Managing Engineering and Technology PDF

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international international edition edition edition international The editorial team at Pearson has worked closely with Managing Engineering Managing Engineering and Technology educators around the globe to inform students of the ever-changing world in a broad variety of disciplines. Pearson Education offers this product to the international and Technology market, which may or may not include alterations from the sixth edition United States version. Lucy C. Morse Daniel L. Babcock edition sixth This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published this Babcock Morse exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you ISBN-13: 978-0-273-79322-9 ISBN-10: 0-273-79322-5 purchased this book within the United States 9 0 0 0 0 or Canada you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author. 9 780273 793229 Pearson International Edition  Managing Engineering and Technology Sixth Edition A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 1 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 2 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Managing Engineering and Technology Sixth Edition Lucy C. Morse Associate Professor — Emerita University of Central Florida Daniel L. Babcock Professor — Emeritus Missouri University of Science and Technology International Edition contributions by Madhav Murthy, Assistant Professor B.M.S. 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Morse and Daniel L. Babcock to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Managing Engineering and Technology, Sixth Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-348510-3, by Lucy C. Morse and Daniel L. Babcock, published by Pearson Education © 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. 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ISBN 10: 0-273-79322-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-273-79322-9 (Print) ISBN 13: 978-0-273-79395-3 (PDF) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 Typeset in Times LT Std-Roman by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printed and bound by Courier Westford in The United States of America A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 4 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This edition is dedicated to Donald D. Myers (1939–2009), a valued colleague and friend. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 5 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 6 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Contents Preface 15 Acknowledgments 17 Part I Introduction to Engineering Management 19 Chapter 1 Engineering and Management 21 Preview 21 Learning Objectives 21 Engineering 22 Management 27 Engineering Management: A Synthesis 33 Discussion Questions 38 Sources 38 Statistical Sourcebook 39 Chapter 2 Historical Development of Engineering Management 40 Preview 40 Learning Objectives 40 Origins 41 The Industrial Revolution 43 Management Philosophies 47 Scientific Management 48 Administrative Management 54 Behavioral Management 57 Contemporary Contributions 59 Discussion Questions 62 Sources 63 7 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 7 10/17/13 1:57 PM  8 Contents Part II Functions of Technology Management 65 Chapter 3 Leading Technical People 67 Preview 67 Learning Objectives 68 Leadership 68 Motivation 82 Motivating and Leading Technical Professionals 92 Discussion Questions 99 Sources 100 Statistical Sourcebook 102 Chapter 4 Planning and Forecasting 103 Preview 103 Learning Objectives 104 Nature of Planning 104 The Foundation for Planning 106 Some Planning Concepts 112 Forecasting 114 Strategies for Managing Technology 121 Discussion Questions 124 Problems 125 Sources 125 Statistical Sourcebook 126 Chapter 5 Decision Making 127 Preview 127 Learning Objectives 128 Nature of Decision Making 128 Management Science 130 Tools for Decision Making 133 Computer-Based Information Systems 146 Implementation 148 Discussion Questions 148 Problems 148 Sources 150 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 8 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Contents 9 Chapter 6 Organizing 151 Preview 151 Learning Objectives 152 Nature of Organizing 152 Traditional Organization Theory 154 Technology and Modern Organization Structures 161 Teams 163 Discussion Questions 167 Sources 168 Chapter 7 Some Human Aspects of Organizing 169 Preview 169 Learning Objectives 170 Staffing Technical Organizations 170 Authority and Power 182 Delegation 184 Committees 187 Teams 188 Discussion Questions 188 Sources 189 Statistical Sourcebook 189 Chapter 8 Controlling 190 Preview 190 Learning Objectives 191 The Process of Control 191 Financial Controls 194 Human Resource Controls 202 Discussion Questions 205 Problems 206 Sources 207 Part III Managing Technology 209 Chapter 9 Managing Research and Development 211 Preview 211 Learning Objectives 212 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 9 10/17/13 1:57 PM  10 Contents Product and Technology Life Cycles 212 Nature of Research and Development 214 Research Strategy and Organization 216 Selecting R&D Projects 218 Making R&D Organizations Successful 221 Creativity, Innovation, Entrepreneurship 