Mesopotamia Learning Material PDF

**SUMERIAN EMPIRE** The earliest settlement of Sumer dates back to about 4000 BCE when people known as Ubaidians settled in Sumer. The Sumerians lived together in small settlements and dug irrigation systems to farm the land. Slowly cities formed and flourished and as you might know, you can\'t ha...

**SUMERIAN EMPIRE** The earliest settlement of Sumer dates back to about 4000 BCE when people known as Ubaidians settled in Sumer. The Sumerians lived together in small settlements and dug irrigation systems to farm the land. Slowly cities formed and flourished and as you might know, you can\'t have a city without a king. For the next very long period of time, different kings and kingdoms called empires ruled over ancient Sumer. **HOW THEY ESTABLISHED THE EMPIRE** Sumer was mostly filled by and first settled by the Ubaidians. So, most of the culture comes from the Ubaidians who traveled from their home and settled here in Mesopotamia. Even though not all the people came from one place they basically had the same culture and bounced off of each other's culture an made one fascinating empire. Not only that Sumer was one of the first cultures to have a written language. So, they could communicate to each other from far distances and felt what it felt like when they were not there. All we know is that Sumer was going to be an amazing empire from the beginning it all started but is question that will Sumer last a good empire for a long time and will it influence the world around it **Where in the world was ancient Sumer located?** Ancient Sumer was located in Mesopotamia, near the Syrian desert. Also known as present day Iraq, Sumer was one empire out of four more that were in Mesopotamia, but the Sumerians were the first ones who settled there. It was also near two rivers known as the **Tigris River** and the **Euphrates River.** **The Fall of Sumer** As rivalry between different kings led to periods of internal conflict, other civilizations were able to take advantage of this division and conquer Sumer. The first people to do so were the Akkadian\'s king Sargon (reigned 2334--2284 BCE). He conquered the cities of Sumer and brought them under one system of government. Southern Mesopotamia became known as the **\"land of Sum and Akkad.\"** Even though the Sumerian empire was no longer an empire, their culture and their habits lived on forever. This is because all the empires after Sumer had to adapt to Sumer\'s culture to get their basic needs like food and clothing. **Government** Sumer had many kings, like the many other empires, but, unlike other empires, Sumer was split into several city-states. These city-states governed themselves and they were constantly at war with each other. These city-states were probably governed by **citizen assemblies**. The assemblies resolved conflicts and dealt with other things. The assembly also elected leaders that were responsible for carrying out these decisions. Over time, these leaders became the most important people in their city-states. Political leadership soon became very closely associated with religious customs and beliefs. Soon, leaders began claiming that they were chosen to lead by the gods. A leader maintain authority through his ties to the local religion. If a leader was overthrown/defeated, people thought that he was no longer favored by the gods. **The Kings of Ancient Sumer** There were many kings in ancient Sumer, but there is one very famous king. The king is **Ur-Nammu**. \ Ur-Nammu was the founder of the 3rd dynasty of Ur. He was also the first king of the 3rd dynasty. He was known for building many aqueducts and for re-constructing many ziggurats. \ A ziggurat is a kind of stepped pyramid. On the top of a ziggurat, there will be a temple dedicated to a god or goddess. Ur-Nammu\'s most famous ziggurat would be the Great Ziggurat of Ur, dedicated to the god **Nanna** (see \"religion\" to learn more about Sumerian gods and goddesses). Another thing that made Ur-Nammu well-known is his code of laws.  Ur-Nammu\'s code of law separated people into 2 different categories - citizens and slaves. Slaves could be servants or even craftsmen. The code also dealt with punishments and relationships. It showed rules about marriage and divorce. **Religion** Political and religious power in ancient Sumer were associated in many ways. According to Sumerian beliefs, each deity (god or goddess) made his or her home in a different city becoming the main god or goddess there. Each city was thus the home of a religious cult dedicated to a \" local god or goddess\". The Sumerians had a large pantheon (all the gods and goddesses of a certain culture) lead by Anu, who was the supreme god who chose Uruk as his home. There were other deities as well, like Enlil, who was a god of plenty and a god of harsh justice. There was also the god Enki. He was the god of wisdom (knowledge) and the sea. Ur was home to the god Nanna. Nanna was the moon god. The sun god was Utu. Utu was worshiped in Larsa and Sippar. The most important goddess would be Inanna. Inanna\'s associations included fertility and war. Myths about these and other Sumerian gods have become a very big part of Sumerian literature. **Social Class/ Society** The Sumerian society was very **urban** in character. Many large and small cities dotted the landscape. Physically, the cities were dull and unattractive. The streets were very narrow and dark; they were unpaved, unsanitary and dirty. The houses were walled mud-brick compounds of several rooms. Occasionally, you would see a more elegant two-story house. Although the cities were dirty, they had broad boulevards and many bazaars. There was also a public square. Above all, there was a precinct with its big and monumental temple and tall tower. The citizens took great pride in their city.  