MECH SHEETS PDF - Electronic Engineering

LECTURE #1: - Mechatronics is multidisciplinary engineering integrating mechanical systems, electrical engineering, and control systems. - Model of Mechatronic System: Control -> Sensing -> Action o Sensing System: Sensors, Analog to Digital and vice versa o Contro...

LECTURE #1: - Mechatronics is multidisciplinary engineering integrating mechanical systems, electrical engineering, and control systems. - Model of Mechatronic System: Control -> Sensing -> Action o Sensing System: Sensors, Analog to Digital and vice versa o Control: Open loop, Closed loop o Action: Motors, Actuators - Sensors: o Use voltage or current, to describe signals from physical world - Control Sytems (CS): o The challenge is to create simple, reliable and accurate mathematical models for our systems. o They can be classified into SISO and MIMO based on number of inputs/outputs. o It is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will produce a desired system response. o A sensor is a device that provides a measurement of an external signal. o An actuator is a device to alter or adjust the environment, it enables physical movement by transforming energy. - Open-Loop CS: o Advantages: Simplicity, Low cost, Quick Response, and Less Maintenance o Disadvantages: Inaccuracy, Not flexible, Sensitive to disturbances. o Uses actuating devices to control process with no feedback. - Closed-Loop CS: o Advantages: Accurate, adaptable, rejects external disturbances. o Disadvantages: Complex, Higher Cost, Slower Response, Maintenance o Uses a measurement of output and feedback of the signal to compare it with the desired output. - Role of AI: o Enhancing control systems, enabling autonomous decisions. LECTURE #2: - Digital: o Cheaper, Smaller, More computation power and Less energy consumption. o Microprocessor (CPU): ▪ Single processor core that supports at least instruction fetching, decoding and executing. o Microcontroller (MCU): ▪ Language C/C++: Advantages: Easy to learn, portable, easy handling Disadvantages: No access to core registers, no direct control over instruction sequence generation ▪ Assembly: Advantages: Direct control to each instruction step and all memory. Disadvantages: Longer time to learn, less portable, Difficult to manage data. o Arduino: ▪ Intro: Open source: software and hardware Simple Integrated Development Environment (IDE) Simple Application Programming Interface (API) Simplified C/C++ programming Low cost and powerful Arduino Shield is an Add-on module to extend the Arduinos capacities. (Motors, Mp3, Touch, Input, Wi-Fi, RFID, Bluetooth) o Raspberry Pi: ▪ Intro: Is a microcomputer They use common connections (Ethernet, USB, HDMI, USB-C, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) It uses Linux Do not remove micro-SD from raspberry Pi while in use ▪ Raspberry Pi Interface: Major difference is the presence of General-Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) Some pins are multi-purpose ▪ Raspberry PI Programming: Python – for simplicity and modules C/C++ - perfomace-critial applications ▪ Raspberry PI Limitations: Can only output limited amount of current through GPIO pins Can handle limited number of inputs and outputs at any given time. It utilizes digital signals, not analog signals (Sine waves) Needs stable power source It can overheat, cooling may be needed  ▪ Raspberry PI Applications: Robotics, Computers. o Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI): ▪ Synchronous communication ▪ Four – wire serial bus ▪ Master initiates data transfers ▪ All chips share bus signals, Clock SCK: Data lines MOSI (master out, slave in) and MISO (master in, slave out) ▪ Master (MCU) asserts the chip select (CS )line of only the peripheral it wants to communicate with. o Inter – Intergrated Circuit (I2C) : ▪ Communicate with low-speed peripherals. Two signal lines: o CL: Serial clock o SDA: Serial data o Python: ▪ Imported from module RPi.GPIO: time.sleep() - pauses the program GPIO.ouput(int, GPIO.HIGH) - sets the voltage of pin(int) HIGH GPIO.ouput(int, GPIO.LOW) - sets the voltage of pin(int) LOW GPIO.setmode() - Initializes the inputs and outputs GPIO.setup() - Sets the input and output GPIO.cleanup() - Clears all inputs and outputs pins GPIO.PWM () - Used to create pulse width modulation LECTURE #3: - Implementation: o Wire Gauges: ▪ A.W.G 22 - 16: Voltage-600V, Amperes 19A ▪ A.W.G 16 - 24: Voltage-600V, Amperes 27A  ▪ A.W.G 12 – 10: Voltage-600, Amperes 48A - Device Types: o Analog: ▪ They use analog signals to operate. ▪ Must first convert them into digital signal using an external ADC ▪ Example: A sensor with a 0-3.3V or 0-5V o Digital: ▪ They use digital signals to operate, usually through the use of a built-in ADC. ▪ Example: A sensor using communication to send to a digital signal. o Input Devices: ▪ A hardware device used to send data to computers. ▪ Examples: keyboard, mouse, touch screen, sensors. o Output Devices: ▪ A device used to send data from a computer to another device. ▪ Examples: Screen, display, printer, speaker, LED, etc. o Basic Electrical: ▪ When implementing devices do not short circuit the power supply. o Input Devices: ▪ Push Button: Tells the computer when it’s being pressed. They act as a momentary switch ▪ Limit Switch: Works like a regular button but detects the presence of objects. It defines the limits on the range of motion of objects. ▪ Light Sensor: Detects the amount of light striking it. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) Can be used as an analog sensor Increases with decrease of light Decreases with increase of light When light sensor increases, voltage is large enough, current flows through elements. ▪ Temperature Sensor: Detects temperature of environment Two types: o Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) o Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) NTC: Temperature increases, resistance decreases PTC: Temperature increases, resistance increases ▪ Strain Gauges: Device that measures electrical resistance changes ▪ Force Sensor: Converts mechanical load or tension into electrical output ▪ Pressure Sensor:  Produce an output signal that is proportional to the applied pressure. Several Designs: o Piezoresistive: resistance changes as pressure deforms material. o Capacitive: capacitance decreasing as pressure deforms diaphragm o Electromagnetic: Measures displacement of diaphragm by changes in inductance. o Piezoelectric: Electric charge accumulates in certain solids from mechanical stress. ▪ Sound Sensors: Devices that sense sound level Translates amplitude of acoustic volume of the sound into an electrical voltage. ▪ Distance Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors: Emits sound wages at nonaudible frequencies. They calculate the time it takes for the same signal to come back after sending them, translating it into distance. ▪ Motion Sensors: Detects movement. ▪ Accelerometer: Available as digital and analog sensors Detects changes in acceleration Produces voltage based on the amount of acceleration applied ▪ Rotary Encoder: Detect rotational positioning by mechanical displacement ▪ Velocity Sensor: Responds to velocity rather than absolute position. Generates voltage proportional to the velocity ▪ PI camera: Records shit in 4k Camera attaches via a ribbon cable to the Camera Serial Interface (CSI) o Output Devices: ▪ Light Emitting Diode (LED): Emit a narrow bandwidth of visible light at different colored wavelengths. Negative Terminal (CATHODE) Positive Terminal (ANODE) Side of cathode is shorter than anode ▪ Piezoelectric Buzzer: Audio signaling device Contain a piezo electric vibration within a molded case Sound is emitted when voltage is applied, element vibrates ▪ Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Uses liquid crystal to produce a visible image  o Pulse-Width Modulation: ▪ Method of increasing or decreasing the average power delivered by an electrical signal ▪ The longer the switch is ON compared to OFF, the higher total power supplied to the load ▪ Used for DC motors and servo motors 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝑁) 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝑁) + 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝐹𝐹) 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝑁) 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (%) = (100%) 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝑁) + 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑂𝐹𝐹) LECTURE #4: - Motors: o DC Motor: ▪ Interaction of fields produces movement of shaft ▪ Flipping their electric field is accomplished by the commutator and the brushes. ▪ When loops rotate 180 degrees, the direction of voltage reverses. o Stepper Motor: ▪ Half stepping operation  ▪ No feedback loop - Analog Vs Digital: o Analog: ▪ Most of the world is analog: Infinite number of colors, sound levels and increments Infinite resolution o Digital: ▪ In the realm of discrete or finite things: Limited set values that they can represented in Limited resolution o Challenges of Analog: ▪ Noise and Interference: Exposed to noise and signal degradation ▪ Precision: It is often limited by noise and quality components Small variation in signal could affect the accuracy o Challenges of Digital: ▪ Latency: Delays in real-time applications due to signal conversion and processing ▪ Power Consumption: It needs more energy ▪ Complexity: Debugging, Design o Processing and Control: ▪ Digital systems are easier to program ▪ Analog systems are smoother