Curriculum Design (CDN402-DL-SG-E1) Study Guide PDF

Curriculum Design STUDY GUIDE CDN402-DL-SG-E1 *CDN402-DL-SG-E1* Contents Introduction 1 How to use this Study Guide 4 Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards 8 Your Stud...

Curriculum Design STUDY GUIDE CDN402-DL-SG-E1 *CDN402-DL-SG-E1* Contents Introduction 1 How to use this Study Guide 4 Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards 8 Your Study Schedule 10 Study Session 1 14 Study Session 2 31 Study Session 3 52 References 78 STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (i) Written by Dr Nadira Manickchund First edition May 2022  STADIO (PTY) LTD 75 Silverton Road, Musgrave, Durban, 401 This document contains proprietary information that is protected by copyright. All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be photocopied, reproduced, electronically stored or transmitted, or translated without the written permission of STADIO (PTY) LTD. STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (ii) Introduction Welcome to the module Curriculum Design (CDN 402)! The aims of this module are to provide the student with a solid foundation in curriculum knowledge for the Foundation / Intermediate Phase, curriculum development and curriculum design with the view to critically apply this knowledge to current South African practice. The underlying purpose is to motivate the developing teacher to play a formidable role as an agent of empowerment in the dynamic South African educational landscape. Prescribed Readings This module requires you to read the following prescribed texts:  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development. 5th edn. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. Question and Answer Booklet for the advocacy of the implementation of the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Grades R-12. [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. [Accessed on 20 June 2013].  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy pertaining to the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action Plan to 2019: Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. [Accessed on 23 May 2018].  SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic Education's walking away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media Statement. 25 November 2015.  Republic of South Africa. Department of Higher Education and Training. February 2015. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications. Pages 60-61: Appendix A: Collective Roles of Teachers in a School; p. 64: Appendix C: Basic Competences of a Beginner Teacher.  Research: NQF on the Council on Higher Education (CHE) website.  Research: Department of Basic Education website. The above prescribed texts are the primary resources in this module. You'll be told when to read various sections of it as you work through this study guide. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 1 You'll also need to read parts of the following documents as part of your studies for this module:  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Life Skills Grades R-3. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Life Skills Grades 4-6. Pretoria: Government Printing Works. In this study guide, we often refer to the above documents simply as the Life Skills Grades R-3 and Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS documents. Supplementary Readings / Supplementary Media Finally, you'll have to read the document mentioned below, which sets out the referencing techniques we use based on the Harvard system. You'll need to use these referencing conventions when writing your assignment.  STADIO (PTY) LTD. 2022. STADIO Referencing Guide. 2nd edn. Durban: STADIO (PTY) LTD. Please note that your prescribed textbooks and this study guide will be sent to you in hardcopy, but you'll have to download the CAPS documents and the STADIO Referencing Guide from the Learning Management System (LMS), our online student portal. Recommended Readings Your recommended texts for this module are as follows:  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Guidelines for Responding to Learner Diversity in the Classroom through Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements. Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2015. The South African National Curriculum Framework for children from Birth to Four. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. [Accessed on 23 May 2018].  SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. The Annual National Assessment (ANA) adds no value to the South African Learner. Joint Media Statement. 21 September 2015. Page 2 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Terms used in this Module Please take note of the following terms and their definitions or abbreviations, as you'll encounter them frequently in this module. Professionalisation Professionalisation is the process of giving an occupation professional qualities by increasing training and raising qualifications. SAQA SAQA is the South African Qualifications Authority, which is a statutory body whose main function is to oversee the development and implementation of the NQF. NQF The NQF is the National Qualifications Framework, which creates a single integrated national framework for learning achievements. NCS The NCS is the National Curriculum Statements, which specifies the minimum standards of knowledge and skills to be achieved in each grade. CAPS CAPS is the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements. It is a single, comprehensive policy document introduced by the Department of Education for all subjects. ANA Annual National Assessments Assessment of this Module Everything you need to know about the formal assessment of this module can be found in the document Curriculum Design: Assessment Guide. This assessment booklet can be found on the LMS on the module page. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 3 How to use this Study Guide We compiled this study guide to help you work through the prescribed study material for this module in a logical and manageable way. The study guide also gives you extra theory and explanations where necessary, and offers many opportunities for self-reflection and self-assessment. We suggest that you flip through and skim the entire guide to get an overview of the module's structure and content. Your Study Schedule Your study schedule, which appears further on in this study guide, is a summary of your module content, and clearly indicates the following:  study sessions;  lessons;  prescribed readings and media;  learning outcomes per lesson; and  suggested lesson timeframes. Study Sessions and Lessons in this Module You'll find three study sessions in your study schedule, as shown below. Study Session 1 The first study session contains the following two lessons:  Lesson 1: The Issue of Empowerment; and  Lesson 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study. Study Session 2 The second study session contains the following two lessons:  Lesson 3: The Process of Curriculum Development; and  Lesson 4: Effective Curriculum Design. Study Session 3 The third study session is the longest, and contains the following three lessons:  Lesson 5: The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement;  Lesson 6: Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation and Evaluation; and  Lesson 7: The Responsibility of the Empowered Teacher. Page 4 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards for this Module We list learning outcomes and assessment standards for the module as a whole just before your study schedule. We also list learning outcomes for each study session at the beginning of that study session. The learning outcomes tell you exactly what you need to be able to do at the end of the module or study session, while the assessment standards tell you how you can check that you've achieved the learning outcomes. Self-assessment during this Module Since you are studying via distance learning, it's important that you take charge and monitor your own progress. To help you do this, we have incorporated various modes of self-assessment into the module, which you can use to gauge your knowledge and understanding of the material. Specifically, we include the following types of self-assessment in this study guide:  self-reflections;  writing activities;  online activities;  research activities;  practical activities;  application activities;  self-assessment tests; and  competence checklists. We explain each type of self-assessment below. Self-reflections Self-reflections are activities that ask you to think about important topics or questions. They do not require you to do anything other than think carefully about something. Self-reflections are your opportunities to work through new concepts, identify areas in your life or work that need change, and solve problems. Writing Activities Writing activities require you to write down answers to questions. Space is provided after each activity so that you can write your answers in this study guide. These activities are your opportunities to demonstrate your subject knowledge and apply theory in practice. They are invaluable practice, as they help you to clearly assess your ability to answer similar questions in an exam or other formal assessment. Depending on the nature of the writing activity, we sometimes provide answers below the activity, which you can use to assess the accuracy of your own answers. We also sometimes provide model answers to open-ended questions, usually to show how such questions should be answered. A model answer is Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 5 therefore not the only correct answer to a question, but rather is an example of the sort of answer that would be acceptable to an examiner. Online activities Online activities usually ask you to go online to read an article or post, or