There was also a rather small population which may have varied from 10,000-50,000 people. The cities consisted of free citizens and foreign and native slaves. Some of the free citizens were important palace officials and rich land-owners; these people formed a noble class. Most of the free citizens were farmers, fisherman, craftmen, merchants, and scribes. Clients were dependent of places like temples, palaces, and rich estates; they were given tiny plots of land for temporary possession. They were given rations of their basic needs, such as food and clothing. Slaves could borrow money, start a business, and buy their own freedom.  The basic society was family. Marriage was arranged by the parents, and was legally recognized as soon as the groom presented a bridal gift to the bride\'s family. Women had a lot of rights; they could own property and start a business. Couples could get divorced, and could marry a second wife if the first was childless. Children were under the authority of their parents, and could be sold into slavery. **System of Writing** The Sumerian\'s most important cultural contribution was probably their invention of writing and the Sumerian language. This language was rarely spoken after about 2000 B.C. The Sumerian script, which is called **Cuneiform**, had wedge-shaped marks in clay, made with a reed pen (stylus). These symbols were originally used for record-keeping. Most of the records were used for running a business running of a city-state. Archaeologists have recovered many clay tablets from Sumer. Most of those clay tablets are records of temple business transactions, palace archives. Many works of Sumerian literature have survived to this day. Some of them are Royal Hymns and famous poems that were well-known at the time. The most famous piece of Sumerian literature was probably the poem that features Gilgamesh, a legendary ruler of Uruk. The earliest tales and poems about this ruler were probably about around 2100 B.C. There is a version of the poem about Gilgamesh written in the Akkadian language. The written word was the Sumerians most important invention. **Science and Technology** - **Wheel** -- The wheel was invented in the 4th millennium BC in Lower Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), where the Sumerian people inserted rotating axles into solid discs of wood. - **Plow** -- The Sumerians had also invented a seeder plow, which let farmers use beasts of burden to till and plant at the same time.  **Arts and Architecture** **ARCHITECTURE** The Sumerians were professional architects that built tall and strong structures, and some remains of them still stand today! The structures stood for so long because they are made out of dried mud bricks.  They are not made out of stone, which was a very sacred material in ancient Sumer. The most important structures were the temples, which were built on raised platforms and they were decorated with clay cones which were put in patterns inside the temple. The clay cones were usually painted in different colors and they usually had bronze on the tips. There were even murals painted on the walls! The temples were not only important, but they were very beautiful. Around 2100B.C., **King Ur-Nammu** of **Ur** built the **first real ziggurat** (stepped pyramid) that supported an actual temple at the top! Ziggurats are very famous Mesopotamian buildings. The largest ziggurats were pretty high and tall for their time. The tallest ziggurats reached up to 300 feet. Scholars don\'t know as much about ordinary small buildings like workshops or houses as much as they do about larger buildings, because they remain intact today. **ART**\ Sumerian art is mostly sculptures and 3 dimensional pieces of art. This served mainly religious purposes. These works of art were very beautifully executed and decorated with layers of precious metals and stones. The Sumerians also liked to make relief sculptures. Relief sculptures are sculptures that have carved figures on them. The Sumerians also carved relief sculptures on buildings. There was also something called seals. Seals are cylinders that have beautifully carved scenes with animals, humans and gods. The patterns on the seals were impressed on clay bands and clay tablets. Art was one of the Sumerian's specialties, and they made very beautiful pieces. **AKKADIAN EMPIRE** The Akkadian Empire, centered in the city of Akkad, was an ancient Semitic empire in ancient Mesopotamia. Controlling Mesopotamia, Levant, and parts of Iran, the Akkadian Empire was the first empire in the world. **Government** The Akkadian government initially had a monarchical lugal (lu = man, gal = great) as a subordinate to the Ensi (the highest functionary of Sumerian city-states) was appointed at times of troubles. But later, the lugal emerged