Past Trends in TEFL in the 20th Century PDF

What were the past trends in TEFL (in the 20th century)? Grammar-Translation; Direct Method; Audio-lingual Method; Community Language Learning; The Silent Way; Suggestopedia; Total Physical Response; Natural Approach; Communicative Language Teaching A method is an application of a...

What were the past trends in TEFL (in the 20th century)? Grammar-Translation; Direct Method; Audio-lingual Method; Community Language Learning; The Silent Way; Suggestopedia; Total Physical Response; Natural Approach; Communicative Language Teaching A method is an application of an approach in the context of language teaching. At the level of a method, a theory is put into practice. It includes decisions about: (a) The particular skills to be taught (LSRW), (b) The roles of the teacher and the learner in language teaching and learning, (c) The required procedures and techniques, (d) The content to be taught, (e) And the order in which the content will be presented. Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt. An approach describes the theory or philosophy underlying how a language should be taught; Provides the theoretical foundation and principles about language and language learning. a methodology : The study and analysis of the methods and practices informed by the approach. Method: The practical plan and techniques derived from the methodology and approach, a way of implementing the approach (syllabus, progression, kinds of materials); techniques describe specific practical classroom tasks and activities. For example: Syllabus: The organized content and objectives that are sequenced and taught using the methods. METHOD = an umbrella term referring to a broader relationship between theory and practice In traditional teaching methods, classrooms are teacher-centric. Teachers are the main source of knowledge in the traditional method of teaching. They take the responsibility of knowledge dispensers, not the facilitators. In traditional teaching methods, chalk and talk methods are highly used. Regimented classrooms are the focus of the traditional method of teaching. As the traditional method of teaching is teacher-centric, it shows a lack of collaboration and group learning among students. Teachers give lectures and students learn. In traditional teaching, the main motive of teachers is to prepare students for exams than teach them and make them understand the concept and syllabus. Students learn just to pass the exam and get good results. There is no proper alignment that can be seen between objectives, activities and assessments in traditional teaching. The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics Linguists and language teachers to the “deep structure” of language, Psychologists took account of the affective and interpersonal nature of learning Affective-humanistic approach and Designer methods are fully synonymous (Molina et al, 2006: 20–24) the so-called designer methods came to the fore in the 1970s and the 1980s (these have been labeled designer methods by Nunan (1989)), and they included more innovative methods such as Total Physical Response (TPR) and Community Language Learning – The feelings of students and teachers and the issues of respect and self- respect are emphasized – Students’ personal involvement and personal experience should become part of the classroom communication – Interactive procedures such as pair and small-group work are widely used (announcing CLT) – The class atmosphere is more important than materials or methods Post-Method Era The post method era is a concept developed by Kumaravadivelu (1994).  “The post method era is a foremost condition which has been occurring in our current language education in which there are various efforts to reconstruct the relationship between theories and practices of methods (and approaches)”(Lusianov, 2020). From knowledge-oriented theories of pedagogy to the classroom-oriented theories of pedagogical practice The Post Method Era in English Language Teaching The denial of the idea that a specific method is better than the others and that one can apply it successfully to English language education no matter what leads us to the post method era. The post method era not only denies the idea that there is a perfect method that can always be successfully applied but also changes the spotlight from the method to the teacher. What is intelligence? the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills the ability to understand and learn well, and to form judgments and opinions based on reason is the ability to think, reason, and understand instead of doing things automatically or by instinct Gardner (2013) defines intelligence as: The capacity to create solutions to life’s problems. The ability to acquire new knowledge to gather understanding on a topic. A skillset that is useful to the community, whether it be a product or a service. Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983, Frames of Mind).... regardless of which subject you teach—“the arts, the sciences, history, or math”—you should present learning materials in multiple ways. to “pluralize your teaching,” in other words to teach in multiple ways to help students learn, to “convey what it means to understand something well,” and to demonstrate your own understanding Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words) Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns) Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully) Musical intelligences (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber) Interpersonal intelligence (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others) Intrapersonal (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes) Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature) Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence such as, “What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here?” (“Tapping into Multiple Intelligences,” 2004) All humans have all nine unique intelligences, potentially more which have yet to be researched. Everyone possesses all nine intelligences in various amounts. Each individual is made up of a unique combination of all nine intelligences. These intelligences are uniquely arranged in each individual’s brain and may or may not work collaboratively together. Students can experience greater success if learning tasks were directly related to their developed intelligences. Intelligences can be developed or weakened, ignored or strengthened with practice. What can the Theory of Multiple Intelligences be used/applied for? Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used for curriculum development, planning instruction, selection of course activities, and related assessment strategies. Principled-Eclectic Approach History The eclectic method was proposed as a reaction to the profusion of teaching methods in the 1970’s and and 1980’S and the dogmatism often found in the application of these methods. The term “eclectic approach” refers to a teaching approach that is not based on a single method (e.g. task-based teaching, or CLIL) but that draws on several different method principles that are made use of in practice. It is a problem-based approach to teaching that is based on the following principles:  What particular problem do my learners encounter in mastering this aspect of language or language use? What procedures can I make use of from available methods and approaches that could be used to address this problem? The use of eclecticism does not mean to mix up different approaches randomly. There must have some philosophical background and systematic relation among different activities. Usually it is recommended to mix structural approaches with communicative use of language. Theory of Language and Theory of Language Learning Theory of language : language is based on structures which are used to convey meanings which perform functions. Theory of language learning : language learning is combined process of structural and communicative activities ,it emphasizes that language is based on structure that can be acquired with reasonable practice by communication and conversation. Advantages Safety: the use of a variety of ideas and procedures from different existing approaches and methods will increase the chances of learning taking place. Interest : teachers need to use different techniques to hold the learners attention. Diversity : different learning /teaching contexts require different methodologies. Flexibility: awareness of a range of available techniques will help teachers exploit materials better and manage unexpected situation. Disadvantages The main criticism of the eclecticism is that : It does not offer any guidance on what basis and by what principles aspects of different methods can be selected and combined. The problem inherent in an eclectic method centers in the tendency to combine contradicting elements and the lack of organizing principles to guide instruction. What are the modern trends in language teaching ? Cognitive - Constructivist Approaches in Education  Student-centered Approaches in Education Cooperative Learning Authenticity in Language Learning\ Participatory Approaches Competence-based Language Teaching Reflective Teaching Global Citizenship Training through ELT Teaching 21 st Century Skills Critical Thinking - Self-regulation Skills Communication - Collaboration Skills ICT in Language Learning Internet-based & Mobile Learning English as a Global Language (vs EFL) Intercultural Communication Competence Content-based Instruction Content and Language Integrated Learning Task-based Instruction Project-based (Language) Learning Culture and ICC in Foreign Language Education The term World Englishes is used to describe all the different varieties of English that exist worldwide. As English travels around the world, it changes and develops in different ways to fulfill the needs of the people who use it. The Origin of World Englishes How World Englishes emerged as a field of inquiry. In 1965, Linguist Braj Kachru (1932-2016) publishes his first journal article, entitled “The Indianness in Indian English.” In the article, he lays the theoretical groundwork for the idea of World Englishes by interpreting how English is nativized in India, delineating some of its unique sociological and cultural aspects, and showing that “Indian English” is a unique variety of English which is neither an American or British English. In 1984, Kachru formally introduces the term “World Englishes” at the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) Conference along with the global profile of English. Later, he proposes the three concentric circles model. Culture is “the very core of language teaching” that supports language proficiency (Kramsch 2000, p. 8). Already in 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn cited at least 164 definitions of culture in their work. However, a more recent understanding of culture is offered by Samovar and Porter (2003, p. 8): “the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, social hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving”. Intercultural Communicative Competence The theory of Intercultural Communicative Competence (Bennet, 1993; Gudykunst, 1993; Byram, 1997; Fantini, 2000; Deardorff 2006; Elizarova, 2001; Kunanbayeva 2010) Byram (1997) states that Intercultural Communicative Competence is a common term that includes components of linguistic, sociolinguistic,discourse and intercultural competence, and defines it as “the ability to communicate and interact across cultural boundaries” (p.7). However, in consequent works, Byram (2002) extends his initial definition as “the ability to ensure a shared understanding by people of different social identities, and the ability to interact with people as complex human beings with multiple identities and their own individuality” (p. 10). Accordingly, ICC is a complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself. The interaction with speakers of different cultures involves speakers’ own cultural beliefs and values; thus, the sensitive balance is needed to maintain an appropriate understanding between speakers. Comparative Analysis of the Models for Intercultural Communicative Competence Development Ruben (1976) IC framework of a behavioral approach (display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, self-oriented role behavior, interaction management, tolerance for ambiguit. Bennett’s (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS stages are ethnorelative: acceptance , adaptation, integration). Deardorff’s model (2006) Process Model of Intercultural Competence (three intercultural competencies (i.e. attitudes, knowledge, skills) and two potential outcomes (i.e. internal and external). Ruben (1976) B. Ruben introduces seven dimensions to understand and measure an individual’s intercultural competence through behavioral dimensions: -display of respect: an ability to show respect to others “through eye contact, body posture, voice tone and pitch, and general displays of interest”; -interaction posture: an ability