watch a video. Note that when you are told to engage with online materials, you should consider the content of those materials to form part of the module content. Research activities Research activities usually ask you to go online to learn more about a topic in order to answer questions, and to broaden your understanding of concepts that have been touched on in your prescribed material but were not fully explained. You should consider the content that you interact with during a research activity to form part of the module content. Practical activities Practical activities usually require of you to physically do something. These practical activities give you a chance to apply your theoretical knowledge to various situations in the real world. We encourage you to use practical activities as a way to evaluate yourself and find the weak spots in your understanding of the module content. Application activities Application activities are a hybrid of writing and practical activities. They ask you to physically apply your theoretical knowledge and then assess the outcomes, or to carry out an experiment and then record your findings. We encourage you to use application activities as a way to evaluate your understanding of the relationship between the theoretical content you're being taught and the way you'll need to apply it to solve real-world problems. Self-assessment tests You'll find self-assessment questions and answers at the end of every study session in this module. The self-assessment tests are similar to writing activities, but they come at the end of a study session. You therefore have to answer questions based on all the content in that study session, and often in a more integrated fashion. There is no space in the study guide to write down your answers – you should do this in a notebook of your own. We encourage you to write down your answers and not just think them through, as you need to practise articulating your thoughts, reasoning (or working out), and expressing your understanding effectively in words. When you've written out your answers to all the questions, and not before, you should compare your answers with the model answers provided. This will give you a good indication of how well you've understood the content of that study session and how well you can apply the theory. Page 6 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Competence checklists We have also included a competence checklist at the end of each study session that you can use to confirm that you can perform the listed learning outcomes. Each competence checklist has a list of the learning outcomes for that session, with a checkbox next to each for you to tick. Essentially, the learning outcomes are a summary of your goals for working through a given module, and you want to know that you can confidently tick each box before undertaking the final exam. Good Luck with your Studies! Remember that this is a distance-learning module. You need to apply self- discipline since you don't have a lecturer standing next to you while you study, and you've no classmates to check yourself against. Nobody will check to see if you've completed any of the self-assessments in this study guide – as you know, they do not form part of your formal assessment for this module. That said, we once again encourage you to work through all the self-assessments, as they form an important part of this module and your learning experience. The study skills you'll develop by undertaking a distance-learning module include self-direction and responsibility. Embrace the challenge, as self-direction and responsibility are important life skills that will help you to succeed in all areas of your life. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 7 Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT STANDARDS Upon successful completion of this We know that you have met the learning module, you must be able to do the outcomes when you can do the following: following: AS 1: Identify the core elements of LO 1: Describe the issue of teacher empowerment and relate empowerment of teachers. to personal experience. LO 2: Demonstrate an understanding of AS 2: Analyse the principles of various the historical milestones that curriculum documents and influenced the development of evaluate their implementation in the South African curriculum. practice. LO 3: Interpret the principles of a AS 3: Contrast the objectives and number of curriculum outcomes-oriented approaches to documents. education and assess their influences on current teaching LO 4: Discuss the role of the National practice. Qualifications Framework (NQF). AS 4: Explain the effects of the National LO 5: Define concepts related to the Qualifications Framework (NQF) nature of the curriculum. on teaching and learning in South Africa. LO 6: Outline the process and broad principles of curriculum AS 5: Define key concepts and apply development. them appropriately in current teaching practices. LO 7: Critically evaluate various approaches to curriculum AS 6: Describe and evaluate a variety of development. approaches to curriculum development. LO 8: Discuss the principles of the National Curriculum Statement AS 7: Determine the core principles for (NCS) as referred to in the effective curriculum development Curriculum Assessment Policy in South Africa. Statement (CAPS) Document. AS 8: Construct the primary steps LO 9: Outline the process of curriculum necessary for effective curriculum design. design. LO 10: Assess aims, goals, objectives AS 9: Identify core aims, goals, and outcomes of curriculum objectives and outcomes of design. design. LO 11: Critically assess the selection of AS 10: Explain the criteria for selection of content, teaching methods and contents, methods and assessment strategies in the assessment and apply this curriculum design process. knowledge to current practice. Page 8 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO  LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT STANDARDS Upon successful completion of this We know that you have met the learning module, you must be able to do the outcomes when you can do the following: following: AS 11: Critically discuss the implications LO 12: Interpret the implications of the of the introduction of the introduction of CAPS for teaching Curriculum Assessment Policy and learning. Document (CAPS) in terms of current teaching practice. LO 13: Understand how the principles of curriculum design have informed AS 12: Identify aims, principles, topics the CAPS Life Skills Foundation and outcomes of CAPS with Phase / Intermediate Phase reference to the CAPS Life Skills curriculum. Document in the Foundation Phase / Intermediate Phase. LO 14: Comprehend the roll-out of CAPS to date and the nature of Annual AS 13: Critically discuss the roll-out of the National Assessment (ANA) CAPS curriculum to-date as well testing. as the Annual National Assessment (ANA) testing and its LO 15: Comprehend the importance of implications for the teacher and assessment, recording and the learner. reporting in terms of current policy. AS 14: Identify the criteria for successful recording and reporting of learner LO 16: Describe the programme and performance. progression requirements for the Foundation Phase / Intermediate AS 15: Discusses the necessary Phase including programme and promotion acknowledgement of concessions requirements for Foundation for learners with barriers to Phase / Intermediate Phase learning. learners with inclusion of concessions for learners with LO 17: Critically review the Action Plan barriers to learning. for Education to 2019. AS 16: Critically evaluate the role-out of LO 18: Outline the steps in successful the Action Plan for education to dissemination, implementation 2019. and evaluation of the curriculum. AS 17: Identify facilitating factors which LO 19: Assess self in terms of advance curriculum dissemination, competences expected of a implementation and evaluation in beginner teacher. South Africa. LO 20: Discuss the roles and functions of AS 18: Critically appraise own the teacher in terms of the development of competences of a empowerment process. beginner teacher according to policy. AS 19: Reflect on the role of the teacher as an agent of empowerment. AS 20: Create a blueprint for the development of teacher empowerment in current South African practice. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 9  Your Study Schedule Page 10 STUDY SESSION 1 LESSON PRESCRIBED READINGS LEARNING OUTCOMES TIMEFRAME LESSON 1: The Issue of  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Describe the issue of empowerment of 2 weeks Empowerment through curriculum development. 5th edn. teachers. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Comprehend the implications of  Chapter 1: The Issue of Empowerment of democratisation of schools on the Teacher as Curriculum Agent: Some empowerment. Perspectives (pages 1 to 20).  Recognise the facilitating role that leadership plays in the issue of empowerment. LESSON 2: Curriculum  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Reflect on the historical milestones that 2 weeks Studies as a Field of Study through curriculum development. 5th edn. influenced the South African Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd: curriculum.  Chapter 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field  Discuss the principles of the White of Study (pages 21 to 46). Paper of 1995.  Discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF CDN402-DL-SG-E1  Research: NQF on the Council on Higher in curriculum development. Education (CHE) website.  Compare the content and outcome- oriented approaches to the curriculum.  Define a number of concepts used in the curriculum development process. Study Guide  STADIO  STUDY SESSION 2 LESSON PRESCRIBED READINGS LEARNING OUTCOMES TIMEFRAME LESSON 3: The Process of  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Describe the process of curriculum 2 weeks Curriculum Development through curriculum development. 