Self-Talk: Techniques for Improving Performance PDF

**[Self-Talk]** Anytime you think about something, you are in a sense talking to yourself. This self-talk can take many forms, but for convenience it can be categorized into two types: positive and negative. Positive self-talk is an asset that enhances self-esteem, motivation, attentional focus,...

**[Self-Talk]** Anytime you think about something, you are in a sense talking to yourself. This self-talk can take many forms, but for convenience it can be categorized into two types: positive and negative. Positive self-talk is an asset that enhances self-esteem, motivation, attentional focus, and performance. Self-talk that helps you focus on the present and keep your mind from wandering is considered positive. It usually has either a motivational component (e.g., \"I can do it,\" or \"Just hang in there a little longer\") or an instructional component (e.g., \"Keep your eye on the ball,\" or \"Bend your knees\"). Negative self-talk is critical and self-demeaning and gets in the way of reaching goals; it is counterproductive and anxiety producing. Saying things like, \"That was a stupid shot,\" \"You stink,\" or \"How can you play so bad?\" does not enhance performance or create positive emotions. Rather, it creates anxiety and fosters self-doubt. **[How Self-Talk Works]** We are not disturbed by things, but rather the view we take of them. Epictetus Thoughts play a critical role in shaping emotional responses to events. Most people assume that events themselves determine their emotional and physical responses, but this is not the case. Events in and of themselves do not cause depression, anger, anxiety, hopelessness, or frustration---it is how the event is interpreted that determines the response. The relation among an event, selftalk, and response is displayed in Table 18.3. As the table demonstrates, selftalk plays a key role in reactions to situations, and these reactions affect future actions and feelings. **[Uses of Self-Talk]** Although positive self-talk is crucial for concentration, the uses of self-talk extend into several other areas. Here are some ways to use cue words as selftalk to help your performance: Skill acquisition. When learning skills, use self-talk as cue words to focus attention. For example, an aerobics instructor might use simple cue words like turn, stretch, pull, or reach to focus attention on the next movement for learning a new routine. Breaking bad habits. When breaking a bad habit, you need to decide on the best self-instructional cue (or cues) to make the new response automatic. The greater the change, the more self-instruction necessary. A golfer who doesn\'t keep her head down throughout the execution of her shot should use a cue word such as stay or ball to remind herself to keep her head down. Initiate action. Self-talk can be motivating. Runners can increase their speed by using such cue words as quick or fast. A tennis serve might be cued by smooth, reach, or forward, whereas a swimmer getting out of the blocks might use such words as explode, stretch, or push. Sustain effort. Although getting started is sometimes difficult, staying motivated and continuing to work hard can be just as tough. Positive, motivational self-talk (keep it up, stay with it, and hang in there) can help sustain effort when the body is fatigued. **[Techniques to Improve Self-Talk]** Several techniques or strategies can improve self-talk. Two of the most successful involve thought stopping and changing negative self-talk to positive selftalk. [Thought Stopping.:] One way to cope with negative thoughts is to stop them before they harm performance. Learning to thought stop involves concentrating on the undesired thought briefly, then using a cue or trigger to stop the thought and clear your mind. The trigger can be a simple word like stop or a trigger like snapping your fingers or hitting your hand against your thigh. The most effective cue depends on the person. Initially, it\'s best to restrict thought stopping to practice situations. Whenever you start thinking a negative thought, just say stop (or whatever cue you choose) aloud and then focus on a task-related cue. Once you have mastered this, try saying stop quietly to yourself. If there is a particular situation that produces negative self-talk (like falling during a figure skating jump), you might want to focus on that one performance aspect to stay more focused and aware of the particular problem. Old habits die hard, so thought stopping needs to be continually practiced. [Changing Negative Self-Talk to Positive Self-Talk]: It would be nice to eliminate all negative self-talk, but in fact almost everyone has negative thoughts from time to time. When they come, one way to cope with them is to change the negative thoughts into positive self-talk, which redirects attentional focus to provide encouragement and motivation. First, list all the types of self-talk that hurt your performance or produce other undesirable behaviors. The goal here is to recognize which situations produce negative thoughts and why. Then try to substitute a positive statement for the negative one. When