus: The interaction between personality, cognition, and the environment. Key concepts: Observational learning, self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism. Key Differences Focus: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the unconscious mind, humanistic theory emphasizes personal growth, trait theory emphasizes stable traits, and social-cognitive theory emphasizes the interaction between personality, cognition, and the environment. Methods: Psychoanalytic theory uses case studies and dream analysis, humanistic theory emphasizes empathy and active listening, trait theory uses questionnaires and factor analysis, and social-cognitive theory uses experiments and observational studies. Explanation of behavior: Psychoanalytic theory explains behavior as the result of unconscious conflicts, humanistic theory explains behavior as a striving for self-actualization, trait theory explains behavior as the result of stable personality traits, and social-cognitive theory explains behavior as the result of the interaction between personality, cognition, and the environment. Psychodynamic Perspectives A personality approach emphasizing the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.  Sigmund Freud is considered the founder of psychoanalysis and made significant contributions to psychodynamic theory. His work emphasized the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and the role of defense mechanisms in shaping personality and behavior. Personality Formation: Unconscious Motivation & Conflict: Hidden desires and internal struggles shape personality. Levels of Awareness: Conscious (current thoughts), preconscious (easily accessible memories), unconscious (deep desires, fears). Iceberg Metaphor: Conscious mind is the tip, preconscious is partially submerged, unconscious is deep. Freud's Personality Structure: Id: Driven by pleasure, seeks immediate gratification. Ego: Balances id and superego, operates on reality. Superego: Internalized morals, strives for perfection. Pleasure Principle: Id's drive for immediate satisfaction. Libido: Sexual energy driving the id. Reality Principle: Ego's consideration of reality. Idealistic Principle: Superego's pursuit of perfection. Psychosexual Stages: Freud's theory of personality development through childhood stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Key Points: Personality is shaped by unconscious forces, internal conflicts, and developmental stages. Fixation: Getting stuck at a psychosexual stage (oral, anal, phallic, etc.) due to overgratification or frustration. Consequences: o Personality traits: Can shape adult personality (e.g., oral fixation might lead to dependence). ▪ Psychological issues: Unresolved fixation can cause anxiety, depression, or neuroses. Defense mechanisms: Used to cope with unresolved conflicts. Oral: Mouth, weaning crisis (fixation can lead to oral habits). ▪ orderliness or messiness). Anal: Anus, toilet training crisis (fixation can lead to Phallic: Genitals, Oedipus/Electra complex (fixation can lead to relationship or sexual identity issues). Latency: None, social development. ▪ Genital: Genitals, mature sexuality (fixation can lead to relationship or sexual dysfunction). Conflict arises when there is a clash between the id's desires, the ego's reality, and the superego's morality. This conflict often leads to anxiety. ▪ o Genital Anxiety is a feeling of unease or worry. Freud identified three types: Reality anxiety: Fear of external ▪ threats. Neurotic anxiety: Fear of the id's impulses becoming uncontrollable. Moral anxiety: Fear of punishment from the superego. personality? To cope with anxiety, the ego ▪ employs defense mechanisms. These are unconscious strategies that distort reality to protect the ego from anxiety. Common Defense Mechanisms: Repression: Forcibly pushing unpleasant thoughts or feelings into the unconscious. Denial: Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant reality. Projection: Attributing one's ▪ own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. Rationalization: Justifying one's actions with logical reasons, even if they are not the real ones. Displacement: Directing▪emotions toward a safer target than the original source. Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. Reaction formation: Acting▪ in a way opposite to one's true feelings. Regression: Returning to an earlier stage of development. How defense mechanisms work: 1. Reduce anxiety: By distorting ▪ reality, defense mechanisms help the ego avoid the anxiety associated with conflicts. 2. Shape personality: The habitual use of defense mechanisms can shape a person's personality traits and behaviors. For example, a person who frequently uses repression might appear overly optimistic or avoidant. 3. Can be adaptive or maladaptive: While defense mechanisms can be helpful in the short term, excessive reliance on them can be maladaptive and lead to psychological problems  Sigmund Freud is considered the founder of psychoanalysis and made significant contributions to psychodynamic theory. His work emphasized the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and the role of defense mechanisms in shaping personality and behavior. Personality Formation: Unconscious Motivation & Conflict: Hidden desires and internal struggles shape personality. Levels of Awareness: Conscious (current thoughts), preconscious (easily accessible memories), unconscious (deep desires, fears). Iceberg Metaphor: Conscious mind is the tip, preconscious is partially submerged, unconscious is deep. Freud's Personality Structure: Id: Driven by pleasure, seeks immediate