and faster real-time but harder to modify o Accuracy: ▪ Analog: 0.1% is considered good ▪ Digital: Add more circuitry to make it more accurate o Long term storage: ▪ Analog: Max storage time is in minutes ▪ Digital: Max storage time is in years o Speed: ▪ Analog: Fastest circuits Noise, crosstalk between wires, inaccurate values and temperature variation are things they need to take care of. Analog designers need years of experience Many other people doing digital design instead of analog o When to Choose Analog or Digital: ▪ Analog: High precision Real – time response  When physical variable continuous ▪ Digital: Flexibility and programmability for changes Noise immunity and long-distance communication When integrating with computers and microcontrollers ▪ Summary: Analog: o Continuous Signals o Infinite possible values o High noise sensitivity o Complex Hardware o High resolution and accuracy Digital: o Discrete o Finite values (1,0) o Low Noise Sensitivity o Simple Hardware o Can lose info during sampling o Hybrid Systems: ▪ Use both analog and digital components o Binary: ▪ Knowledge: Known as Base-2 Consists of only 1s and 0s 1 bit is a 0 or a 1 4 bits are called nibbles 8 bits are called bytes When the length is processor dependent (16, 32, 64) it's called a word ▪ Why important: Digital systems use binary to process data Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) operate using binary. ▪ Digital Signals: In an n-bit word we can represent up to 2n states (0 to 2n-1) o A nibble can represent up to 24 (16) which are numbered from 0 to 24-1 = 15. We ran out of bits. So, state of 15 would be represented as 1111. o 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 2𝑛 − 1 Minimum number of bits to represent number, must round up to represent such number: o 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑀𝐼𝑁 = log 2(𝑁𝑢𝑚 + 1) o Boolean Logic: ▪ Two value algebra: Values are 1 or 0, True or False, High or Low ▪ Variables:  Variables will commonly have 1 or 0 ▪ Operations: Complement, Not or Inverse 𝑋 is the opposite of X ▪ Operations cont.: AND (ab or 𝑎 × 𝑏): o X is 1 if variables a and b are both 1 OR (𝑎 + 𝑏 ): o X is 1 if a or b or both are 1 Exclusive OR (XOR) (𝑎 ⨁ 𝑏) o X is 1 if exactly one of a or b is 1 NAND (ab or 𝑎 × 𝑏): o X is 0 if variables a and b are both 1 OR (𝑎 + 𝑏 ): o X is 0 if a or b or both are 1 Exclusive NOR (X-NOR)(𝑎 ⨁ 𝑏) o X is 0 if exactly one of a or b is 1  o More than 1 input? ▪ ▪ ▪ ONLY LOOK FOR INPUT OF 1 𝐽 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 LECTURE #5: - Analog: o Analog to Digital Converter (ADC):  ▪ Device that converts continuous analog signals into discrete digital values ▪ ADC allow digital systems to receive real world analog data ▪ It is done by sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and quantizing the values into a finite set of digital codes. ▪ More bits of ADC, the finer the resolution, more accurate representation of og signal o Key Parameters of ADC ▪ Resolution: 8-bit, 10-bit, 12-bit or 16-bit ▪ Sampling rate: How frequently the ADC samples the analog signals, measured in samples per second (SPS) ▪ Input range: Input voltage of ADC defines the min and max voltages ADC can measure. Any voltage outside the range may be incorrect results. o Challenges of ADC: ▪ Noise sensitive: ADC are noise sensitive, which affects the accuracy of the conversion ▪ Power Consumption: High-speed variants like flash ADCs consume a lot of power, unsuitable for low-power applications. ▪ Trade-off between speed and accuracy: High-speed ADCs may have less precision o Applications of ADC: ▪ Sensors: ADC convert analog sensor data to digital (from temp, pressure and light sensors) ▪ Data Acquisition Systems: ADCs gather and process data from real world ▪ Communication Systems: ADCs are used in the digital signal processing (DSP) for converting analog signals, such as audio and radio waves, into digital signals. ▪ Control Systems: ADCs help digitize real-time sensor data, which is used by digital controllers. o ADC working principal: ▪ Sampling: The higher the sample the more accurate the representation. ▪ Encoding/Quantizing: The sampled signal is approx. to the nearest value within a defined range. o Old Vs New ADCs models: ▪ NEW: Higher resolution, more precision  Faster, reaching megahertz and gigahertz Fast enough for high-speed data (radar, systems, videos) More power efficient Ideal for IoT and model devices ▪ OLD: Slow conversions Used in applications where speed was no critical Less power efficient Power consumption was a concern for battery powered applications o Choosing the right ADC: ▪ How precise measurements need to be? ▪ How fast does the signal need to change? o What do they do? ▪ Converts analog signals into binary words ▪ The binary words can be 2,4,8,10 – bit ▪ The more bits the binary number has, the more resolution o Quantization details: ▪ Resolution/Quantization Step-Size (Q): It describes the general performance of an ADC 𝑉𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑉𝑀𝐼𝑁 𝑄 = 𝑁𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑆 Ex. 0-10V signal, separated into a 3-bit number o 2^3 = 8, meaning room for 8 different values 10𝑉 − 0𝑉 o 𝑄 = 8 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑉 o 𝑄 = 1.25 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 o Two ways to best improve accuracy of A/D resolution: ▪ Increasing the resolution ▪ Increasing the sampling rate o Converting Voltage to Binary: 𝑁𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 ▪ 𝐴𝐷𝐶 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ⋅ (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ▪ For a range of -5V to 5V, and a 10 –bit resolution, what is the binary number? 210 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 X= ⋅ (3.65𝑉 − (−5𝑉)) 10𝑉 X = 885.76V Binary (Base- 2) = 1101110101 o Limitation (Aliasing): ▪ Nyquist Rule: Use sampling frequency at least twice as high as the maximum frequency. LECTURE #6: - DE Morgan's Law: - Boolean Logic: o AND: Both must be TRUE to work ▪ True and True == True ▪ False and True == False ▪ True and False == False ▪ False and False == False o OR: One must be TRUE to work ▪ True or False == True ▪ True or True == True ▪ False or True == True ▪ False or False == False o K maps: ▪ Graphical method to simplify complex Boolean algebra ▪ Reduces the number of logic gates required ▪ Optimizes circuits performance and lower the cost on power ▪ Provides a visual method ▪ Useful for up to 4-6 variables ▪ K maps (Rules): Groups may not include any cell containing 0s, just 1s Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8 or in general 2n cells Groups should be as large as possible Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group Groups may overlap There should be as few groups as possible. - K maps: o Look for unchanged variable o If 1 then A if 0 then NOT A - Parity Checker: o Logic circuit that checks for possible errors in transmission LECTURE #7: - Automation: o Transformation of a mechanism, device or system that makes it automatic o Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): ▪ To bring added value to a set of raw materials to produce products of higher value ▪ Gains: Reduced cost of labor and material savings Removal of hazardous work Improved product quality and performance High productivity and quality job creation ▪ Hardware vs Software: Hardwired Tech:  o Desired logic is obtained through a connection of difference hardware modules o Pros: ▪ Reliability o Cons: ▪ Not flexible for future changes Software Tech: o Desired logic through programming o Pros: ▪ Flexible for future changes o Cons: ▪ Not used to safety purposes ▪ Types of Protections: Single: o Position switches or forced open contact o Manually check for periodic safety functions o Oversizing of some components Single Supervision: o Must include a self-monitoring system o Failures detecting circuits made with contacts and relays Redundant: o Duplication of critical components/functions o Combining the normally open and normally closed contact interlocks Redundant Supervision: o A continuous supervision function might be added ▪ Ladder Logic: Used to describe automation tech made by using electromagnetic relays ▪ Electromagnetic Relay: It is made from a metal plate which is attracted to a coil when the solenoid is energized and pushed by a coil spring when de-energized. ▪ Types of Systems: Static system: o If it doesn't change with time Dynamic system: o If it changes over time o A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of reality LECTURE #8: - Control Systems: o An open loop system operates without feedback and directly generates the output in response to an input signal. o Highly sensitive to disturbances and knowledge and variations of parameters o If open loop system failing, a cascade controller Gc is placed to replace it o Closed loop: ▪ Decrease sensitivity of the system to variation parameters ‘ ▪ Rejects disturbances ▪ Attenuate measurement of noise ▪ Reduce the steady state error of the system ▪ Easy control and adjustment of the transient response of the system o Stability: o Linear Systems: ▪ Superposition principle: For all linear systems, the net response caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the responses that would have been caused by each individually. o X1, X2 ----> Y1 + Y2 ▪ Homogeneity principle: The output of a linear system is always directly proportional to the input, inputting twice will return twice. o X1 -----> Y1 o Linear approximation: ▪ Is as accurate as the assumption of small signals if applicable o Test input signals: ▪ The standard test input signals are the step, ramp and parabolic input ▪ They are integrals of each other o Performance indices: ▪ A system is a optimum control system when the system parameters are adjusted so that the index reaches an extremum and a minimum value. ▪ Performance index should always be >= 0. ▪ It is the performance of the system ▪ A common performance index is the integral of the square of the error ▪ ITAE can reduce the contribution of any large initial errors and emphasize errors occurring later in the response. o Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Control Systems: ▪ The alteration of a control system to provide a suitable performance is called compensation. ▪ Open Loop Controller: ON-OFF: o Switch the output on and off according to a set time controller. o Pros: ▪ Simple and economical ▪ Easy to maintain ▪ Stable o Cons: ▪ Inaccurate ▪ Unreliable ▪ Change due to disturbances cannot fixed o On-off controllers will switch the output when the output crosses a setpoint ▪ Closed Loop System: Process Variable (PV): The system parameter that needs to be controlled (Temperature, Pressure, etc) Sensor: Measure the process variable and provide feedback to control system Set Point (SP): the desired or command value for the process variable such as 100C Error (e): The difference between PV and SP. Rise Time: Time to go from 10% to 90% of steady state or final value Overshoot: The maximum amount exceeding final value Settling time: Time to settle to within a certain percentage of final value Steady State Error: Difference between the PV and target ▪ PID Controller: Applies correction based on proportional, integral and derivative terms The sum of the three parallel actions to generate a control output Advantages: o Accurate o Eliminates Steady Error o Reduces Overshoot and Oscillations o Widely Applicable ▪ Proportional Controller: Provides a control input that is proportional to e(t) Applies correction proportional to error As the error increases the corrective action increases  Fast initial response Advantages: o Simplicity: Easy to understand o Fast Response: Quickly responds to large errors o Stabilization: Provides consistent corrective effort based on real-time errors. Limitations: o Steady-State Error: The system may not reach the setpoint, leaving residual error o Oscillations: The proportional gain is too high, causing the system to oscillate ▪ Proportional Integral Controller: Is a feedback controller combining proportional and integral actions to correct integrals. Features: o Proportional (P): ▪ Reacts to the current error o Integral (I): ▪ Reacts to the accumulation of the past errors Advantages: o Simplicity: Easy to implement and understand o Steady-State Error: Eliminate steady – state error o Tracking: Suitable for real-world applications Limitations: o Slow Response: Slower response due to integral action o Oscillations: If the integral gain is too high, causes system to oscillate ▪ Derivative Control: Is proportional to the rate of change of the error signal Introduces prediction into control action It has a damping effect and reduces the oscillations caused by Kp and improves settling time. It will increase the stability if the system, reduce the overshoot and improve the transient response ▪ PID Variants:  ▪ Designing a PID controller: Get an open loop response and determine what needs to get fixed. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time. Add an integral to eliminate the steady error If needed, add a derivative to improve the overshoot ▪ Ziegler-Nichols Tuning: Increase the gain 𝑲𝒑 until the output of the closed-loop system oscillates just on the edge of instability Once the value of 𝐾𝑝 (with 𝐾𝐼 = 0 and 𝐾𝐷 = 0) is found that brings the closed-loop system to the edge of stability, you reduce the gain 𝑲𝒑 to achieve what is known as the quarter amplitude decay. That is, the amplitude of the closed-loop response is reduced approximately to one- fourth of the maximum value in one oscillatory period A rule-of-thumb is to start by reducing the proportional gain 𝐾𝑝 by half The next step of the design process is to increase 𝑲𝑰 and 𝑲𝑫 manually to achieve a desired step response LECTURE #10: - Design: o A plan to show the look, function and workings of a building system before its made o Value, Efficiency and Aesthetics are things to account for when designing o Design Process: ▪ It is an iterative process, meaning it would loop back on itself.  