this is accomplished, create a chart with negative self-talk in one column and corresponding positive self-talk in another (see Table 18.4). Use the same guidelines to practice changing self-talk from negative to positive as you used for thought stopping. That is, use it in practice before trying it in competition. Also, because most negative thoughts occur under stress, you should first try to halt the negative thought and then take a deep breath. As you exhale, relax and repeat the positive statement. We\'ll return soon to our discussion of concentration. Let\'s now look at attentional skills---specifically, how to assess attentional strengths and weaknesses. **[Assessing Attentional Skills]** Before you try to improve concentration, you should be able to pinpoint problem areas, such as undeveloped attentional skills. Nideffer\'s distinctions of attentional focus as internal or external and broad or narrow is useful in this regard. Nideffer argues that people have different attentional styles that contribute to differences in the quality of performance. **[Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style]** Nideffer (1976) devised the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) to measure a person\'s attentional style, or disposition. The TAIS has 17 subscales, six of them measuring attentional style (the others measure interpersonal style and cognitive control). Notice in Table 18.5 that three of the scales indicate aspects of effective focusing (broad-external, broad-internal, and narrow focus) and three assess aspects of ineffective focusing (external overload, internal overload, reduced focus). **[Effective Versus Ineffective Attentional Styles]** People who concentrate well (effective attenders) deal well with simultaneous stimuli from external and internal sources (see Figure 18.5). They have high scores on broad-external and broad-internal focusing and can effectively switch their attention from broad to narrow focus when necessary. They are also low on the three measures of ineffective attention we just mentioned, which means they can attend to many stimuli (both internal and external) and not become overloaded with information. They also can narrow their attentional focus when necessary without omitting or missing any important information. In contrast, people who don\'t concentrate well (ineffective attenders) tend to become confused and overloaded by multiple stimuli, both internal and external. When they assume either a broad-internal or broad-external focus, they have trouble narrowing their attentional width. For example, they may have trouble blocking out crowd noises or movement in the stands. Furthermore, the high score on the reduced-focus scale indicates that when they assume a narrow focus, it is so narrow that important information is left out. A soccer player, for example, might narrow his attentional focus to the ball and fail to see an opposing player alongside him who steals the ball. For ineffective attenders to perform better in sport competition, they must learn to switch direction of attention at will and to narrow or broaden attention as the situation demands. **[TAIS as a Trait Measure]** Nideffer\'s Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style is a trait measure of a person\'s generalized way of attending to the environment. It does not consider situational factors. Recall the interactional paradigm from chapter 3, a model that more completely describes human behavior than the more traditional trait approach does. If a soccer coach used the TAIS to measure the attentional style of players without taking into consideration that different positions require different types of attentional focus, then she would gain little pertinent information for enhancing performance. If it had sport-specific measures of attentional styles, the TAIS would be more useful because questions assessing attentional abilities would be directed at the specific skills employed in a particular sport. Sport-specific attentional style measures have been developed for tennis (Van Schoyck & Grasha, 1981) and pistol shooting (Etzel, 1979). Using sport-specific measures of attentional focus can help identify specific attentional weaknesses for athletes and coaches to work on. Understanding a person\'s attentional style is a first step toward improving concentration skills. In the next section we suggest specific methods for improving attentional focus and shifting between types of attention. **[Tips for Improving Concentration On Site]** Being able to maintain a focus on relevant environmental cues is critical for effective performance. In describing ways to improve concentration, we\'ll focus first on things that can be done on the field of play. Then we\'ll suggest exercises that can be practiced at other times and places. [Tip \#1---Practice With Distractions Present] It is amazing to observe how a small sound or movement by someone in the crowd can destroy a tennis player\'s or golfer\'s concentration. Yet many team sport athletes (e.g., basketball, football, and soccer players) deal well with even hostile spectators who yell, wave their hands, and stomp