231 Discussion Questions 236 Problems 237 Sources 237 Statistical Sourcebook 238 Chapter 10 Managing Engineering Design 239 Preview 239 Learning Objectives 240 Nature of Engineering Design 240 Systems Engineering/New Product Development 241 Concurrent Engineering 244 Control Systems in Design 245 Design Criteria 250 Other Criteria in Design 259 Discussion Questions 265 Problems 265 Sources 266 Chapter 11 Planning Production Activity 267 Preview 267 Learning Objectives 268 Introduction 268 Planning Manufacturing Facilities 272 Quantitative Tools in Production Planning 277 Production Planning and Control 283 Manufacturing Systems 290 Discussion Questions 293 Problems 294 Sources 294 Statistical Sourcebooks 295 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 10 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Contents 11 Chapter 12 Managing Production Operations 296 Preview 296 Learning Objectives 297 Assuring Product Quality 297 Total Quality Management 304 Productivity 309 Maintenance and Facilities (Plant) Engineering 312 Other Manufacturing Functions 316 Discussion Questions 318 Problems 318 Sources 319 Statistical Sourcebooks 320 Chapter 13 Engineers in Marketing and Service Activities 321 Preview 321 Learning Objectives 322 Marketing and the Engineer 322 Engineers in Service Organizations 331 Discussion Questions 339 Sources 340 Statistical Sourcebooks 340 Part IV Managing Projects 341 Chapter 14 Project Planning and Acquisition 343 Preview 343 Learning Objectives 344 Characteristics of a Project 344 The Project Proposal Process 345 Project Planning Tools 348 Monitoring and Controlling 360 Discussion Questions 365 Problems 365 Sources 367 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 11 10/17/13 1:57 PM  12 Contents Chapter 15 Project Organization, Leadership, and Control 368 Preview 368 Learning Objectives 369 Project Organization 369 The Project Manager 377 Motivating Project Performance 379 Types of Contracts 385 Discussion Questions 387 Sources 387 Part V Managing Your Engineering Career 389 Chapter 16 Engineering Ethics 391 Preview 391 Learning Objectives 391 Professional Ethics and Conduct 392 Discussion Questions 413 Sources 414 Case Study Websites 415 Chapter 17 Achieving Effectiveness as an Engineer 416 Preview 416 Learning Objectives 417 Getting off to the Right Start 417 Charting Your Career 421 Communicating Your Ideas 424 Staying Technically Competent 429 Professional Activity 432 Diversity in Engineering and Management 436 Management and the Engineer 439 Managing Your Time 448 Discussion Questions 451 Sources 453 Global Website 456 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 12 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Contents 13 Chapter 18 Globalization and Challenges for the Future 457 Preview 457 Learning Objectives 458 Globalization 458 BRICS 464 Engineering Grand Challenges 468 Future Considerations in Engineering and Management 470 Discussion Questions 473 Sources 473 Global Websites 474 Index 475 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 13 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 14 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Preface Welcome to the latest edition of Managing Engineering and Technology. This book is different from the previous one since today’s technological society is constantly progressing, and with the progress comes a need for the engineer to be able to address the technological societal challenges and opportunities for the future. Engineers are a key element today in the role that any country must play to maintain technological leadership and a sound economy while the world becomes flatter in today’s global economy. To do this, the engineer needs to remain alert to changing products, processes, technologies, and opportunities and be prepared for a creative and productive life and position of leadership. This book is intended to be an overview of the field of engineering management; yet, real- istically we recognize that the faculty adopting this text will want to tailor the content to their specific needs. The basic outline of the text remains unchanged. The text examines the four main management functions followed by the functions of technology management. As we worked with ­various reviewers and faculty on this edition it became apparent that today there are several primary ­concerns for the engineering manager. These include engineering ethics, leadership, and globaliza- tion. The sixth edition of the text addresses these concerns and has incorporated lessons learned from earlier editions, student and faculty comments, and our own personal teaching experience. Some of the changes for this edition include the following: Emphasis on leadership. The four fundamental management functions are presented, but leadership is now first. Additional material on ethics. Globalization is considered more. New reference section at the end of each chapter, including Web sites for many chapters. An expanded Web site includes PowerPoint slides for each chapter, test banks, and solutions for instructors: www.pearsoninternationaleditions.com/Morse. Morse & Babcock’s EM Blog: A Blog for Engineering Management Educators (http:// morseandbabcock.wordpress.com/). This blog contains current material pertaining to engi- neering management and additional reference and project material. The authors of this textbook will remain alert to changing customers, products, processes, technol- ogies, and opportunities for engineering management and management of technology students. Again, suggestions for the improvement of the text are always welcome. We hope that the changes made in this edition of Managing Engineering and Technology will be helpful to instructors and students alike. 