to treat others “in a descriptive, non-evaluating, and a nonjudgmental way”; -orientation to knowledge: an ability to recognize and acknowledge people’s worldview from different perspectives. -empathy: an ability to “put himself in another’s shoes.” self-oriented role behavior: an ability to be flexible in requesting information, clarification and generating ideas for problem-solving. -interaction management: an ability to maintain interaction appropriately, “displayed through taking turns in discussion and initiating and terminating interaction based on a reasonably accurate assessment of the needs and desires of others”; -tolerance for ambiguity: ability to “react to new and ambiguous situations with little visible discomfort” Bennett’s (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity The first three DMIS stages are ethnocentric, such as: -denial: an inability to perceive and recognize the existence of cultural diversity; - defense: acknowledge cultural differences but feel threatened by them and tend to stereotype and give them simple forms, “the world is organized into ‘‘us’’ and ‘‘them,’’ where one’s own culture is superior and other cultures are inferior”; - minimization: the state in which individual experiences the elements of one’s own cultural worldview as universal, as the term implies, cultural differences are minimized to protect one’s own cultural identity. People at this stage tend to match other’s values and behavior to their expectations ; Darla Deardorff's Intercultural Competence Model Deardorff’s Intercultural Competence Model (2006) is based on five elements: attitude, knowledge, skills, internal outcomes, and external outcomes. This model provides a framework that can be utilized to guide a curriculum that promotes intercultural competence and assessment of learning outcomes. Attitudes: There are three key attitudes: respect, openness, and curiosity. Respect demonstrates that you value others who are from different backgrounds, and openness and curiosity are necessary to move outside of your comfort zone. These three attitudes are foundational for the development of knowledge and skills needed for intercultural competence. Knowledge: In order to achieve intercultural competence, you must have a cultural self-awareness, culture-specific knowledge, deep cultural knowledge (understanding of other worldviews), and sociolinguistic awareness. Understanding The world from others’ perspectives is fundamental to intercultural competence. Skills: Observing, listening, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting, and relating are skills necessary for processing knowledge. When interacting with others from diverse backgrounds, you cannot rely on knowledge alone. You will also need to use these skills in order to understand and process information. Internal Outcomes: The attitudes, knowledge, and skills lead to an internal outcome that consists of flexibility, adaptability, and empathy. These abilities allow individuals to achieve intercultural competence to some degree. At this point, you are able to begin to see from others’ perspectives and respond to others according to the way in which the other desires to be treated. External Outcomes: The behavior and communication skills demonstrated by an individual based on their attitudes, knowledge, skills, and internal outcomes are the external outcomes experienced by others. The effective and appropriate behavior and communication are the visible external outcomes of intercultural competence. Byram’s (1997) first, it is specifically constructed with foreign language education contexts in mind; second, the ICC dimensions and sub-competencies are intended to achieve educational objectives, which are further underpinned for a developing ICC curriculum for secondary and higher education, and finally, intercultural communicative competence is as an independent component in addition to communicative competencies. Byram’s (1997) ICC Model -attitudes (savoir être) refer to curiosity and openness, willingness to sustain one's own values, beliefs and behaviors with other cultures in terms of equality  -knowledge (savoirs) describes the knowledge about social groups and their products, cultures and their practices in one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and the interactional processes at societal and individual levels. -skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre) involve the ability to interpret and explain a document from different culture, to identify relationships and relate it to documents from one’s own. Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire) state for the ability to acquire new knowledge of culture and apply attitudes, knowledge and skills in the context of real-time communication and interaction. Critical cultural awareness (savoir s'engager): an ability to evaluate critically on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries. ICC is a complex interdisciplinary concept, which refers to the ability to think, communicate, behave and perform effectively and appropriately in an intercultural context based on one’s intercultural view, knowledge, skills, and attitudes considering the interlocutor’s values, beliefs, and cultural diversity. Intercultural communicative competence is the ability that needs to be intentionally enhanced through education and experience since it is a life-long learning process. ICC Assessment Tools Assessment tool Direct Assessment Tools Performance assessment ( Ruben, 1976) BASIC - Koester, Olebe Portfolio (1988), assessment (Byram, 1997) ICC Framework Ruben’s framework of Intercultural Competence Ruben’s framework of Intercultural Competence Format of the Assessment Observation, simulations, role plays, games Untrained observers Indirect Assessment Tools Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) (Hammer, Bennett, 2003) Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS)- (Chen, Starosta, 2000) Byram’s framework of Intercultural Competence Bennett’s DMIS Chen & Starosta’s theory on ICC and Intercultural Sensitivity Byram’s framework of Intercultural Competence Teacher’s assessment Self-report on a continuum of ICC Chen & Starosta’s theory on ICC and Intercultural Sensitivity Byram’s framework of Intercultural Competence Blended Assessment Tools Assessment of Intercultural Competence (AIC) (Fantini, 2009) Intercultural Competence Assessment project INCA Project Fantini ICC Framework The INCA Project framework of Intercultural Competence Self-assessment, assessment by others, interviews Questionnaires, portfolio, scenarios, and role plays Three ways to cultivate ICC (Bennett, 2009) 1. to foster attitudes that motivate us, - develop a sense of wonder about culture ( turn potentially frustrating experiences we have into teachable moments) 2. discover knowledge that informs us - involves learning more about our cognitive style, or how we learn 3. develop skills that enable us - some of the skills important to ICC are the ability to empathize, accumulate cultural information, listen, resolve conflict, and manage anxiety (Bennett, 2009). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning DEFINITION: “An evolving educational approach to teaching and learning where subjects are taught through the medium of a non-native language.” (- TKT CLIL handbook, 2010) ‘CLIL is an approach in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-language subject in which both language and the subject have a joint role.’ (Marsh in Coyle: 2006) CLIL has a dual educational focus with an objective of helping learners acquire both language skills and disciplinary content knowledge. CLIL approach is action-oriented, task-based and student-centered. It aims at combining language practice and specific content delivery and fosters foreign language and intercultural competence acquisition. Main aims: Acquire knowledge using target language Acquire necessary skills in the target language Acquire necessary skills in the mother tongue Understand and value both cultures Develop cognitive and social skills In ‘immersion’, education is orientated to teaching a country’s other language (e.g. Canada, Belgium, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Finland and Switzerland) or regional language (Slovenia and United Kingdom). Here, a language that is not the language of the larger society is the medium of instruction (Admiraal et al. 2006). The language is often the other official language of the country. Students are immersed in the second language during all of the subjects. However, not much attention is spend on the language itself as it is considers the target language for granted. Language for the content, linguistic, semantic, pragmatic support for the content and exam. ‘Submersion’ relates to the linguistic and cultural integration of migrants (the linguistic minority). Here, language minority children are taught in the language of the majority group, with the aim of developing skills in the language that may be foreign to them but which is needed for access to the curriculum and daily life inside and outside school (Admiraal et al. 2006). CLIL is not a means of simplifying content or reteaching something students already know in a new language. CLIL courses should truly integrate the language and content in order to be successful – and success is determined when both the subject matter and language is learned. Simply teaching in a foreign language English for Specific Purposes, English for Specific Academic Purposes, content-based instruction (CBI) and immersion programs The term was created in 1994 by David Marsh Countries that practice CLIL: The Netherlands since 2007 Slovakia since 2008 Germany since 2000 (but bilingual schools from 1960) Finland since 1996 Hungary since 1997 Czech Republic since 1998 Poland since 1999 CLIL founder born in Australia educated in the UK now works in Finland He has extensive experience of teacher development, research and consultancy in a range of different countries like Africa, Europe and Asia. He is still fully active in the issues of CLIL. CLIL Principles  Content - Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding related to specific elements of a defined curriculum Communication (and collaboration)- Using language to learn whilst learning to use language Cognition - Developing thinking skills which link concept formation (abstract and concrete), understanding and language Culture (community) - Exposure to alternative perspectives and shared understandings, which deepen awareness of otherness and self. Competence – Designing lessons that are oriented to developing learner competences (in terms of 21st century life skills and ICC) Cognitive Theories (Sweller, 1988; Bloom, 1956) Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky) Constructivism (Piaget, 1963; Bruner, 1990) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theories (Krashen, 1982) Content-Based Instruction (CBI) Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988): CLIL relies on managing cognitive load by balancing content difficulty and language challenges. Teachers must ensure that students are not overwhelmed by the dual demands of learning new content and language, using scaffolding to make the content more accessible. Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956): CLIL encourages higher-order thinking skills, pushing learners beyond simple recall to applying, analyzing, and evaluating content in a second language. Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky): Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): CLIL emphasizes guided learning through scaffolding and peer collaboration, allowing learners to achieve more with support than they would independently. Teachers act as facilitators, providing just enough assistance to push students beyond their current level. Social Interaction: Learning is seen as a socially mediated process. In CLIL, group work and classroom interaction promote both language and content learning through meaningful exchanges, aligning with Vygotsky's belief in learning through interaction. Learning by Doing: CLIL aligns with constructivist principles by involving students in active learning through projects, problem-solving, and inquiry-based tasks. Students construct knowledge by engaging with both language and content in real-world contexts. Scaffolding (Bruner): CLIL lessons provide scaffolded support, gradually removing assistance as students become more proficient, allowing them to build on prior knowledge and skills. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis: CLIL incorporates comprehensible input by presenting content in a way that is slightly beyond the current proficiency level of the students (i+1), pushing them to understand new content with language just beyond their current ability. SCAFFOLDING To make language affordable for students, language has to be supported. This language support is called scaffolding. Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating Image credit: http://www.petersfieldsquashclub.org.uk/default.aspx?id=12 LEVELS OF THINKING COMPETENCE Why Teach Critical Thinking It is worth teaching critical thinking because the personal benefits to the students, their employers, and society more generally is high. Wise personal decisions, Useful decisions within our vocational pursuits Decisions we make as citizens of a democracy, or about how to be part of the society Benefits of CLIL. It... 1. Builds intercultural knowledge and understanding 2. Develops intercultural communication skills 3. Improves language competence and oral communication skills 4. Develops multilingual interests and attitudes 5. Provides opportunities to study content through different perspectives 6. Allows learners more contact with the target language 7. Does not require extra teaching hours 8. Complements other subjects rather than competes with them 9. Diversifies methods and forms of classroom practice 10. Increases learners' motivation and confidence in both the language and the subject being taught What is Hard (or Strong) CLIL? In the CLIL literature, a difference is made between hard and soft CLIL. In hard CLIL, subject content in a subject class is taught through the CLIL language, usually by a native speaker of the L1. Ball et al. (2015) define hard CLIL as “a form of subject teaching in L2 which highlights academic achievement within the subject and treats language development as important, but as a bonus”. This is CLIL where the teaching and learning is focused primarily on the subject content and so is content-driven. This means that the subject content is given primary focus, this applies to both content and the administrative implications. Hard CLIL places the primary emphasis on teaching subject content (e.g., science, geography) in the target language, with students expected to master the subject material while also learning the language. For example, a school that uses total immersion – where the academic (and possibly social) medium is in the new language – would operate under a strong version of CLIL and favoursubject concepts and skills in the language being taught. In soft CLIL, content from any subject class is used in a language class (Ball, 2009, Bentley, 2010), while other researchers stress that soft CLIL “may be offered for a short period,.... and it will only occupy a portion of the hours available to the subject”. In soft CLIL, there is emphasis on the subject and on the language. Soft CLIL is also used to describe the “broad linguistic aims that a language teacher brings to the classroom”. Strictly speaking, one can consider soft CLIL as a version of EFL, in other words, soft CLIL might be seen as EFL covering subject content. The soft version of CLIL is one in which the teaching and learning is focused primarily on language and so is language-driven. A language-driven approach mean foreign language classes using more content than is typical of such programmes, or using didactic units which make greater use of subject-based content. The language-driven approach has language learning as its basic objective. Soft CLIL emphasizes language learning, using content subjects as a way to teach the target language. It is more flexible and focuses on improving language skills rather than deep content knowledge. Classroom principles Some of the basic principles of CLIL are that in the CLIL classroom: Language is used to learn as well as to communicate It is the subject matter which determines the language needed to learn. CLIL Strategies 1. Provide a holistic educational experience ( Activating a prior knowledge, sustainable learning ) 2. Set your goals ( Meaningful, challenging and authentic) 3. Build your scaffolding 4. Check your students are involved ( rich interaction and pushed output Collaborative tasks) 5. Adapt to differing cognitive levels ( Make it H.O.T. (High Order Thinking)) 6. Be aware of classroom culture ( Adding the (Inter-)cultural Dimension ) 7. Remember the 4 C’s 8. Support learning 9. Assessment 10. Reflection A CLIL lesson is therefore not a language lesson neither is it a subject lesson transmitted in a foreign language. According to the 4Cs curriculum (Coyle 1999), a successful CLIL lesson should combine elements of the following: Content - Progression in knowledge, skills and understanding related to specific elements of a defined curriculum Communication - Using language to learn whilst learning to use language Cognition - Developing thinking skills which link concept formation (abstract and concrete), understanding and language Culture - Exposure to alternative perspectives and shared understandings, which deepen awareness of otherness and self. In a CLIL lesson, all four language skills should be combined. The skills are seen thus: Listening is a normal input activity, vital for language learning Reading , using meaningful material, is the major source of input Speaking focuses on fluency. Accuracy is seen as subordinate Writing is a series of lexical activities through which grammar is recycled. For teachers from an ELT background, CLIL lessons exhibit the following characteristics: Integrate language and skills, and receptive and productive skills Lessons are often based on reading or listening texts / passages The language focus in a lesson does not consider structural grading Language is functional and dictated by the context of the subject Language is approached lexically rather than grammatically Learner styles are taken into account in task types. Lesson framework A CLIL lesson looks at content and language in equal measure, and often follows a four-stage framework. Advantages The model enables multifocal lesson planning: content, communication, cognition and culture are inextricably linked. Higher order thinking skills become an integral part of CLIL lessons. Scaffolding, study skills, and learning strategies are essential parts of the planning and teaching process. The model raises awareness for multi-modal input. It accommodates individual learning styles and leads to highly differentiated lessons and materials. It is very flexible regarding various models of interaction/cooperation (individual/pair/group work). Intercultural communication is taken seriously. Basic Conceptions of Project-Based Learning THEORETICALFRAMEWORK “I want to connect school with life, make it, for a child, a residence where it learns directly through life, instead of school being just a classroom where a child is given tasks, a school should be a place where a child would really live." (Dewey, 1904: 20, 51) What is Project-Based Learning? (PjBL) Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which students