their feet. You can prepare yourself to cope with distractions by systematically practicing with typical distractions present. Some basketball coaches, for instance, have loud crowd noises piped in to get the players used to playing and shooting in that environment. Similarly, some tennis coaches have people stand around and talk or walk by the court from time to time to simulate match play. Fans in individual sports such as tennis and golf tend to follow proper etiquette, keeping quiet and still during play and remaining passive. Conversely, team sport spectators often cheer loudly for the home-team and even boo the visiting team. Thus, team sport athletes are exposed more to distractions and learn to play in spite of them. Individual sport athletes rarely face distractions in competition or practice and are thus less prepared to deal with them. Although practicing with distractions can help develop focus, many athletes avoid situations they find aversive. For example, if a baseball player does not like to bat when it\'s cold because it stings his hands, he will usually avoid practicing under such conditions. But then what happens when he has to bat in cold weather during an actual game? The more you practice under adverse conditions, the better prepared you will be to cope with these conditions during competition. Here\'s an example of how Jimmy Connors blocked out heat and humidity during a match to maintain his focus: It was hot out there---really hot---but I knew that if I started thinking too much about the sun, I wouldn\'t do my best. I didn\'t worry about it while I was on the court, but when I was sitting down, with the sun bearing down, it started to get to me a little. So I just blocked it out and pretended it wasn\'t there. That\'s what you have to do in tennis---not let yourself think about anything that can have a negative effect on your game (Tarshis, 1977, p. 45). [Tip \#2---Use Cue Words] Put simply, cue words are used to trigger a particular response. They can be instructional (e.g., follow-through, shoulders back, watch the ball, stretch) or motivational or emotional (e.g., strong, move, relax, hang in there, get tough). The key is to keep the cue word simple and let it automatically trigger the desired response. For example, a gymnast performing a floor routine might use the cue word forward to make sure that she pushes ahead at a certain point during her performance. Similarly, a sprinter might say explode to make sure that he gets off the starting blocks well. Or, a figure skater might say glide to make sure she keeps her balance between jumps. It is important that these cue words be used in practice so that they become familiar and well learned before being used in competition. Cue words are particularly useful when you are trying to vary or change a movement pattern---whether it be changing your golf swing, batting stance, aerobic dance routine, or service motion. In the training room, athletes could use cue words like relax or easy when stretching injured muscles and joints. Attentional cues are also helpful for trying to break a bad habit. For instance, if a miler tends to tighten up in the last lap of a race and her stride becomes shorter, thus spoiling her rhythm, a cue such as smooth, stretch, or relax might help her keep focused on relaxing and lengthening her stride. Similarly, a hockey player might use the cue stick to ice to remind himself to keep his stick on the ice until he has control of the puck. [Tip \#3---Employ Nonjudgmental Thinking] One of the biggest obstacles athletes face in maintaining concentration is the tendency to evaluate performance and classify it as good or bad. That is, they assign a positive or negative value to what they do. Such judgments tend to elicit personal, ego-involved reactions. The process of evaluating and judging what you do on the athletic field or in exercise class usually results in performance declines. After you become judgmental about a portion of your performance or behavior, it is common to start generalizing. For example, a soccer player who misses a couple of opportunities to score a goal might think, \"I always miss the easy ones,\" \"I\'m just a choke artist,\" or \"I just can\'t kick one when I need to.\" Such thoughts and judgments make you lose your fluidness, timing, and rhythm. What happens is that your brain starts to override your body, causing excess muscle tension, excess effort, concentration lapses, and impaired decision making. Suppose someone in an exercise class misses a few workouts and thinks, \"I just don\'t have what it takes to stay with the program.