5th edn. development. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Critically evaluate Carl's model of  Chapter 3: The Process of Curriculum curriculum development (1986) and Study Guide  STADIO Development (pages 47 to 74). Walters' four approaches to curriculum development.  Department of Basic Education. South  Discuss a variety of orientations to Africa. 2011. Curriculum Assessment Policy curriculum development as used by Statement (CAPS): Foundation Phase. educational specialists. Life Skills Grades R-3. Pretoria:  Identify a number of broad principles in Government Printing Works relation to curriculum development.  pages 4 and5.  Discuss the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): Intermediate Phase. Life Skills Grades 4-6. Pretoria: Government Printing Works:  pages 4and 5. LESSON 4: Effective  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Outline the process of curriculum 2 weeks Curriculum Design through curriculum development. 5th edn. design. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Discuss Carl's model of curriculum  Chapter 4: Effective Curriculum Design design (2002). CDN402-DL-SG-E1 for Dynamic Curriculum Development  Explain the components of curriculum (pages 75 to 134). design as summarised by Carl.  Analyse aims, goals, objectives and  Research: Department of Basic Education outcomes of the curriculum design website. process.  Critically assess the selection of content, teaching methods and methods of assessment. Page 11  STUDY SESSION 3 Page 12 LESSON PRESCRIBED READINGS LEARNING OUTCOMES TIMEFRAME LESSON 5: The Curriculum  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012.  Identify the basic features of the 2 weeks Assessment Policy [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. CAPS curriculum. Statement [Accessed on 20 June 2013].  Interpret the implications for teaching and learning.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011.  Understand how the principles of Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): curriculum design inform the Foundation Phase. Life Skills Grades R-3. Pretoria: CAPS Life Skills Foundation Phase Government Printing Works: / Intermediate Phase Curriculum.  pages 3 to 5.  Discuss the role of ANA testing.  Clarify the importance of  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. assessment and methods of Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): recording and reporting. Intermediate Phase. Life Skills Grades 4-6. Pretoria:  Identify the programme and Government Printing Works: progression requirements for  pages 3 to 5. Foundation Phase / Intermediate Phase learners including  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. concessions for learners with CDN402-DL-SG-E1 National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12. barriers to learning. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Critically analyse the goals of the Action Plan to 2019.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy pertaining to the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action Plan to 2019: Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. [Accessed on 23 May 2018].  SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic Education's walking away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media Statement. 25 November 2015. Study Guide  STADIO  STUDY SESSION 3 (continued) LESSON PRESCRIBED READINGS LEARNING OUTCOMES TIMEFRAME LESSON 6: Curriculum  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Outline the steps in successful curriculum 2 weeks Dissemination, through curriculum development. 5th edn. dissemination. Implementation and Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Discuss factors necessary for meaningful Evaluation  Chapter 5: Curriculum Dissemination as implementation of the curriculum. a Critical Phase within Dynamic  Recognise important aspects of the Study Guide  STADIO Curriculum Development evaluation process with regard to the (pages 135 to 155). curriculum.  Chapter 6: Successful Curriculum Implementation (pages 156 to 161).  Chapter 7: Comprehensive Curriculum Evaluation within Dynamic Curriculum Development (pages 162 to 192). LESSON 7: The  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Discuss the relationship between teacher 2 weeks Responsibility of the through curriculum development. 5th edn. involvement and empowerment. Empowered Teacher Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Describe the competences of a beginner  Chapter 9: The Responsibility of the teacher and self-reflect. Empowered Teacher with regard to  Identify the roles of the teacher and Curriculum Development discuss their relevance to teacher (pages 214 to 245). empowerment.  Department of Higher Education and Training. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Qualifications:  Basic Competences of a Beginner Teacher (pages 60 and 61).  Collective Roles of Teachers in a School (page 64). Page 13 Study Session 1 Welcome to the first of your two study sessions for this module. Let's start by looking at the learning outcomes for this particular study session. Learning Outcomes After you've completed Study Session 1, you should be able to do the following:  describe the issue of empowerment of teachers;  comprehend the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment;  recognise the facilitating role that leadership plays in the issue of empowerment;  reflect on the historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum;  discuss the principles of the White Paper of 1995;  compare the content and outcome-oriented approaches to the curriculum;  discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development; and  define a number of concepts used in the curriculum development process. We now move on to give you an overview of the two lessons in this study session. Overview of Study Session 1 In Lesson 1, The Issue of Empowerment, we will explore the issue of empowerment. We will then explore the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment. Finally, we will explore the role of leadership in the process of empowerment. In Lesson 2, Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study, we will explore the historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. We will then explore the principles of the White Paper. Next, we will then explore the roles of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development. We will then explore content and outcomes- based approaches to the curriculum. Finally, we will define concepts used in curriculum development. It's time now to start Lesson 1. Page 14 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Lesson 1: The Issue of Empowerment  Prescribed reading Your prescribed reading for Lesson 1 is as follows:  Pages 1 to 20 in Chapter 1: The Issue of Empowerment of the Teacher as Curriculum Agent: Some Perspectives in Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development. 5th edn. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd. Introduction As an introduction to this lesson, do Self-reflection 1. Self-reflection 1 To be empowered means to develop strength and confidence in what you do. 1. How important is it to you that you become an empowered teacher? Give a reason for your answer. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 15  Self-reflection 1 (continued) 2. What would you need to help you feel that you are an empowered teacher? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. How would you benefit from being an empowered teacher? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Now that you have an idea of what teacher empowerment may be about, let's introduce the first lesson. Teacher empowerment is an important construct in education, as it contributes to an effective teaching environment. In order to become an empowered teacher, teachers need to understand their role as a teacher; have a view of curriculum matters; and possess knowledge and skills that make them confident in practising their profession. Confidence and being a figure of authority are contributing factors to becoming an empowered teacher. (Carl, 2017:2) Empowerment is therefore a complex issue, which we will now try to unpack. We start this lesson by describing the issue of empowerment of teachers. We then discuss the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment. Finally, we discuss the role that leadership plays in the issue of empowerment. Page 16 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO  You may now read pages 1 to 20 of your prescribed text. The Issue of Empowerment In this section of the lesson we discuss possible definitions of empowerment and how empowerment can manifest itself. To do this, we discuss the following points:  Defining Empowerment; and  Manifestations of Empowerment. Defining Empowerment We look at possible definitions of empowerment to decide whether empowerment is seen as an external or internal influence on a teacher. As the term 'empowerment' has its origin in the corporate world; it implies that empowerment is almost always governed by authority (Terry n.d., as cited in Carl, 2017:3). Teacher empowerment includes activities that enhances their professional status, such as involvement in decision-making, policy development and curriculum interpretation (Browder, 1994 as cited in Carl). Empowerment also allows teachers to participate in public affairs rather than working by themselves, which can have a negative effect on productivity (Vavrus, 1989 as cited in Carl). Isolation of teachers limits professional growth. Therefore, environments that foster professional and caring relationships; support mechanisms; and the sharing of professional strengths should be created in the school environment (Kruse & Louis, 1998 as cited in Carl). There are many benefits to empowering teachers.  