as the preeminent role and has his own palace separated from the temple establishment. There were 5 rulers of Akkad according to the Sumerian King List: Sargon, Rimush, Manishtsu, Naram-Sin, and Shar-Kali-Sharri. Sargon founded or restored the city of Akkad and ruled from 2334-2276 BCE. His son, Rimush, ruled from 2279-2271 BCE and was restoring order from people rebelling after Sargon died. It is also the same for Manishtusu who also had to quell revolts when Rimush died. Manishtusu was succeeded by his son Naram-Sin he expanded boundaries of the empire, kept order within, increased trade, and personally campaigned with his army beyond the Persian Gulf and, possibly, even to Egypt. **Religion** The Akkadians worshipped the Sumerian triad of An, Enlil, and Enki, however they changed the names to Anu, Bel, and Ea. Anu and Ea were created between the union of Apsu and Tiamat, and along with them the rest of creation came.\ \ Anu was depicted as the king of the gods, and a god that only the king could worship. In the Akkadian religion, he has a wife named Antum.\ \ Bel was shown by the Akkadians as the god of order and destiny, being the most important god. He was the god of cycles and fertility and the son of the highest god Anu.\ \ Ea was a god of great force and power, and was the god of ritual purification, sorcery, and incantation. He was also the god of craftsmen and artists, as he was the god who had given form to things. He was also was and officially the advisor to the king.\ \ The Akkadians also worshipped the sun god Shamash, he became the most important god who defended justice and punished wrongdoers. He was shown with rays of light shining over the king. **Social Class/Society** Agriculture was very important to those who lived in the Akkadian empire. Akkadians often raised pigs, goats, geese, and chickens.\ \ Women were considered lower than men because of their gender. A man was the head of the house and had a say in politics. In fact, marriage was thought to be more like a business transaction, rather than a love affair. Akkadians were allowed to divorce as long as the husband can pay the dowry.\ \ Akkadians were religious, but they did not have a code of ethics or morality. Priests were meditators between the people and the gods. Different gods were often worshiped in different places. Examples of gods worshipped were Anu, Enil, Ishtar, Shashmash, and Sin.\ \ During the Akkadian empire, there were **3 social classes**. The **[high class]** was the royalty, the priests/priestess, and the nobles. The nobles gained power by showing their bravery while in battle. The **[middle class]** was made up of teachers, merchants, and laborers. The **[lower class]** was composed of slaves and prisoners of war. These people worked for the nobles and the royalty. All slaves had the same status, regardless of their gender. **System of Writing** The Akkadians adopted cuneiform writing from the Sumerians at about -2500. However, the marked structural difference between the two languages necessitated profound changes in the writing system. **Contributions/Science and Technology** The Akkadians are known for many things. The Akkadian Empire was the first true empire by modern understanding, ruling a large part of Mesopotamia. They developed the first **postal system**, **delivering clay tablet messages in clay envelopes**. The Akkadian language is the oldest surviving cuneiform script. **Downfall of Akkad** Akkadian Empire was short-lived, lasting only about two centuries before it collapsed due to internal political and economic problems, as well as external attacks by neighboring peoples. **BABYLONIAN EMPIRE** *Babylonia was an ancient cultural region in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged as a major power when Hammurabi (1792 - 1750 BC or fl. ca. 1696 - 1654 BC, short chronology) created an empire out of the territories of the former Akkadian Empire.* **BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT BABYLONIAN EMPIRE** - Capital - **Babylon** - The name \"**Babylon**\" was derived from **bav-il** or **bav-ilim** which meant \"**Gate of God**\" or \"**Gate of the Gods**\". - They worshiped **Marduk** as their supreme God. - Women were given the same stature for men. They could trade, have a profession and even become **priestess**. - Notable leader: Hammurabi **HOW THEY ESTABLISHED THE EMPIRE** The Amorites, another Semitic tribe in Mesopotamia attacked Ur and Akkad and established its new capital in Babylon. **FALL OF CIVILIZATION** Invaded by Hitties led by King Mursili in 1595 BCE. The Hitties won over the Babylonians due to superiority of their weapons made of iron and the use of horse-drawn chariots.  **GOVERNMENT** The Babylonian political structure was a **monarchy**. The king ruled through a number of officials who were directly under and responsible to him but he could intervene personally at any level of government and administration. Thus Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) took a direct hand in dealing with property claims in Larsa after he had captured that city-state. The monarchy was hereditary. Babylon was a strong empire, because it had a simple yet effective government. Its fifth ruler, Hammurabi, made this empire known because of his codification of laws popularly **"The Code of Hammurabi".