15 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 15 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 16 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Acknowledgments Before I recognize several important contributors to this textbook I would like to say how honored I am to have had the opportunity to work with Dan Babcock. His initial vision for this book is much admired and I thank him for it. It is also important to thank and recognize the many teach- ing and working professionals who have provided insight and information for this edition and the five editions before. These include: Henry Metzner, Professor Emeritus, Missouri S&T; Jean Babcock; Ted Eschenbach, Professor Emeritus of Engineering Management at the University of Alaska Anchorage; John Scheiter, co-founder of Global Spec; Thomas A Crosby, President/CEO of Pal’s Sudden Service; Charles W. Keller, University of Kansas, retired; Brian Goldiez, Deputy Director of the Institute of Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida; Klaus Garbers of European Foundation for Quality Management; Lee Lowery, Jr., Texas A&M University; Nabeel Yousef, Daytona State College; Ray Morrison, President, ACETS Consulting; C. Steven Griffin, General Manager CSR; and my colleagues in American Society for Engineering Management and American Society for Engineering Education. A special thanks to the recent reviewers: Stanley Bullington, Mississippi State University; Gus Elias, California State University-Northridge; Shih-Ming Lee, Florida International University; Thomas Siems, Southern Methodist University. Finally, many thanks to my most understanding husband and good-natured critic, Jack Selter, and to Pearson for their support and patience, especially Program Manager Clare Romeo. The publishers wish to thank Himadri Roy Chaudhuri of IMI, Kolkata for reviewing the con- tent of the International Edition. 17 A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 17 10/17/13 1:57 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. A01_MORS3229_06_PIE_FM.indd 18 10/17/13 1:57 PM  Part I Introduction to Engineering Management M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 19 13/09/13 7:23 PM  This page is intentionally left blank. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 20 13/09/13 7:23 PM  1 Engineering and Management Preview Today’s technological society is constantly changing, and with the change comes a need for the engineer to be able to address society’s technological challenges as well as the opportunities for the future. Engineers play a key role that in maintaining technological leadership and a sound econ- omy as the world becomes flatter in today’s global economy. To do this, the engineer needs to remain alert to changing products, processes, technologies, and opportunities, and be prepared for a ­creative and productive life and position of leadership. To assist the engineer for a productive life and position of leadership, this chapter begins with a discussion of the origins of engineering practice and education, the nature of the engineer- ing ­profession, and the types of engineers, their work, and their employers. Next, management is defined and managerial jobs and functions are characterized. Finally, these topics are synthesized by defining engineering management and a discussion of the expectation of managerial responsi- bilities in the typical engineering career. Learning Objectives When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following: Describe the origins of engineering practice. Identify the functions of management. Explain what engineering management is. Explain the need for engineers in management. 21 M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 21 13/09/13 7:23 PM  22 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management Engineering Origins of Engineering The words engineer and ingenious both stem from the Latin ingenium, which means a talent, ­natural capacity, or clever invention. Early applications of clever inventions often were military ones, and ingeniarius became one of several words applied to builders of such ingenious military machines. Heritage of the Engineer. By whatever name, the roots of engineering lie much earlier than the time of the Romans, and the engineer today stands on the shoulders of giants. William Wickenden said this well in 1947: Engineering was an art for long centuries before it became a science. Its origins go back to utmost antiquity. The young engineer can say with truth and pride, “I am the heir of the ages. Tubal Cain, whom Genesis places seven generations after Adam and describes as the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron, is the legendary father of my technical skills. The primitive smelters of