\" Such thinking undermines her motivation to adhere to an exercise program (see chapter 20). Instead of judging the worth of a performance and categorizing it as either good or bad, you should learn to look at your actions nonjudgmentally. This doesn\'t mean you should ignore errors and mistakes but that you should see your performance as it is, without adding judgments. For instance, a baseball pitcher realizes he doesn\'t have good control today---he has walked four batters in the first 3 innings and thrown more balls than strikes. He knows that the manager is getting edgy and that if he continues this pattern he\'ll soon be taken out of the game. This observation could lead him to generalize that he\'s a bad pitcher and doesn\'t have control over his pitches. This thinking could lead to anger, frustration, and discouragement. Instead, this pitcher could evaluate how he is pitching and notice that most of his pitches out of the strike zone have been high, rather than low. This might tell him that he is not following through properly and so the ball is getting away from him on delivery. In response, he focuses on getting a good wrist snap and following through to keep the ball from rising on him. In this way he has used his performance evaluation constructively, which translates into better performance and a more enjoyable experience. [Tip \#4---Establish Routines] Routines can focus concentration and be extremely helpful to mental preparation for an upcoming performance. The effectiveness of routines has substantial support (see Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd on golf, 1990; Feltz & Landers\' mental rehearsal, 1983; Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer on bowling, 1982; Lobmeyer & Wasserman on basketball, 1986; Moore on tennis, 1986; Nacson & Schmidt\'s set hypothesis, 1971; Orlick on skiing, 1986; and Schmidt\'s schema theory, 1975). The mind often starts to wander during breaks in the action. Such times are ideal for routines. For example, a tennis player during changeovers might sit in a chair, take a deep breath, and image what she wants to do in the next game. Then she might repeat two or three cue words to help focus attention before taking the court. Routines can help structure the time before performance and between performances so that the athlete can be mentally focused when it\'s time to perform. The routines of athletes vary from short and simple to complex and lengthy. Some border on superstition, such as wearing a lucky pair of socks, tying your shoelaces a certain way, or walking to the pitcher\'s mound without stepping on the foul lines. The routine needs to be comfortable and help sharpen focus as the time of performance nears. Preperformance routines structure the athlete\'s thought processes and emotional states, keeping the focus of attention in the present and on task-related cues. (See Table 18.6 for examples of preperformance routines for tennis and golf.) [Tip \#5---Practice Eye Control] Eye control is another method to focus concentration. Our eyes tend to wander (just like our minds) and focus on such distractions (task-irrelevant cues) as crowd motions, opponents\' antics, officials\' signals, coaches\' outbursts, and teammates\' behavior instead of on the task at hand (task-relevant cues). Many a race ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccchas been lost near the end by looking at the opposition instead of focusing on the finish line. Watching the runners take off on a hit-and-run in baseball instead of staying focused on the pitch is an attentional error. Similarly, a gymnast\'s looking around at other competitors while preparing to start her own floor exercise is an inappropriate attentional focus. The key to eye control is to make sure your eyes do not wander to irrelevant cues. How many times have you heard athletes in tennis, golf, baseball, soccer, or volleyball say \"watch the ball.\" You hear it a lot because, as you know from experience, keeping your eyes on the ball is easier said than done. Here are some techniques to use for eye control: Keep your eyes on the floor. Focus on the equipment. Focus on a spot on the wall. For example, a basketball player on the free-throw line shooting in front of a hostile crowd may want to keep his head down and eyes on the floor until he is ready to look up at the basket and focus on the rim. A tennis player might focus on the strings of her racquet between points to keep from looking at the opponent or the crowd. Preparing to dive, a diver might focus on a spot on the wall. The key is to pick something that can maintain your focus of attention and prevent your eyes from wandering. Tip \#6---Stay Focused in the Present The importance of keeping focused in the present cannot be overemphasized. Because the mind is so open to incoming messages, it is hard to keep a present focus. The mind wants to replay that missed shot and review that error in judgment or blown assignment. It also wants to look ahead to what might happen in the future. But past- and future-oriented thinking usually creates attentional problems. Staying in the present requires a focused concentration throughout the event. It\'s okay to take an occasional brief mental break during stops in the action. But it is important then to have a cue word like focus to help bring you back into the present when it\'s time to start competing again. **Exercises to Improve Concentration** Besides the six tips to improve concentration on the field, several other techniques can increase concentration skills. They can be adapted to any sport. [Exercise \#1---Learning to Shift Attention] This exercise can be practiced in its entirety or broken down into separate exercises (Gauron, 1984). Before starting the exercises, sit or lie down in a comfortable position and take a few deep breaths from the diaphragm. Begin the technique when you are comfortable and relaxed. 