** EXCERPTS FROM THE HAMMURABI CODE: 8 -- If any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belong to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death\ \ 21 -- If a man make a breach in a house, they shall put him to death in front of that breach and they shall thrust him therein.\ \ 55 -- If a man open his canal for irrigation and neglect it and the water carry away an adjacent field, he shall measure out grain on the basis of the adjacent fields.\ \ 59 -- If a man cut down a tree in a man\'s orchard, without the consent of the owner of the orchard, he shall pay one-half *mina* of silver.\ \ 168 -- If a man set his face to disinherit his son and say to the judges: \"I will disinherit my son,\" the judges shall inquire into his antecedents, and if the son have not committed a crime sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship, the father may not cut off his son from sonship.\ \ 169 -- If he have committed a crime against his father sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship, they shall condone his first (offense). If he commit a crime a second time, the father may cut off his son from sonship.\ \ 195 -- If a son strike his father, they shall cut off his fingers.\ \ 196--201 -- If a man destroy the eye of another man, they shall destroy his eye. If one break a man\'s bone, they shall break his bone. If one destroy the eye of a freeman or break the bone of a freeman he shall pay one *mana* of silver. If one destroy the eye of a man\'s slave or break a bone of a man\'s slave he shall pay one-half his price. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth. If one knock out a tooth of a freeman, he shall pay one-third *mana* of slave\ \ 218--219 -- If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause that man\'s death; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and destroy the man\'s eye, they shall cut off his fingers. If a physician operate on a slave of a freeman for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause his death, he shall restore a slave of equal value.\ \ 229--232 -- If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a son of that builder. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he shall give the owner of the house a slave of equal value. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed from his own property. **FAMOUS BABYLONIAN LEADERS** **[HAMMURABI]** - Babylonian king from 1792 to 1750 B.C - Expanded the city-state of Babylon along the Euphrates River to unite all of southern Mesopotamia. - His code, a collection of 282 laws and standards, stipulated rules for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice. - He ordered these laws recorded in a slab of stone which measure 8 feet high, copied on stone tablets so they can be disseminated to the provinces ruled by the Babylonian empire. - These laws were retributive (the criminal offender receives punishment proportional or similar to the crime) in nature. **[SHAMSHI-ADAD]** - The seventh king of the founding Amorite dynasty of Babylon, ruling from 1750 BCE to 1712 BCE - An Assyrian king who unified Upper Mesopotamia - Turned back an invasion by a Kassite army. - Samsu-iluna attacked and destroyed the city of Apum, killing its king Yakun-ashar. A year later he seems to have attacked the city of Terqa as well, possibly adding it to his kingdom. **RELIGION** - The state religion of Babylonia involved large cults with big temples and numerous personnel while the religion of the private individual was involved with magic and sorcery. - The state religion revolved around the great gods of the cities who were ranked in an order corresponding more or less to the political status of their cities. - The Babylonians had many gods. These gods reflected the various needs and fears of the different peoples. **BABYLONIAN GODS** - **Anu** -- The god of the highest heaven - **Marduk** -- National god of the Babylonians - **Tiamat** -- Dragon goddess - **Kingu** -- Husband of Tiamat - **Enlil** -- God of weather and storms - **Nabu** -- God of the scribal arts - **Ishtar** -- Goddess of love - **Ea** -- God of wisdom - **Enurta** -- God of war - **Anshar** -- Father of heaven - **Shamash** -- God of the sun and of justice - **Ashur** -- National god of the Assyrians - **Kishar** -- Father of earth **SOCIAL STRUCTURE** - **KINGS** -- This was the leader that governed the Babylon Empire. He was the one that was responsible in making certain decisions to govern his empire. Though he is not stated in the Social Triangle. He is still a part of the Social Standings since he is the one that takes full responsible action on how the Monarchy/Government progressed under his command. - **AWILU** -- The Awilu were the free people in the upper class. They're the ones who received free luxury and they were the wealthy people who did not work nor contribute in the Monarchy of Babylon. - **MUSHENKU** -- Mushkenu, a free person of low estate, who ranked legally between the awilu and the wardu. The position of the mushkenu in society can be surmised from a number of legal provisions in the Code of Hammurabi. Similar to the Awilu. The Mushenku were the one who suffered under poverty in Babylon. Yet they were the ones who also did not give any contribution to go to a higher class of social standings. - **WARDU** -- These people were the slaves that did most of the work by doing the chores. Their contributions were doing the things and working for the Upper classes and the Kings specifically only for them. WHATA ARE THE IMPACT OF THESE SOCIAL CLASSES? **IMPACT OF SOCIAL CLASSES** - By having different punishments for different social classes, deeper class distinctions were created.  - In general, the code solidified an uneven balance in power. The rules enforced the \"Right to rule\" type attitude that is seen throughout the Middle-East even today.  - It created extremely low and difficult chances to rise up in society, so there was not much class movement.  **SYSTEN OF WRITING** Babylonian system of writing developed from pictographs. Babylonians developed an abstract form of writing based on cuneiform symbols. Their symbols were written on wet clay tablets which were baked in the hot sun. It was the use of a stylus on a clay medium that led to the use of cuneiform symbols since curved lines could not be drawn. The Babylonians had a written language that they used for trade and communication. They got it from the Sumerians, who invented it. The Babylonians used the same cuneiform system of pressing triangular shapes into soft clay. They wrote in two different languages: the Sumerian for religious purposes and Akkadian for official purposes. **SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY** **ASTRONOMY** Among the sciences, astronomy and astrology occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. \ The **zodiac** was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and **eclipses** of the sun and moon could be foretold. Observatories were attached to the temples, and reports were regularly sent by astronomers to the king. The stars had been numbered and named at an early date, and we possess tables of lunar longitudes and observations of the phases of Venus. Great attention was naturally paid to the calendar, and we find a week of seven days and another of five days in use. **MATHEMATICS** The Babylonian system of mathematics was sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system. Among the Babylonians mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the square root of two correctly to seven places. **JEWELRY MAKING** Jewelry making originated from the Babylonians.  They use metals and precious gems in making jewelry. **CALENDAR SYSTEM** The ancient Babylonians used a calendar with alternating 29 and 30 day months. This system required the addition of an extra month three times every eight years, and as a further adjustment the king would periodically order the insertion of an additional extra month into the calendar.  **FARMING TECHNIQUE**\ During the reign of Hammurabi a big canal was dug from the city Kish to Persian Gulf. Herodotus, the father of history, had lavishly praised the wheat and barley among other crops of Babylon. **Assyrian Civilization** **Basic Information** The Assyrians came from the northern part of Mesopotamia. Their flat, exposed land made them easy for other people to attack. Invaders frequently swept down into Assyria from the nearby mountains. The Assyrians may have developed their warlike behavior in response to these invasions. Through constant warfare, Assyrian kings even- tually built an empire that stretched from east and north of the Tigris River all the way to central Egypt. Tiglath-Pileser I founded an empire which became so powerful that it controlled the city of Babylon and even received tribute and gifts from the Egyptians. **Government/ Laws** In ancient Assyria, a centralized legal system upheld law and order, emphasizing the rule of law through a detailed legal code covering various areas, including administrative, civil, and criminal matters. Penalties ranged from fines to capital punishment, with laws inscribed on public monuments to highlight their importance. The king, alongside nobility and high officials, enforced these laws. Assyria was a powerful empire known for its military strength and centralized governance. The king ruled with civil servants, allowing hereditary kings of conquered lands to govern in exchange for tribute and military support. This system evolved into a bureaucratic structure with merit-based governors appointed by the king, granting them significant local political power. **Religion** The chief god of the Assyrians was Ashur. When they conquered countries, they added other gods to those they worshiped. But the Assyrian's always believed Ashur was the great god who protected their empire. In fact, King Ashurbanipal even had this god\'s name as part of his name. Like the other civilization we have studied the Assyrians were interested in astrology. They kept careful records of the movements of the stars and planets in an effort to foretell the future. Ancient Assyrian religion was primarily polytheistic, featuring many gods and goddesses linked to various aspects of life. However, the Assyrians favored Āshūr, viewing him as the all-powerful national god and the divine patron of their empire. The king of Assyria served a vital religious role, seen as an intermediary between Āshūr and the people, acting as their "shepherd" to maintain order and secure Āshūr's favor. **Social Classes** Ancient Assyrian society was hierarchically structured, with