iron and copper; the ancient workers in bronze and forgers of steel; the discoverers of the lever, the wheel, and the screw; the daring builders who first used the column, the arch, the beam, the dome, and the truss; the military pioneers who contrived the battering ram and the catapult; the early Egyptians who channeled water to irrigate the land; the Romans who built great roads, bridges, and aqueducts; the craftsmen who reared the Gothic cathedrals; all these are my forbears. Nor are they all nameless. There are: Hero of Alexandria; Archimedes of Syracuse; Roger Bacon, the monk of Oxford; Leonardo da Vinci, a many-sided genius; Galileo, the father of mechanics; Volta, the physician; the versatile Franklin. Also, there are the self-taught geniuses of the indus- trial revolution: Newcomen, the ironmonger; Smeaton and Watt, the instrument makers; Telford, the stone mason; and Stephenson, the mine foreman; Faraday and Gramme; Perronet, Baker, and Roebling; Siemens and Bessemer; Lenoir and Lavassor; Otto and Diesel; Edison, Westinghouse, and Steinmetz; the Wright brothers, and Ford. These are representative of the trail blazers in whose footsteps I follow.” Beginnings of Engineering Education. Florman contrasts the French and British t­ raditions of engineering education in his Engineering and the Concept of the Elite, and the following stems both from that and from Daniel Babcock’s writings. In 1716 the French government, under Louis XV, formed a civilian engineering corps, the Corps des Ponts et Chausées, to oversee the design and construction of roads and bridges, and in 1747 founded the Ecole des Ponts et Chausées to train members of the corps. This was the first engineering school in which the study of mathematics and physics was applied not only to roads and bridges, but also to canals, water supply, mines, fortifica- tions, and manufacturing. The French followed by opening other technical schools, most notably the renowned Ecole Polytechnique under the revolutionary government in 1794. In England, on the other hand, gentlemen studied the classics, and it was not until 1890 that Cambridge added a program in mechanical science, and 1909 when Oxford established a chair in engineering science. True, the Industrial Revolution began in England, but [k]nowledge was gained ­pragmatically, in the workshop and on construction sites, and engineers learned their craft—and such science as seemed useful, by apprenticeship. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 22 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Engineering 23 America is heir to both traditions. Harvard and other early colleges followed the British c­ lassical tradition, and during the Revolutionary War, we borrowed engineers from France and else- where to help build (and destroy) military roads, bridges, and fortifications. “In the early days of the United States, there were so few engineers—less than 30 in the entire nation when the Erie Canal was begun in 1817—that America had no choice but to adopt the British apprenticeship model. The canals and shops—and later the railroads and factories—were the ‘schools’ where surveyors and mechanics were developed into engineers. As late as the time of World War I, half of America’s engineers were receiving their training ‘on the job.”’ The U.S. Military Academy was established in 1802, at the urging of Thomas Jefferson and others, as a school for engineer officers, but they did not distinguish themselves in the War of 1812. Sylvanus Thayer, who taught mathematics at the Academy, was sent to Europe to study at the Ecole Polytechnique and other European schools; on his return in 1817 as superintendent of the Academy, he introduced a four-year course in civil engineering, and hired the best instructors he could find. As other engineering schools opened, they followed this curriculum and employed Academy gradu- ates to teach from textbooks authored by Academy faculty. Florman continues: Perhaps the most crucial event in the social history of American engineering was the passage by Congress of the Morrill Act—the so-called “land grants” act—in 1862. This law authorized federal aid to the states for establishing colleges of agriculture and the so-called “mechanic arts.” The founding legislation mentioned “education of the industrial classes in their several pursuits and professions in life.” With engineering linked to the “mechanic arts,” and with engineers expected to come from the “industrial classes,” the die was cast. American engineers would not be elite polytechnicians. They would not be gentlemen attending professional school after gradu- ation from college [as law and medicine became].... Engineering was to be studied in a four-year undergraduate curriculum. Engineering as a Profession The first issue (1866) of the English journal Engineering began with a description of the profession of the engineer as defined in the charter that Telford obtained [in 1818 for the Institute of Civil Engineers] for himself and his associates from [King] George the Fourth—“the art of directing the great sources of power in nature, for the use and convenience of man.” A more modern and complete definition was created in 1979 by American engineering soci- eties, acting together through