1\. Pay attention to what you hear. Take each separate sound and label it, such as voices, footsteps, or the radio. Next, listen to all the sounds around you without attempting to label or classify them. Simply dismiss your thoughts and listen to the blend of sounds as if you were listening to music. 2\. 2. Now become aware of body sensations, such as the feeling of the chair, floor\> or bed supporting you. Mentally label each sensation as you notice it. Before moving on to another sensation, let each sensation linger for a moment while you examine it closely, considering its quality and source. Finally, try to experience all of these sensations at once without labeling any of them. This will require a broad internal focus. 3\. Turn your attention to your own thoughts and emotions. Let each emotion or thought just arise; do not try to specifically think about anything. Remain relaxed and at ease, no matter what you are thinking or feeling. Now try to experience each of your feelings and thoughts one at a time. Finally, see if you can just let go of all these thoughts and emotions and relax. 4\. Open your eyes and pick an object across the room and directly in front of you. While looking straight ahead, see as much of the room and as many objects there as your peripheral vision allows. Now try to narrow your focus of attention to just the object centered in front of you. Continue to narrow your focus until that is the only object in view. Now expand your focus little by little, widening your perspective until you can see everything in the room. Think of your external focus as a zoom lens; practice zooming in and out, narrowing or broadening your attentional focus according to your preference. By shifting your focus across internal-external and broad-narrow dimensions, this exercise helps you experience different attentional styles. The exercise also demonstrates why different perspectives are needed to perform the various skills required in different sports. [Exercise \#2---Learning to Maintain Focus] Find a quiet place with no distractions. Choose an object to focus on (you might choose something related to the sport that you play, such as a hockey puck, soccer ball, baseball, or volleyball). Hold the object in your hands. Get a good sense of how it feels, its texture, color, and any other distinguishing characteristics. Now put the object down and focus your attention on it, examining it in great detail. If your thoughts wander, bring your attention back to the object. Record how long you can maintain your focus on the object. It isn\'t easy to stay focused on one object. Once you are able to maintain focus for at least 5 minutes, start practicing with distractions present. Chart how long you can maintain your attention under these conditions. You will enhance your performance capabilities if you can become proficient at maintaining your concentration despite distractions and disruptions. [Exercise \#3---Searching for Relevant Cues] The grid exercise has been used extensively in Eastern Europe as a pre-competition screening device. It can give you a sense of what it means to be totally focused. The exercise requires a block grid containing two-digit numbers ranging from 00 to 99 (see Table 18.7). The object is to scan the grid and within a set period of time (usually 1 or 2 minutes) mark a slash through as many sequential numbers as possible (00, 01, 02, 03, etc.). The same grid can be used several times by just starting with a higher number (e.g., 33, 41, 51, etc.) than in your previous attempt. You can make new grids using any combination of numbers. People who intensely concentrate, scan, and store relevant cues reportedly score in the upper 20s and into the 30s in terms of how many numbers they find in sequence in 1 minute. This exercise will help you learn to focus your attention and scan the environment for relevant cues (which is especially important in fast-moving sports such as basketball, hockey, and soccer), and you can modify it for different situations. For instance, you can scan the grid amidst different types of distractions, such as people talking or loud music. As your concentration improves, you will be better able to block out such distractions and focus exclusively on the task. And isn\'t this what most athletes want to accomplish in terms of concentration---complete absorption and the elimination of all distractions? [Exercise \#4---Rehearsing Game Concentration] Using imagery or mental rehearsal is another good practice for concentration. For example, a football referee might picture making calls on different pass plays in which both offensive and defensive players make contact just as the ball is arriving. Sprinters might see themselves get a great start off the blocks, hit their strides, and then stay loose and relaxed during the last 20 yards in the race (where sprinters often tighten up). The use of imagery along with specific exercises is detailed in chapter 15.