Firstly, empowered teachers are part of a change and a risk-taking process in which they can actively participate and make a difference (Carl).  Secondly, teachers' self-image improves as they become esteemed in the eyes of their colleagues; more skilled in their teaching; and understand the value of teamwork. The authority that an empowered teacher experiences, leads to an improved working environment as well as increased teacher self- efficacy (Carl).  Thirdly, empowered teachers impact on student learning. As teachers become empowered, their perspective on their work changes. This shift in perspective can help learners to change the way they view and experience their studies (Stone, 1995 as cited in Carl). Increased productivity; teacher morale; and knowledge of subject matter are factors that positively impact learner motivation and achievement (Keiser & Shen, 2000 as cited in Carl). All these definitions seem to imply that teacher empowerment is an external influence. However, teachers are not passive receivers and cannot be empowered by others: their empowerment is governed by their ability to make decisions (Cornett, 1991 as cited in Carl). Hence, teacher empowerment can be seen as an internal process of growth and development. We now move on to discuss the manifestations of empowerment, because we need to understand the various ways in which we can recognise and identify empowerment. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 17 Manifestations of Empowerment In this section, we will discuss the three ways in which empowerment manifests itself, namely through professionalisation; liberal humanism; and critical theory.  Firstly, professional development is a factor of teacher empowerment. Opportunities for professional development can equip teachers to have more authority; status; and individual growth, and become a good team worker. These are the factors that lead to professionalisation (Gore, 1989 as cited in Carl, 2017:9). An example of empowerment manifesting itself through professionalisation is when teachers hold leadership positions in schools, and as a result show a higher level of empowerment (Avidov-Ungar, Friedman & Olshtain, 2014, as cited in Carl).  Secondly, liberal humanism relates to freedom. When teachers exercise a right to design curricula, it encourages individualism and emancipation (Gore, 1989 as cited in Carl).  Thirdly, empowered teachers have vision, which can effect positive change in society. Critical theory serves to address and rectify social situations such as oppression; injustice; and inequality, which may affect certain groups. Empowerment is manifested when teachers reflect on their work; become agents of change; and decide to what extent they want to either follow or fight bureaucracy (Colyn, 1991 as cited in Carl). We now move on to discuss the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment. If empowerment implies that teachers become agents of change, it would seem that the process of empowerment is connected to the process of democratisation. The Implications of Democratisation of Schools on Empowerment In this section we discuss the democratic climate that contributes to empowerment. The culture and organisation of the school determine the effectiveness of the school.  The culture of the school influences teachers' commitment, values and loyalty to the school (Carl, 2017:12).  Organisational structures that allow for discussion and consultation with the staff create a sense of ownership to the school in teachers, who then become more effective (McElrath, 1988 as cited in Carl). Page 18 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Factors that contribute to empowerment are enhanced when teachers feel that their expertise is valued. These factors include their motivation; collegiality; collaboration; leadership; and the teachers' level of knowledge (Pyle et al., 2010, as cited in Carl). However, principals must give teachers sufficient time, scope and support to define their own professional developmental requirements (Lagana, 1989 as cited in Carl). We can therefore identify the factors that contribute to a democratic process of empowerment for teachers as:  empowered educational leaders;  commitment to becoming empowered;  valuing empowerment as an opportunity for development;  understanding the process of empowerment; and  realising the particular roles the teachers play (Carl). Complete Writing Activity 1 below.  Writing Activity 1  1. Give a definition of empowerment. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2. Give THREE (3) ways in which empowerment can manifest itself, and give an example of each. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 19   Writing Activity 1  (continued) 3. Name THREE (3) contributing factors of a democratic climate that can lead to empowerment. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Model answers: (1) Empowerment is a process of development and growth that allows a person to make independent decisions and act autonomously towards making a difference / contribution to his or her environment. Skills, knowledge and attitudes within a democratic climate is a prerequisite to becoming empowered. Empowered people are regarded as professionals that can effect change (Carl 2017:9). (2) Professionalisation – through professional development; Liberal humanism – through curriculum development; and Critical theory – effecting a change in society. (3) Organisational structures in the school that allow for consultation and discussion. When teachers feel that their expertise is valued. Empowered educational leaders. A commitment to becoming empowered. Understanding the process of empowerment. Realising the roles they play in the process of empowerment. (ANY THREE) In the previous section we spoke about the fact that empowered educational leaders is one of the conditions that support democratisation of schools on empowerment. We will now discuss the importance of the role of leadership in the empowerment process, as it is clear that empowerment and leadership are connected. The Role of Leadership in the Process of Empowerment In this section we discuss the role of leadership in the process of empowerment. We will first discuss the types of leadership styles, and then discuss the importance of shared decision-making. Types of Leadership Styles Principals should be prepared to play a role in the empowerment of teachers. This process includes developing a particular leadership style. There are different types of leadership that impact on empowerment by affecting teacher growth and development. Sharp (2009, as cited in Carl, 2017:17) speaks of instructional; transformational; moral; participative; contingency and managerial leadership styles. If leadership is to achieve teacher empowerment, traditional methods of leadership styles need to be constantly evaluated and redefined. A transformational leadership style, for example, requires that the principal adopt a leadership role as facilitator and empowerer, rather than leadership role as Page 20 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO expert (Peters & Waterman, 1982 as cited in Carl). Transformational leaders are able to determine a different world and assist others to have this vision (Houston, 1993 as cited in Carl). Lamperes (2004, as cited in Carl) explained the transformational leadership style when he introduced strategies for teacher empowerment, namely:  sharing information and decision-making;  developing and practising reaching agreement on decision-making and budgeting;  creating a common vision and shared beliefs;  allowing teachers to direct their professional growth;  understanding student needs while empowering them and their parents; and  developing symbols of empowerment. Sergiovanni (1990, as cited in Carl, 2017:16) mentions a leadership process that is a combination of value and value-added.  In the 'value' stage, physical and social needs of both the leader and follower are negotiated, with the goal of improvement for the institution.  The 'value-added' stage is characterised by the leader slowly receding into the role of facilitator as potential empowerment comes to the fore from the group. A shared value system then comes into existence as leader and follower are bonded. Finally, confidence and freedom arise in the teachers as they become leaders, with the principal as facilitator. Shared Decision-making Involving teachers in decision-making alleviates meaningless work; a lack of responsibility; and an absence of trust that may be maintained if a top-down approach of leadership is practised (Byham & Cox, 1992 as cited in Carl, 2017:15). If principals are concerned about democratising schools, they should implement the practise of shared decision-making. Levine (1987, as cited in Carl) states that democratising schools through shared decision-making involves respecting and treating individuals with dignity; paying attention to the growth and development of the staff; and presenting opportunities for consultation in decision-making. Principals need to be accessible to staff; have good communication skills; and enable growth and development for the staff and themselves in order to contribute to a democratic society (McCoy & Shreve, 1983 as cited in Carl). A shared decision-making climate will create a feeling of ownership in teachers. They should not feel threatened by the principal, but rather take the opportunity to sharing power in order to help develop the school as a team (Carl). Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 21 Complete Writing Activity 2 below.  Writing Activity 2  We have seen an example of how transformational leadership is exercised (Lamperes, 2004, as cited in Carl, 2017:13). In your prescribed textbook, you will read two examples of participatory leadership (Grafft, 1193 as cited in Carl 2017:14; and Claspell & Killion, 1991, as cited in Carl, 2017:14). If you were an empowered principal, which leadership style would you choose to lead your teachers towards empowerment? Give FIVE (5) examples of the changes you would bring to your school. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Page 22 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Answers: Transformational leadership – share information; share decision-making; practise consensus decision- making; develop consensus on budget; create a common vision; develop shared beliefs; allow teachers to direct their professional growth; empower students and parents; understand students' needs; develop symbols of empowerment. Participatory leadership – build teacher confidence; promote social interaction; maintain and promote good personnel relationships; maintain communication; practise conflict resolution; set clear objectives; maintain healthy working relationships; being patient and realistic; begin small; building knowledge in order to take informed decisions. (Any five of above or similar answers.) It's now time to end our discussion of The Issue of Empowerment and move on to discuss Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study. We do this in Lesson 2. Only move on to Lesson 2 if you are confident that you understand the content in the present lesson. If anything is unclear to you, remember that you can email us or make a phone appointment with a tutor to discuss the matter. All the information that you need is in the Welcome Letter, and also on the LMS. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 23 Lesson 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study  Prescribed readings Your prescribed readings for Lesson 2 are as follows:  Pages 21 to 46 in Chapter 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study. Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development. 5th edn. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd.  Research: NQF on the Council on Higher Education (CHE) website. Note that you'll be told when in the lesson to read each of the above texts. Introduction Teacher empowerment includes a study of the field of curriculum studies in order to develop a knowledgeable understanding of the curriculum processes that will allow teachers to reflect on, understand and improve practice (Carl, 2017: 21). In this lesson, to explore the field of curriculum studies, we will reflect on the historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. Next, we will discuss the principles of the White Paper. We will then discuss the roles of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) in curriculum development. We will also compare content and outcomes-orientated approaches to the curriculum. Finally, we will define some important concepts used in the curriculum development process.  You may now read pages 21 to 46 of your prescribed textbook. The Historical Milestones that influenced the South African Curriculum Curriculum development in South Africa has a long history, and through the years, the curriculum has undergone many changes. Some of these milestones, according to Carl (2017: 22), are as follows:  1981: The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) investigation into education;  1991: 'n Kurrikulummodel vir Onderwys in Suid-Afrika by the Committee of Education Department Heads (CEDH);  1992: The provincial report of the National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) in 1992;  1994: The 'Policy Framework for Education and Training' by the African National Congress (ANC); Page 24 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO  1998: 'Curriculum 2005', replaced in 2000 by the 'Revised National Curriculum Statement for Grades R-9' (RNCS) in 2000 (The word 'revised' was later dropped from the title.);  2006: The extension of the NCS to the Further Education and Training (FET) band for Grades 10 to 12; and  2012: The 'Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements' (CAPS). As you can see, the South African curriculum and the approach to curriculum development have undergone many changes. Much of the rhetoric about curriculum development indicated that it had been fraught with challenges that had. and still have, a detrimental effect on the education system. Some of these challenges include uninformed teachers in respect of understanding the curriculum's theory and practice; the impact of bureaucracy; a shortage of curriculum specialists; lack of teacher involvement in curriculum development; and scepticism from teachers (Carl, 2017:22). South Africa required a dynamic curriculum development that was relevant to preparing learners for the world of work and, further, to compete in the global economic society (Van Rensburg, 1992 as cited in Carl). The rise of democracy in the 1900s in South Africa brought about a change from the top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation to a democratisation of education. We will now discuss one of the important democratic education documents developed in 1995, namely the White Paper. Principles of the White Paper One of the driving principles of early democracy in South Africa was that of equity. The White Paper on Education and Training in a Democratic South Africa: First Steps to Develop a New System was drawn up in 1995 to mirror the process of transformation, with its focus on equality, that was taking place in the country. The White Paper was therefore based on an integrated approach to education and training. This means that it contributes to the development of human resources; bridges the divide between theory and practice; and recognises that learning and the gaining of experience do not take place only in formal education. Some of the principles underlying the White Paper are as follows (Carl, 2017: 23-24):  Transformation must occur by addressing the inequalities of the past.  Equality must be promoted by the education and training sector of the state.  Access to education and training must be available to all children and adults.  Parents and guardians must be included in the education of their children and be consulted on the form and management of their education.  Establishing and capacity-building of representative management bodies must be included.  Equality, democracy and freedom must be included to ensure lifelong learning.  Diversity (religious, cultural and language) must be respected.  The arts (music, dance, theatre, fine arts) should be more available.  The new curriculum must promote independent and critical thinking. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 25  Curriculum choices must be available to reflect the needs of the economy and further career development.  Mathematics, Science and Technology teaching initiatives are imperative to supplement shortages in these areas.  Education and Training must include environment awareness; be sustainable, efficient and productive. Now do Self-reflection 2 below. Self-reflection 2 Write a short paragraph in which you reflect on the type of curriculum you would develop for your school. Justify your choices by stating how your ideologies reflect the principles of the White Paper (1995). Now that we understand the principles underlying the White Paper, let's look at two other initiatives that were launched to put these principles into action and transform education. These initiatives are SAQA and the NQF. The Roles of SAQA and the NQF in Curriculum Development The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) was established in 1995 in order to certify all qualifications available in South Africa. Its task was policy- making, and setting out structures and processes for criteria on standards and qualifications that institutions could use if they provided education and training initiatives. SAQA is also responsible for:  registering qualifications on the NQF; and  quality management, which they achieve by constantly assessing providers and learners in the education and training sector. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was developed and implemented by the National Qualifications Authority. The NQF consists of all the education and training qualifications that a learner can obtain in South Africa. It includes qualifications that can be acquired from the General Education and Training Certificate (GETC); the Further Education and Training certificate (FETC); and the Higher Education and Training Certificate (HETC). The NQF adheres to the principles of equality and integration in order to provide access to education and training for all. Carl (2017:25) states the following aims of the NQF:  Provide access to qualifications through a variety of routes, thus allowing more people to enter into education and training.  Provide education and training that is relevant and addresses needs.  Simplify the qualifications structure and ensure quality.  This structure must adapt to new developments in the world of work, labour and education and training.  Performance can be assessed against clearly defined standards. Page 26 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Now that we are aware of the important structures that have been put in place to ensure access to, equality in and integration into South Africa's democratic education and training structure, let's not forget that the previous approaches to teaching and learning also needed to be developed. We will now discuss the differences between the previous content-based approaches to the curriculum to the new outcome-based approaches, and the implications these approaches have had on the role of teachers. Content and Outcomes-orientated Approaches to the Curriculum In this section we discuss the role of the teacher in the new dispensation of curriculum development, and describe several approaches to curriculum development. The role of the teacher The role of the teacher has changed from being a conveyor of information to being a curriculum developer. The teacher's task has become one of preparing the learner for the world of work, in other words, linking the classroom to the practical reality of the outside world. With this approach, the outcomes of the teaching and learning process were prioritised. Furthermore, several traditional content-related concepts of the traditional curriculum were changed.  