actively gain knowledge and skills by engaging in real-world and personally meaningful projects to investigate and respond to an authentic and complex question, problem, or challenge (Dewey, 1938; Thomas, 2000; Polat, 2010; Boss, 2012; Yakovleva, 2014; Larmer et al. 2015;Lenz, 2015; Rahmawati et al. 2018; Murtazina, 2019; BIE, 2019) PBL leads to deeper understanding and greater retention of content knowledge. Students are better able to apply what they know to new situations (BIE, 2019). Project- Based Learning as a Contemporary Approach in Education “Project Based Learning is an instructional strategy that enables students to learn meaningful content and practice skills needed for 21st century. If we are serious about reaching 21st century educational goals, Project Based Learning must be at the center of 21st century instruction”. (Buck institution) Project- Based Learning as a Contemporary Approach in Foreign Language Education Organizing language projects is an effective way to create opportunities for foreign language learners to develop their abilities in the target language by interacting and communicating with each other in authentic contexts ( Fried-Booth, 2002). Project-Based Language Learning allows students to set and evaluate their own language learning goals, as well as content learning goals and other related skills and learning strategies ( Stoller,2006). What are Benchmarks in PBL? What are Benchmarks in PBL? BENCHMARKS are the sub-tasks or building blocks needed to complete the final end product in a PBL Unit. They are a piece of the PBL that every student or group must complete and are often assessed. In PBL, benchmarks are simply the digestible chunks that break down your project and allow students to provide you with deliverables that they reflect on and you formatively assess Project-Based Learning (PjBL) is primarily based on several educational theories that emphasize active, experiential, and social learning processes. Here are the main theories underlying PBL: Constructivism- (Piaget, 1963; Bruner, 1990) Social Constructivism: Lev Vygotsky (1978) Experiential Learning Theory: David Kolb (1984) Inquiry-Based Learning: Influenced by John Dewey (1986) Vygotsky’s Contribution “learning occurs through social interaction and environment that encourages individuals to develop cognitive challenges; he strongly believes that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." (Vygotsky, 1987; Wertsch, 1985). Assessment in CLIL Understanding Assessment and Evaluation Assessment is all about gathering information. This information can be about: Knowledge: What facts or concepts do they understand? Skills: Can they perform a specific task or apply their knowledge? Performance: How well are they doing overall? We use different tools for assessment, like tests, quizzes, projects, observations. Assessment is a systematic process of collecting, reviewing, and using information to measure an individual's knowledge, skills, attitudes, and performance. The primary purpose of assessment is to gain insights into learners' progress and identify areas of strength and areas needing improvement. The key difference between assessment and evaluation: assessment is about gathering data, while evaluation is about using that data to make a judgment. Evaluation helps us answer questions like: Are students meeting the learning objectives? Is this training program actually improving skills? Is this new curriculum effective for our target audience? By analyzing the assessment data, evaluation helps us understand how well something is working and improve our instructional strategies. Evaluation is the methodical examination of the data collected through various assessments to determine the value, effectiveness, or quality of a program, project, or individual's performance. It involves making informed decisions based on established criteria and standards. The primary goal of evaluation is to provide comprehensive feedback that can be used to enhance and improve future outcomes. Throughout the unit (let's say it's on composition), you use quizzes, in-class exercises, and paper critiques (i.e., different types of assessments) to gauge your students' understanding of different compositional techniques. evaluation: Analyzing the data: You analyze the quizzes, exercises, and critiques to see if, overall, students are grasping the key concepts of composition. Making judgments: Based on the analysis, you might find that some students struggle with the rule of thirds, while others excel at leading lines. This is your evaluation – a judgment about their learning based on the assessment data. Taking action: Now comes the important part! With this evaluation, you can take targeted actions to improve learning. You might provide additional resources for students struggling with the rule of thirds, or offer bonus challenges for those who mastered leading lines. This is the essence of how assessment and evaluation work together. Assessment provides the raw data, and evaluation helps us interpret and use that data to make informed decisions. They're not separate steps, but rather a continuous cycle that fuels effective learning and improvement. Assessment identifies the "what": It tells you what your students know or can do at a a particular point. Evaluation identifies the "so what": It uses that information to understand what's working, what's not, and where to go from there. The key characteristics of Assessment are: Focus: Collecting detailed data on specific areas of performance. Tools: Utilizing a variety of instruments such as tests, quizzes, projects, observations, and informal conversations. Nature: Often formative, used continuously to monitor progress and adjust teaching methods accordingly. Frequency: Conducted regularly throughout the learning process. The key characteristics of Evaluation are: Focus: Analyzing and interpreting the collected data to make judgments about overall effectiveness. Tools: Using assessment data along with other sources like surveys, performance metrics, and observational studies. Nature: Often summative, conducted at the end of a program or project to determine outcomes and impact. Frequency: Typically conducted at key milestones or the conclusion of a learning cycle. Short quizzes: The teacher administers a short quiz with various equation-solving problems. This gathers data on individual student understanding of the key steps involved in solving linear equations. Analyzing quiz results: Reviewing the quizzes reveals if a majority of students can solve