gratification. Ego: Balances id and superego, operates on reality. Superego: Internalized morals, strives for perfection. Pleasure Principle: Id's drive for immediate satisfaction. Libido: Sexual energy driving the id. Reality Principle: Ego's consideration of reality. Idealistic Principle: Superego's pursuit of perfection. Psychosexual Stages: Freud's theory of personality development through childhood stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Key Points: Personality is shaped by unconscious forces, internal conflicts, and developmental stages. Defense Mechanisms: Definitions and Examples Denial: Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant reality. Example: A person who has been diagnosed with a serious illness refuses to believe it. Repression: Forcibly pushing unpleasant thoughts or feelings into the unconscious. Example: A person who witnessed a traumatic event is unable to remember it. Rationalization: Justifying one's actions with logical ▪ reasons, even if they are not the real ones. Example: A student who fails an exam blames the teacher for being unfair. Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. ▪ Example: A person who is angry at their partner accuses them of being angry. Displacement: Directing emotions toward a safer target than the original source. Example: A person who is frustrated at their job yells at their child. ▪ Reaction formation: Acting in a way opposite to one's true feelings. Example: A person who secretly desires to be a musician becomes a critic. Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. Example: A person who has aggressive tendencies becomes a professional boxer. Regression: Returning to an earlier stage of development. Example: An adult who is stressed starts behaving like a child. Evaluations of Freud's Contributions ▪ praised and criticized over the years. Here are some key evaluations: Freud's theories have been both ▪ Contributions Unconscious mind: Freud's ▪ emphasis on the unconscious mind was groundbreaking, suggesting that much of ou behavior is influenced by factors beyond our conscious awareness. Childhood experiences: He highlighted the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality and ▪ mental health. Defense mechanisms: The concept of defense mechanisms has been influential in understanding how people cope with anxiety and conflict. Psychotherapy: Freud's development of psychoanalysis was a significant contribution to the field of psychotherapy.  Criticisms Lack of scientific evidence: Many of Freud's theories were based on case studies and clinical observations, rather than controlled experiments. This has led to criticism regarding the scientific validity of his work. Overemphasis on sexuality: Some critics argue that Freud overemphasized the role of sexuality in human behavior. Gender bias: Freud's theories have been criticized for being gender-biased, particularly his emphasis on the Oedipus complex and the phallic stage. Cultural limitations: His theories may not be applicable to all cultures, as they were primarily based on Western European individuals. Neo-Freudian Perspectives Neo-Freudian theorists built upon Freud's ideas while also diverging from them in significant ways. Here are key contributions from Jung, Adler, and Horney: Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology Personal and collective unconscious: Jung proposed that the unconscious mind consists of two layers: the personal unconscious, which contains repressed thoughts and feelings, and the collective unconscious, which contains shared ancestral memories and experiences. Archetypes: These are universal symbols or patterns that are present in the collective unconscious, such as the mother, the hero, and the shadow. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology Inferiority complex: Adler believed that people are motivated by a desire to overcome feelings of inferiority. Compensation: People strive to compensate for their perceived weaknesses by developing strengths in ▪ other areas. Karen Horney: Feminine Psychology Role of safety and satisfaction: ▪ Horney emphasized the importance of safety and satisfaction in childhood development. She argued that neurosis results from a lack of these basic needs. Womb envy: Horney challenged Freud's concept of penis envy, suggesting that men may instead experience womb envy due to their inability to bear children. ▪ Key differences between Neo-Freudians and Freud: Emphasis on social factors: Neo-Freudians placed more emphasis on social factors and interpersonal relationships in shaping personality. Less emphasis on sexuality:▪ They downplayed the role of sexuality as a primary motivator of behavior. More optimistic outlook: Neo-Freudians generally had a more optimistic view of human nature than Freud. Trait Theories (Dispositional Perspective) Trait Theories focus on identifying and measuring enduring personality characteristics, known as traits. These ▪ traits are assumed to be relatively stable across time and situations. ▪ How Psychologists Use Traits to Explain Personality Psychologists use traits to: ▪ Describe personality: Traits provide a framework for categorizing and describing individual differences. Predict behavior: By understanding a person's traits, psychologists can predict how they might behave in certain situations. ▪ Understand personality development: Trait theories help to explain how personality develops over time. Trait Theories and Theorists Hippocrates and the Four Humors: This ancient theory proposed that personality was determined by the balance of four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.