Learning areas replaced subjects.  Learner involvement and co-operative learning replaced passive learning methods.  Continuous assessment was implemented. Teachers needed to show resourcefulness in developing methods and strategies to incorporate the new ideologies and practices in large classes, sometimes with limited or no resources. Finally, teachers had to incorporate ways of involving parents, as they were to be fully informed at all times of curriculum developments and dissemination (Carl, 2017:25). Approaches to curriculum development The notion of a curriculum is a broad concept that includes planned activities to be done during and after school, within the framework of a particular system and with the aim of guiding the child towards adulthood (Carl, 2017:35). There are many ways in which to view curriculum development. Schubert (1986, as cited in Carl) describes a curriculum as content; a programme of planned activities and specific learning results reflecting the community; a set of achievable tasks and concepts that aim towards social reconstruction. Oliva (1988) and Marsh (2010, as cited in Carl) state that a curriculum is what is taught in school in other words, content (subjects, materials, study programmes, objectives) planned by staff. Oliva further acknowledges definitions used by theoreticians to define curriculum: stating that curriculum comprises of what is intended (objectives); what it should do (purpose); the context within which it is developed (contextual); and the instructional learning strategy (strategy). Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 27 Carl (2017:38) further elaborates on the importance of understanding the various definitions of curriculum so that teachers do not overlook the wide range of curriculum influences. For example, Rowntree (1978, as cited in Carl), sees the curriculum as technology because of the design, evaluation, implementation and evaluation inherent in its process. Curriculum also encompasses a wider spectrum of different levels that transcend the school, such as the philosophies of the wider community; government legislation; school planning; syllabus development; school and subject curriculum; and types of instructional learning (Carl). McKernan (2008, as cited in Carl) says that the curriculum is narrow in the sense that it is taught in lessons, and broad in what is learned and experienced. All these definitions point to the complexity of curriculum development. We now move to the final section in this lesson, where we define concepts used in the curriculum development process. Concepts used in Curriculum Development The following are some of the most common terms used in curriculum development (Carl, 2017):  Curriculation: an action for the planning of objectives; goals; content; teaching experiences; teaching methods and teaching media; the instructional-learning situation; and implementation of the curriculum.  Curriculum framework: a written document that sets out policy for the objectives, content and guidelines of a curriculum.  Broad curriculum: a collection of subjects for a specific target group, for example, the broad curriculum for Foundation Phase; or the curriculum for a vocational teaching certificate.  Learning programme: a set of teaching and learning activities aimed at achieving outcomes, consisting of scope; assessment activities; pace; and ordering of activities for the year.  The hidden curriculum: a type of curriculum where certain practices and goals, such as regular and expected school experiences, are not defined in the curriculum document.  The intended curriculum: the official curriculum that is included in the syllabus.  The enacted curriculum: how the learners actually experience the curriculum.  The null curriculum: Important aspects of the formal curriculum that schools do not teach. And that's the end of the content for Study Session 1! Well done for making it this far. Read the summary below and then complete the self-assessment questions that follow. Remember that you can always contact a tutor if you need help with understanding any of the material covered in the preceding lesson. Page 28 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Summary of Study Session 1 In Lesson 1, The Issue of Empowerment, we first discussed the issue of empowerment. We then discussed the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment. We then discussed the role of leadership in the process of empowerment. In Lesson 2, Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study, we first discussed the historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. We then discussed the principles of the White Paper (1995). We then discussed the roles of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development. We then discussed the content and outcomes-based approaches to curriculum development. Finally, we discussed concepts used in curriculum development. Now work through the self-assessment questions that follow to test your understanding of the content of Lessons 1 and 2. Self-assessment Questions and Answers for Study Session 1 Test your knowledge of Study Session 1 by completing the self-assessment questions below. When you answer the questions, don't look at the suggested answers that we give. Look at them only after you've written your answers, and then compare your answers with ours. Questions 1. What is a definition of teacher empowerment? 2. What are some of the benefits of teacher empowerment? 3. How does empowerment manifest itself through professionalisation? 4. How can a school's democratic organisational structure allow for empowerment? 5. What were some of the challenges experienced during the historical milestones in South African curriculum development? 6. What was the principle behind curriculum choices in the White Paper (1995)? 7. Which body is tasked with certifying all qualifications in South Africa? 8. How did the role of the teacher change in outcomes-orientates curriculum practices? 9. How does Carl (2017) describe approaches to curriculum development? 10. What is the hidden curriculum? Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 29 Answers 1. A set of professional development activities. 2. Enhanced self-image; become an agent of change; understand teamwork. 3. By holding leadership positions. 4. By allowing for discussion; consultation; feeling a sense of ownership; the culture of the school enhances teacher's commitment, values and loyalty. 5. Uninformed teachers; bureaucracy; shortage of curriculum specialists; scepticism; lack of teacher involvement in curriculum development. 6. Curriculum choices must be available to reflect the needs of the economy and further individual career development. 7. SAQA 8. Prepare learners for the world of work; conceptual changes such as learning areas, co-operative learning and continuous assessment; resourcefulness; and parent involvement. 9. Planned activities for during and after school, within the framework of a system aimed at guiding the child towards adulthood. 10. Certain practices and goals are not defined in the curriculum document, they are, however, expected to occur naturally. Competence Checklist Now that you've worked through Study Session 1, please check that you can perform the tasks below.  I can describe the issue of empowerment of teachers.  I can comprehend the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment.  I can recognise the facilitating role that leadership plays in the issue of empowerment.  I can reflect on the historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum.  I can discuss the principles of the White Paper of 1995.  I can compare the content and outcome-oriented approaches to the curriculum.  I can discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development.  I can define a number of concepts used in the curriculum development process. Page 30 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Study Session 2 Welcome to the second study session for this module. Let's start by looking at the learning outcomes for this particular study session. Learning Outcomes After you've completed Study Session 2, you should be able to do the following:  describe the process of curriculum development;  critically evaluate Carl's model of curriculum development (1986) and Walters' four approaches to curriculum development;  discuss a variety of orientations to curriculum development as used by educational specialists;  identify a number of broad principles in relation to curriculum development;  discuss the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document;  outline the process of curriculum design;  discuss Carl's model of curriculum design (2002);  explain the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl;  analyse aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the curriculum design process; and  critically assess the selection of content, teaching methods and methods of assessment. We now move on to give you an overview of the two lessons in this study session. Overview of Study Session 2 In Lesson 3, The Process of Curriculum Development, we will explore the process of curriculum development. We will also evaluate Carl's model of curriculum development (Carl, 1986) and Walters' approach to curriculum development (Walters, 1985). We will also discuss educational specialists' orientations to curriculum development and identify the broad principles of curriculum development. Lastly, we will examine the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document. In Lesson 4, Effective Curriculum Design, we will explore the process of curriculum design. We will also look at Carl's model of curriculum design. Next, we will discuss the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl. Then, we will investigate the aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the curriculum design process. Lastly, we will examine the selection of content, teaching methods and methods of assessment. It's now time to start with Lesson 3. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 31 Lesson 3: The Process of Curriculum Development  Prescribed readings Your prescribed readings for Lesson 3 are as follows:  Pages 47 to 74 in Chapter 3: The Process of Curriculum Development of Teacher empowerment through curriculum development by Arend E. Carl.  Pages 4 and 5 of the Life Skills Grades R-3 CAPS document.  Pages 4 and 5 of the Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS document. Note that you'll be told when in the lesson to read each of the above texts. Introduction Curriculum development is a dynamic and intricate process that can be interpreted in many ways. It can be designed at one level and implemented at another level. Many educationists have different views of how curriculum is developed, and we will now pay attention to those views. In this lesson we will explore the process of curriculum development. We will also evaluate the approaches of Carl (1986) and Walter (1985) to curriculum development. We will then discuss educational specialists' orientations to curriculum development and identify the broad principles of curriculum development. Lastly, we will examine the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document. Let's begin our deliberation of the process of curriculum development by discussing the views of two curriculum developers. The Process of Curriculum Development Mostert (1986, as cited in Carl 2017:47) classifies six steps involved in developing a curriculum. These steps are:  an initiation step when an investigation is launched;  a planning step during which goals, criteria and curriculum design are determined;  a developmental step during which learning and teaching content; didactic guidelines; and evaluative strategies are selected and produced;  a testing step, which incorporates the evaluation of experts and the preparedness of teachers;  an implementation step during which teachers are orientated and learning content is planned and disseminated; and  a summative evaluative step when the programme is finally evaluated. Page 32 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Carl conceptualises curriculum development as a process consisting of four phases.  The first phase is the curriculum design phase, which is characterised by decision-making and planning on the new or existing curriculum.  The second phase is the curriculum dissemination phase, when information of the intended curriculum is published to prepare all involved.  The third phase is curriculum implementation, when the curriculum is put into practice.  The fourth and final phase is curriculum evaluation, when the success of the curriculum is evaluated. Now that we have an idea of how curriculum can be developed, let's look at other approaches to curriculum development – in particular, the approach of Walters (1985, as cited in Carl, 2017:50). Walters' Approach to Curriculum Development Walters (1985, as cited in Carl, 2017:50) describes four approaches to curriculum development. These are the academic approach; the experiential approach; the technological approach; and the pragmatic approach. The academic approach The academic approach refers to a studied and intellectual approach to curriculum development, during which unilateral decisions are made. This makes it a universal and objective approach. This means that the teacher and others do not have to be involved in the decision-making. The process involves recognising goals and objectives; selection of content; classifying the content chosen; designing; and evaluation (Tyler, 1949, as cited in Carl, 2017:50). The identification of goals is the most important step in this approach. When identifying goals, learners' physical, psychosocial, intellectual and moral needs are taken into consideration as the outcomes of the curriculum. Great theoreticians such as Piaget and Maslow's developmental theories are taken into account when these goals for learners are being developed. Another important factor that influences these goals is the characteristics of society. Goals of the curriculum are determined according to the demands of society, such as the needs of community; employment conflict; pollution; morals and values. The experiential approach The experiential approach is based on the philosophy of John Dewey, who prioritised the social activities of children and said that education should be a continuation of the experiences of children (Walters, 1985, as cited in Carl, 2017:52). Walters thus describes the experiential approach to curriculum development as subjective, personal, and heuristic. This approach involves teachers and learners in the formation of personalised instructional programmes. Individual feelings; values; experiences; and active involvement are included as curriculum content. This approach therefore has a child-centred nature while educating the whole person. However, the objectives of this type of curriculum development only give direction and do not necessarily specify the eventual Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 33 aims. It has been used with great success for primary school curricula where the subjects are well-known. The technological approach The technological approach is a highly analytical approach to curriculum development. It applies science and production activities from industry to the instructional nature of education. As with the academic approach, learning outcomes are specified. Decision-making is based on:  principles of system analysis;  empirical methods; and  effectiveness of management (Carl, 2017:52). This approach is based on the knowledge that a learner needs to prepare for life. Learning must comprise of a change in behaviour. The process begins with a needs assessment. The identified needs are then converted into objectives. Learning tasks and activities are formulated and objectives are placed in a sequence in which they need to be achieved. The objectives are then analysed to determine what is needed for the outcomes to be realised, and the evaluation procedures are then put into place. Programmes that make use of the technological approach to curriculum development are computer-supported instructional programmes; vocational and technical subjects; and competency- based teacher education programmes (Carl). The pragmatic approach The pragmatic approach is a process that combines all three processes discussed so far, namely the academic, experiential and technological approaches to curriculum development. According to Frame (2003, as cited in Carl, 2017:56), there are three paradigms in this approach.  Firstly, the technical paradigm is a dominant approach derived from the ordered and interacting systems that comprises reality. This makes it possible to control the environment and determine outcomes.  Secondly, the practical paradigm states that knowledge is socially constructed, and involves human agency and judgement in the production of knowledge.  Lastly, the critical paradigm states that since knowledge is socially constructed, the curriculum must be analysed in the broader context of social, economic and political influences. Page 34 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Now complete Writing Activity 3 below.  Writing Activity 3  Compare Walters' and Carl's approaches to curriculum development. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 35 Model answer: Include Carl's four phases of curriculum development – design, dissemination, implementation, evaluation. Discuss Walters' three approaches – academic, technological, and pragmatic. Now that we have critically evaluated two models of curriculum development, let's also be mindful of the fact that particular developers of curriculum may have a certain orientation that will influence how they view the curriculum. Let's now discuss a variety of educational specialists' orientations to curriculum development. Orientations to Curriculum Development Most orientations to curriculum development follow a dominant framework comprising of a transmission orientation, a transaction orientation or a transformation orientation (Carl, 2017:58).  In transmission, the curriculum is imposed on the learner. Content is more important than learner participation.  In transaction, there is a greater interaction between the teacher and the learner.  Finally, in transformation, the learner and the curriculum integrate. Her, both the teacher and learner are involved and a social and humanistic element is involved in the process. There are various education specialists that use these orientations in their own interpretations. A discussion of some of these specialists' orientations follows in the next paragraphs. Eisner and Vallance (1974, as cited in Carl, 2017:58) describes a particular approach to curriculum development as a conceptual framework. They place importance on the learning process and the development of cognitive skills. They also view curriculum development as a technological approach in which planning is done to achieve the set goals. Further, it must take into account positive learning experiences; opportunities for self-discovery; and relevant content. The needs of the community and social changes must feature in the curriculum, and in doing so, lead to social reconstruction. Finally, learners must acquire knowledge through traditional subject content and research. McNeil (1977, as cited in Carl, 2017:59) refers to conceptions of curriculum as an approach differentiating between the technological; academic; humanistic; and social reconstructivism approaches. McNeil states the following:  The technological approach is a fixed and rigid structure that decides in advance what the instruction will be.  