basic equations correctly. However, the teacher might notice a consistent error in solving for negative coefficients. Exit ticket insights: Examining the exit ticket responses might show some students struggle to identify the first step, indicating a need for additional explanation. Exit tickets: At the end of the lesson, students answer a quick question on an "exit ticket." This might be something like, "Explain the first step in solving the equation: 2x + 5 = 11." This provides additional insight into students' grasp of specific concepts. In-class activities: During group work or independent practice, the teacher observes students as they solve equations. This allows for immediate assessment of problem-solving techniques and identification of any common errors. Observations during practice: Observing students during in-class activities allows the teacher to see how they approach more complex problems. This might reveal a need for further practice with specific types of equations. Types of assessment Formative Summative Diagnostic Performance Different Types of Assessments for Teachers 1. Formative Assessment: This ongoing assessment happens throughout the learning process. It's like checking in with your plant regularly to see how it's doing. Here are some common formative assessment techniques: Class discussions: Encouraging student participation and discussion reveals understanding and identifies areas needing clarification. Exit tickets: Quick questions at the end of a lesson provide a snapshot of student learning and can guide adjustments for the next session. Observations: Watching students work on tasks or projects allows you to identify areas where they excel or struggle. Homework assignments: Can be used to assess understanding of concepts practiced in class and identify areas that need more attention. Self-assessments: Encourage students to reflect on their own learning and identify their strengths and weaknesses. Formative assessment is ongoing assessment to gain an information of what students’ need to improve and what teachers’ have to adjust toward their teaching and learning. It is process-oriented which generally conducted during the learning process in the classroom. Formative: ongoing, to improve learning Process-oriented: how learning is going Diagnostic: identifies areas for improvement 2. Summative Assessment This type of assessment happens at the end of a unit, program, or learning experience. It's like evaluating the overall health of your plant after some time. Here are some examples: Tests and quizzes: Measure students' mastery of specific knowledge or skills covered in a unit. Final projects: Allow students to demonstrate their understanding and application of learned concepts in a culminating task. Presentations: Students can showcase their learning and communication skills through presentations. Essays and research papers: Assess students' ability to analyze information, synthesize ideas, and communicate effectively in writing. Summative assessment is conducted in the end of learning to get information of what the students has achieved in particular period of time (product oriented). The students awarded with a mark for specific learning objectives through written/oral tests, students’ projects individually or in group, or essays related to specific learning objectives during the semester that tested in the end of semester or the school year (judgemental goal). Summative: final, to gauge quality Product-oriented: what has been learned Judgemental: arrive at an overall grade/score 3. Diagnostic Assessment This assessment happens before instruction to identify what students already know and what they might need more support with. It's like checking the soil before planting to see if it needs amendments. Here are some examples: Pre-tests: Short quizzes administered before a new unit to gauge students' prior knowledge of relevant concepts. Placement tests: Used to determine a student's current skill level and place them in an appropriate learning group or program. KWL charts (What I Know, What I Want to Learn): Students reflect on their existing knowledge and learning goals, informing instructional planning. 4. Performance Assessment This type of assessment focuses on evaluating skills through practical tasks. It's like checking if your plant can actually produce flowers or fruit. Lab experiments: Students apply scientific concepts to conduct experiments and analyze results. Simulations: Participants engage in realistic scenarios to demonstrate their decision-making and problem-solving skills. Portfolios: A collection of student work over time that showcases progress and skill development. Evaluation Tools 1. Student Surveys  Purpose: Gather feedback from students about their learning experiences, classroom environment, and teacher effectiveness. Characteristics: Surveys typically include questions about instructional methods, clarity of explanations, engagement levels, and overall satisfaction. Advantages: Provides valuable insights into student perceptions and attitudes towards learning, helping teachers identify areas for improvement. Example: Administering end-of-semester surveys to gather feedback on the effectiveness of teaching strategies and course materials. 2. Peer Observations Purpose: Allow colleagues to observe and provide feedback on teaching practices and classroom interactions. Characteristics: Observers may use structured rubrics or checklists to assess teaching effectiveness, student engagement, and classroom management. Advantages: Offers an external perspective on teaching practices, promotes collaboration and professional growth among educators. Example: Teachers pair up to observe each other's classes and provide constructive feedback on instructional techniques and student interactions. 3. Self-Reflection and Professional Development Plans Purpose: Encourage teachers to reflect on their teaching practices, set goals for professional growth, and track progress over time. Characteristics: Teachers engage in self-assessment activities, such as journaling, goal-setting exercises, and action plans for improvement. Advantages: Fosters a culture of continuous improvement, empowers teachers to take ownership of their professional development. Example: Teachers participate in regular self-reflection sessions, where they analyze classroom experiences, identify strengths and areas for growth, and develop action plans to enhance their teaching practices. 