distinct social classes that determined a person's status and privileges. The social classes in ancient Assyria may be broadly categorized as follows: **System of Writing** The Assyrians did not create much literature. One Assyrian king had scribes collect and copy many of the literary works of Babylon. Archaeologists have discovered a royal library with over 20,000 clay tablets neatly cataloged and filed in baskets. Most of them were copies of Babylonian literature. **Science and Technology** Early civilizations like Assyria, Babylonia, and Medo-Persia studied astronomy and combined it with their worship to create astrology. They believed celestial movements influenced earthly lives and used astrology to predict the future. As scientific knowledge grew, astrology became less respected, viewed as superstitious. However, many, including figures like Hitler, continued to believe in it, often consulting astrologers for guidance. Today, astrological forecasts appear in newspapers and publications, with some seeing them as entertainment and others as serious. Unfortunately, this interest has merged with the occult. While early religions practiced astrology, the Bible explicitly condemns it, advising believers to steer clear of such practices. **Arts and Architecture** Assyrian art features carvings focused on warfare and hunting, often arranged in narrative panels on stone slabs called orthostats. The Assyrians built structures with locally made, fired mud bricks, often decorated with colorful glazes. Their homes typically had multiple rooms around a courtyard, with roofs used as living space. Palaces and ziggurats were also constructed from mud brick. They were influenced by the Sumerians, Assyrian architecture used mud brick for city walls, palaces, homes, and workshops, helping to keep interiors cool in the arid climate. Assyrian Sculpture This relief depicts fierce Assyrian warriors attacking a fortified city. A relief is a sculpture where figures stand out from a flat background. The Assyrian war machine employed various weapons and tactics, including: - **Ladders:** Assyrian archers fired arrows at defenders while troops climbed ladders to breach the city walls. - **Weapons:** Troops were equipped with iron-tipped spears, daggers, and swords, along with armor and large shields. - **Tactics:** The Assyrians were brutal to defeated foes, often slaughtering them or subjecting them to impalement or beheading, while women and children could be murdered or enslaved. - **Tunnels:** Sappers dug tunnels to undermine enemy walls, facilitating their collapse. **Chaldean Civilization** **Basic Information** Chaldea, land in southern Babylonia (modern southern Iraq) frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Strictly speaking, the name should be applied to the land bordering the head of the Persian Gulf between the Arabian desert and the Euphrates delta. The greatest Chaldean king was Nebuchadnezzar II, a son of Nabopolassar who ruled from about 605 to 562 BC. He conquered Syria and Palestine, expanding the empire to the border of Egypt. The Chaldean Empire was a relatively small state in the Mesopotamian region. It was a \'\'little sister\'\' to the Assyrian Empire and Babylonian Empire. Some scholars refer to the Chaldean Empire as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and many references to Babylon do not refer to the city during the era of the Babylonian Empire. They refer to the city as it existed and prospered under the reign of the Chaldeans. **Religion** In ancient Babylon, statues of gods lined the city walls, guarding the city, while altars at street corners invited offerings to deities like Baal and Marduk. Wealthy priests held significant power, and ziggurats served as both places of worship and astronomical observatories. The Babylonians practiced astrology, linking celestial movements to future predictions, which influenced the naming of days of the week---Sunday for the sun, Monday for the moon, and Saturday for Saturn. They also interpreted dreams, examined animal organs, and analyzed drops of oil in water to foresee the future. Belief in demons and magic was deeply woven into daily life, reflecting the rich spiritual landscape of Babylonian culture. **Social Classes** The Chaldeans had social hierarchy, with the king at the top, then the nobles, then the free citizens, then farmers and slaves, then the debt slaves and the unskilled workers. **System of Writing** The Chaldeans writing was called Chaldean Neo-Aramaic. Chaldean Neo-Aramaic is a Neo-Aramaic dialect spoken by some 220,000 people. It is a member of the Aramaic branch of the Semitic language family and is spoken mainly on the plain of Mosul and Iraqi Kurdistan in the north of Iraq, and by Chaldean communities in many other countries. **Science and Technology** Scientific Achievements Chaldeans of Mesopotamia were known for great achievements in many scientific fields. Some of those achievements had such an impact that many of them are still being used till today. The 60\'s system (i.e., 1 hour=60 minutes') was created by the Chaldeans over 3,000 years ago. Also, the \"time system\" e.g., day, month, year as well as Lunar and Solar Calendars. The Chaldeans reached the conclusions that Earth, Moon, and another 5 planets and our Sun are all part