Research Design Requirements Feasibility Conceptualization Preliminary Design Detailed Design Integration and Testing Producing Planning o Research: ▪ Research existing applicable literature, problems and successes associated with existing solutions o Design Requirements: ▪ Most important parts, if done inappropriately is nearly guaranteed failure ▪ What problem are you trying to solve, and how do you plan to solve it? ▪ Design is compared to these requirements to ensure the design meets expected functionality. ▪ Two requirements: Customer: overview of the required functionality of the product you are designing. Internal: where the company or engineer creates a set of internal, more specific requirements for the design. ▪ Three types of statements in the requirements document: Shall (Requirements) - This must be implemented Will (Fact) - This will state a fact or declaration of the purpose design Should (Goal) - These are non-mandatory, typically define to optimize. o Feasibility: ▪ Analyzing the designs potential to determine whether the project can proceed into the design phase. Achievable Idea Cost Constrains o Conceptual Design: ▪ Concept study: Producing ideas and considering pros and cons of implementing those ideas. ▪ This stage minimizes error, manages costs, assesses risks and evaluates the potential success of the intended project. ▪ Things like weighted trade studies can typically be used as a numerical method to evaluate each design idea. ▪ Cost vs. Performance: Sometimes, it is about value o Preliminary Design: ▪ The overall system configuration is defined, and schematics, diagrams, and layouts of the project may provide early project configuration. o Verification and Validation Testing:  ▪ Another round of evaluates Verification: checks that a product, service or system meets specifications. Validation: is intended to check if the operational needs of the user are met. o Production Planning: ▪ Planning how to mass produce design, and which tools to use o Project Economics: ▪ Upfront (Fixed) Costs: Investments in factory tooling etc ▪ Operating (Variable) Costs: Typically, the costs associated with the manufacturing of the design. o Weighted test study: ▪ Used to compare a number of conceptual designs and determine which design fits our interest. ▪ Steps: 1. Assign weights to each design requirement 2. Everyone in the design group evaluates the designs on each requirement giving it a score. 3. The groups scores are averaged so that a single score is given for each requirement 4. The weight is multiplied by the average score resulting in a weighted average score for each requirement. 5. These weighted scores are then summed for each design giving each design a numerical value that represents how ‘good’ the design is. LECTURE #11: - Obsolescence: o A loss in utility of a product which arises not due to physical deterioration, but other factors. This effectively shortens the useful lifespan of the product. o Five types: ▪ Technical obsolescence ▪ Functional obsolescence ▪ Aesthetic obsolescence  ▪ Economic obsolescence ▪ Legal obsolescence o Technical Obsolescence: ▪ Process whereby an asset or the components of an asset become irreplaceable due to changes in tech over time. The product has reached the end of its technological life Replacement parts are no longer available Replacement parts cannot be procured in a timely manner ▪ Cause: Rapid Technological Advancements Software Evolution Increased Efficiency and Performance Improved Features and Capabilities Changing Standards and Regulations ▪ Mitigating: Extend Product Lifespan Compatibility Considerations Policy Interventions o Functional Obsolescence: ▪ When the owner’s need has changed since the asset was first placed in service. o Aesthetic Obsolescence: ▪ When the product is no longer popular ▪ Objects and assets become outdated o Economic Obsolescence: ▪ Replacement of assets because functionality can now be achieved in a more cost-efficient way. ▪ The product has outlived its economic life (beyond economic repair) o Legal Obsolescence: ▪ Direct order issued by authority, resulting in the prohibitive use of the asset. LECTURE #12: - SAFETY: o Accident Prevention: ▪ Safeguarding operators from injuries caused by machinery. o Protection of Equipment: ▪ Reduces damage and wear to expensive mechatronic systems. o Compliance with Regulations: ▪ Safety standards and legal requirements must be met to avoid fines o Enhanced Productivity:  ▪ Safe environments lead to more efficient operations with fewer disruptions o What is SAFETY: ▪ How safe should a product be? Midpoint between low-risk high safety and high-risk low safety. o Common Hazards in Mechatronics: ▪ Electrical Hazards: Electric shocks, short circuits and potential fires. Moving parts (gears, robotic arms) can lead to crush injuries ▪ Automation Malfunctions Software glitches or sensors failures lead to unintended movements Repetitive motions while operating control systems lead to strain injuries