4. Student Achievement Data Analysis Purpose: Analyze student performance data to assess the effectiveness of instructional strategies and curriculum implementation. Characteristics: Teachers examine student assessment results, identify trends and patterns, and make data-driven decisions to improve teaching and learning outcomes. Advantages: Provides evidence of student progress and learning gains, informs instructional decision-making, and helps tailor interventions to meet individual student needs. Example: Teachers review standardized test scores, formative assessment results, and other student performance data to evaluate the impact of teaching practices and identify areas for improvement. To compare students with each other To see if students meet a particular standard To help the students’ learning To check efficiency of teaching programme Principles of assessment Validity Reliability Authenticity A valid test - measures exactly what it proposes to measure does not measure irrelevant variables relies as much as possible on empirical evidence involves performance that samples the test’s criterion (objective) offers useful, meaningful information about a test-taker’s ability is supported by a theoretical rationale or argument A reliable test- is consistent in its conditions across two or more administrations gives clear directions for scoring/evaluation has uniform rubrics for scoring/ evaluation contains items/tasks that are unambiguous to the test-takers An authentic test - contains language that is as natural as possible has items that are contextualized rather than isolated includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics provides some thematic organization to items offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks What do we mean by assessment in CLIL? What do we assess, content or language? What tools can we use for assessment? Who assesses? How do we assess? What is the role of standard examination systems? Is there a role for the CEFR? What do we mean by assessment in CLIL? CLIL assessment needs to account for the goal and objectives of two different subjects, including knowledge, competences, skills, attitudes and discourse practices, for both language and content. What do we assess, content or language? Both, but language in context. What tools can we use for assessment? Portfolios, Diaries, Rubrics, Tasks, Exams... Who assesses? Learners should be involved in self and peer-assessment. How do we assess? Informal, formal and self assessment. What is the role of standard examination systems? They give us these benefits: Standard of comparison. A degree of quality A principle of honesty and integrity. Is there a role for the CEFR? CEFR makes easier for practitioners to tell each other and their clientele what they wish to help learners to achieve, and how they attempt to do so. Discrete Assessment A discrete assessment evaluates specific, isolated skills or knowledge areas, usually focusing on a single competency or task rather than an integrated or holistic skill set. Characteristics of Discrete Assessment Targeted Skills: Measures discrete skills, such as grammar points, vocabulary, or specific content knowledge. Objective: Typically has clear right or wrong answers, allowing for easier and more objective grading. Format: Often in the form of multiple-choice questions, short answers, or fill-in-the-blanks, where each question assesses only one aspect of knowledge or skill. Purpose: Used to identify specific areas where a student may need support or further instruction. In a CLIL setting, discrete assessments may test language proficiency or subject knowledge separately, helping teachers pinpoint where students might struggle. Examples include:  Language-focused discrete assessments: Quizzes on vocabulary specific to the subject being taught, grammar exercises, or listening tasks. Content-focused discrete assessments: Short tests on factual knowledge of the subject area, such as science terms, historical dates, or math formulas. Integrated Assessment Integrated assessment is an approach that evaluates multiple competencies simultaneously, often within a single, holistic task. Integrated assessment allows students to demonstrate their ability to apply various knowledge areas and skills in real-world or context-rich scenarios. This approach is often used to assess both language proficiency and subject content knowledge together, making it particularly relevant in contexts like Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Characteristics of Integrated Assessment Combination of Skills: Assesses multiple skills or areas of knowledge, often combining subject content and language use. Authentic Context: Tasks are typically designed to resemble real-life scenarios, encouraging students to demonstrate practical application. Complexity and Depth: Involves more complex, open-ended tasks, which can include projects, presentations, written reports, or collaborative work. Holistic Evaluation: Rather than grading individual components separately, integrated assessments consider the overall performance, looking at how effectively students can synthesize and apply their knowledge and skills. Examples in CLIL In a CLIL setting, integrated assessments can be especially useful as they allow teachers to assess students’ mastery of both subject matter and language proficiency within the same activity. Examples include: Research Projects: Students research a topic in the target language and present findings, showing both content understanding and language skills. Presentations or Debates: Students are asked to present or argue a topic, combining language use with subject knowledge. Experiments and Reports: In a science CLIL class, students might conduct an experiment and then write a lab report, demonstrating knowledge of scientific principles as well as writing skills in the target language. 1. Impact of Language Proficiency on Content Assessment (Why do you think language plays such a significant role in CLIL assessments? 2. How do you think the balance between content knowledge and language skills should be maintained in CLIL assessment 3. Integrated vs. Separate Assessment of Language and Content 4. Do you believe students’ scores in a CLIL subject always reflect their true understanding of the content? Why or why not? 5. What strategies do you think could help improve the fairness of assessments in CLIL? 6. How do you think formative assessment can support both language and content learning in a CLIL environment? 7. In what ways can teachers better assess language skills without overshadowing content knowledge in CLIL?