of one system. A fact that took the world 2,000 years later to agree with. The Chaldeans reached an impressive level in the sciences of Algebra, Geometry, and Astronomy. Astronomers like Kidannu were able in 367 BC to measure the Solar year to such an accuracy, that today\'s computers faulted him to only 4 minutes and 30 seconds!! The Chaldeans were also the inventors of the Zodiac system, and were able to calculate the 1/2 and 1/3 roots of numbers to an extreme accuracy that\'s not different on what we know today. **Arts and Architecture** Nebuchadnezzar II, who became king of Babylon in 604 B.C., transformed the city into one of the ancient world's most stunning metropolises. In contrast to Nineveh, Babylon\'s buildings were primarily constructed from bricks due to a lack of local stone. These bricks were often adorned with vibrant enameled surfaces and typically inscribed with the phrase, \"I am Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon.\" The Euphrates River flowed through the city, serving as a vital transport route, while the streets were systematically arranged in a grid pattern. The iconic Ziggurat, a seven-tiered temple tower, loomed over Babylon, reaching a height of 650 feet---taller than the Egyptian pyramids. Each tier was color-coded, possibly symbolizing celestial bodies. Nebuchadnezzar\'s palace was equally magnificent, covering seven acres and guarded by imposing stone lions. Its banquet hall measured 171 by 65 feet, featuring striking yellow walls and white floors, embellished with intricate bas-relief sculptures. **Persian Civilization** **Basic Information** The Persian Empire is the name given to a series of dynasties centered in modern-day Iran that spanned several centuries---from the sixth century B.C. to the 20th century A.D. The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 B.C., became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe's Balkan Peninsula in the West to India's Indus Valley in the East. This Iron Age dynasty, sometimes called the Achaemenid Empire, was a global hub of culture, religion, science, art and technology for more than 200 years before it fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great. The beginning of king Cyrus' ruling started in 550 B.C Under his rule the Persian Empire expanded from the Indus River to Anatolia. Cyrus passed away in a skirmish, trying to protect his empire by fighting invaders on his territory. Left his thrown to his son, Cambyses. Cambyses expanded the empire by gaining control of Egypt. He ruled for 8 years and left the thrown to his heir, Darius. **Government/ Laws** For the Persians, the king's law was the gods' law, and as such applied to the whole empire. Wherever the king was, there was his capital. The royal palaces lay at the heart of the administration of the Persian empire. The political structure of the Persian Empire was largely dependent on the king and his leadership, priests, advisors, and appointed government officials. The royal family, aristocracy/nobles, and military leaders were given the highest positions of power under the king. **Religion** Zoroastrianism is an ancient Persian religion that may have originated as early as 4,000 years ago. Arguably the world's first monotheistic faith, it's one of the oldest religions still in existence. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of three Persian dynasties, until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century A.D. Zoroastrian refugees, called Parsis, escaped Muslim persecution in Iran by emigrating to India. Zoroastrianism now has an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 worshipers worldwide, and is practiced today as a minority religion in parts of Iran and India. **Social Classes** The social class order from top to bottom includes royalty, priests, aristocrats and military officers, merchants and craftsmen, peasants, and then the enslaved. **System of Writing** The official script of the Persian Empire was Ancient Persian cuneiform, which developed during the reign of Darius I. Persian cuneiform was adopted from the Ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform before it. The writing system of ancient Persia was both alphabetic and syllabic. The alphabet consisted of 40 consonants and 3 vowels written in vertical, horizontal, and diagonal slashes**.** **Science and Technology** The Persian empire invented qanats, which were underground tunnels that brought water from the mountains. The empire also used yakhchals, or refrigeration units, and wind catchers. The Persian Empire also used a variety of infantry, cavalry, and archers, both heavy and light. They also used chariots with scythes attached. **Arts and Architecture** During the reign of Cyrus II the Great, Persian art was influenced by a number of different cultures including Egypt, Greece, and Mesopotamia. Its art and architecture were realistic but also stylized, with decorated surfaces and ornamental flattened spaces. Early Persian works of art included ceramics, ivory carvings, and elegant bronzes. The Achaemenids built massive palaces, like that at Persepolis, which were decorated with reliefs and column capitals featuring soldiers, royals, and animals. The Sassanids incorporated barrel vaults into their buildings, and decorated with frescoes and mosaics.