The academic approach is about acquiring knowledge through strong cognitive development.  The humanistic approach moves away from the subject matter to the individual development of the learner. Social reconstructivism involves community change, and the curriculum should involve problem solving to the extent that it can result in effecting social change through the learners. Eraut (1990, as cited in Carl, 2017:61) mentions various approaches that mirror most of what has already been said on this subject. He speaks of a political Page 36 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO approach that describes the objectives; content; goals; and evaluation of the official curriculum.  The bureaucratic approach places emphasis on regulations, administrative matters, and official documents that can harm creativity and decision- making.  The marketing approach involves dissemination of information and marketing of the curriculum, while the scientific approach identifies and analyses learning tasks.  The knowledge-structure approach comprises sequencing and structuring of the content, and the engineering approach favours a design approach where there is a prototype and the objectives are clearly defined.  The artistic approach includes learners' interests, experience and participation, while the practical approach comprises a short document that is convenient, practical and uses time efficiently.  The problem-solving approach follows a logical working procedure that consists of formulating the problem; brainstorming ideas; creating and selecting prototypes; and refinement of the design. Now that we have an idea of the many ways in which curriculum development can be orientated, let's turn our attention to identifying some broad principles in relation to curriculum development. Principles of Curriculum Development In this section we discuss the importance of setting broad and specific principles for curriculum development. Carl (2017:70) states that broad principles, which are also principles of curriculum development from the NQF, are viewed as having a purpose; a clear rationale; and are based on comprehensive curriculum theory. Leadership is an important component of curriculum development and all those involved must have an acceptable level of curriculum ability. Evaluation must also feature strongly from the beginning to the end of the process. During planning, utilisation of time; adequate learning; relevance of subject content; and individualisation must be taken into account. There are also other, more specific principles to take cognisance of. For example, co-ordination of curriculum development works most effectively from a centralised location such as an education department (Hill 1977, as cited in Carl). Secondly, curriculum development must have continually reviewed so as to avoid it being a once-off exercise. Thirdly, equal standards must be set by adherence to minimum standards (Jordaan 1989 as cited in Carl). Finally, skilled persons, such as subject specialists; practical education specialists; and specialists in research and curriculum studies, are required in curriculum committees to improve, evaluate, and renew curriculum development. Accountable principles also need to be established in curriculum development. Oliva (1988, as cited in Carl, 2017:72) discusses value judgements that can help to determine principles. For example, the curriculum planner must be aware that change is constant and that new and old developments have a place in curriculum development. Next, curriculum developers also have to change people who impact curriculum development. Groups of people (for example, teachers, leaders and parents) influence one another and can assist one another to accept change. Quality decision-making influences the value of the curriculum development process. Further, accountable principles must ensure continuous Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 37 improvement of the curriculum, and that curriculum development is implemented in a continuous, comprehensive and systematic manner. Finally, existing curricular must be taken into consideration, as it can provide a valuable starting point to curriculum development. For curriculum development to be accountable, it is imperative that those involved have a clear idea of the principles involved. Now that you have an idea of the broad, specific and accountable principles of curriculum development, let's link this discussion to the South African context and the National Curriculum Statement (NCS).  Read the principles of the NCS as set out on pages 4 to 5 of the CAPS documents for Foundation Phase Life Skills Grades R-3, AND Intermediate Phase Life Skills Grades 4-6. Principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS Document According to DBE (2011), the NCS is based on the principles of social transformation by redressing the educational imbalances of the past and providing equal educational opportunities for all parts of the population. It encourages active and critical learning approaches and setting standards for the knowledge and skills that are to be achieved at each level, progressing from simple to high achievable standards. It reflects the principles of the Constitution by prioritising human rights; inclusivity and diversity; environmental justice; and social justice. Issues of diversity include poverty; inequality; race; gender; language; age; and disability, amongst other factors that the curriculum is highly sensitive to. The curriculum further values heritage as one of the principles for the development of a curriculum that is credible and efficient, and that can adequately compare with those of other countries. Page 38 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Now do Research Activity 1 below.  Research Activity 1  Read the Foreword by the Minister in the Department of Basic Education CAPS (2011) document, Life Skills Grades R-3. Answer the following questions: 1. The curriculum in South Africa has undergone many changes. Is this practice in accordance with any of the curriculum development principles as discussed above? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 2. What was the reason behind the many reviews of the curriculum? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. Name the different curricula that were developed from 1997 in South Africa. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 4. Which aspects of the old curriculum does CAPS replace? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Model answers: (1) Yes, the curriculum needs to be constantly reviewed. (2) Implementation challenges. (3) 1997 – OBE; 2002 (RNCS); 2012 (NCS). (4) Subject statements, Learning Programmes, and Subject Assessment Guidelines. It's now time to end our discussion of The Process of Curriculum Development and move on to discuss Effective Curriculum Design. We do this in Lesson 4. Only move on to Lesson 4 if you are confident that you understand the content presented in this lesson. Don't forget that you can easily contact a tutor for personal help if needed. Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 39 Lesson 4: Effective Curriculum Design  Prescribed Readings Your prescribed readings for Lesson 4 are as follows:  Pages 75 to 134 in Chapter 4: The Process of Curriculum Development of Teacher empowerment through curriculum development by Arend E. Carl.  Research: Department of Basic Education website. Note that you'll be told when to read each of the above texts in the lesson. Introduction Curriculum design is a multidisciplinary approach incorporating curriculum development criteria and procedure; child and subject knowledge; objectives; and didactic knowledge and skills. It involves experts in curriculum, subjects, education and practice. Curriculum design occurs at the planning phase when decisions are made on accountable criteria. Curriculum design can take place at a macro, meso and micro level, however, this too has many variations (Carl, 2017:77). In this chapter we will start by outlining the process of curriculum design. Next, we will discuss Carl's model of curriculum design. We will then explain the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl. We will then analyse the aims; goals; objectives and outcomes of the curriculum design process. Finally, we will critically assess the selection of content; teaching methods; and methods of assessment. The Process of Curriculum Design In this section we will discuss the relationship between the developmental level of the child and curriculum design; the criteria for curriculum design; and models of curriculum design. Curriculum design and the developmental level of the child Curriculum designers must always consider the developmental needs of the child. Such needs are in the form of intellectual and all-round development that allow the child to develop to his or her full potential. When these factors are taken into account, they guide curriculum developers in their choice of objectives, outcomes and leaning content. According to Carl (1986, as cited in Carl, 2017:79), the quality and design of a curriculum can be improved if the design:  includes subject matter, methods and skills inclusive of communication skills;  makes allowance for the needs, abilities and skills of learners;  creates learning experiences to develop new skills; and  resonates with the values of society. Page 40 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO Criteria for curriculum design The criteria used for the design of the curriculum will affect its final form and content. to learn more about this aspect of curri