the Engineers’ Council for Professional Development (ECPD), the precursor to the Accrediting Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). ECPD defined engineering as the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgement to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind Certainly, engineering meets all the criteria of a proud profession. Engineering undergraduates recognize the need for “intensive preparation” to master the specialized knowledge of their chosen M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 23 13/09/13 7:23 PM  24 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management profession, and practicing engineers understand the need for lifelong learning to keep up with the march of technology. In Part V of this book, we look at engineering societies and their ethical responsibilities in maintaining standards of conduct. Finally, engineers provide a public service not only in the goods and services they create for the betterment of society, but also by placing the safety of the public high on their list of design criteria. Each generation of engineers has the opportunity and obligation to preserve and enhance by its actions the reputation established for this profession by its earlier members. What Engineers Do Engineering. Before a description of engineers can be made, the term engineering must be defined. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1989, defines engineering as follows: En-gi-neer-ing n 1: the art of managing engines 2: the application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to man in structures, machines, products, systems, and processes. In other words, engineering is the means by which people make possible the realization of human dreams by extending our reach in the real world. Engineers are the practitioners of the art of ­managing the application of science and mathematics. By this description, engineering has a limit- less variety of possible disciplines. Engineers. Engineering has been differentiated from other academic paths by the need for people to logically apply quantifiable principles. Academic knowledge, practical training, experi- ence, and work-study are all avenues to becoming an engineer. The key attribute for engineers is the direct application of that knowledge and experience. The most up-to-date information on opportunities available for engineers can be found at various websites on the Internet, industry publications, professional associations, and personal contacts within the industry. Like other fields of endeavor, engineering no longer represents a staid career choice. The basic idea is to be adept, adaptable, and aware. Types of Engineers. The rigid classification of engineers into specific specialties and careers has been eroding swiftly. Many engineering applications require cross-pollination or integration of multiple disciplines. Aerospace engineers require knowledge of metallurgy, electronic control systems, computers, production limitations and possibilities, finance, life cycle logistic planning, and customer service. These are all required to produce a viable commercial product such as an airliner or a fighter. The previous focusing on a specialty is not as important as being able to com- municate and team with others. These teams are composed of various specialists knowledgeable in several primary fields. The primary specialization allows the engineer to contribute in a core area. This knowledge is required to properly integrate and implement the ideas of others. Along those lines, the list of core technologies is expanding and mutating rapidly. During the early age of M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 24 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Engineering 25 computers, the late 1950s, software engineers were electrical engineers. The computer operating systems were custom tailored to the internal logic design. As advances in design created the need for software specialists, the electrical engineers evolved into software engineers. Today, software engineers are split among the various types of applications. Internet, mainframe server, PC, and operating system gurus are eagerly sought. This same process can be observed in construction, mechanical systems, chemical engineering, and industrial engineering. Another indicator of the change in engineering has been the development of a new field called engineering technology. Engineering technology emerged in direct response to industry needs for a person having a practical applications education. Experience and training will increasingly determine an engineer’s actual specialty. Adding to the confusion is the expectation that a person will change careers five or more times in his or her life. Flexibility and interpersonal skills will be the hallmark of the new generation of engineering disciplines. Engineering Employment. Traditional paths for a career in engineering have mirrored other fields of employment. Rarely will a person work for the same employer for his or her entire working lifetime. The simple fact is that the corporations and firms of the past no longer exist. Those ­currently in existence will have to change to meet the needs of customers. Employment opportunities lie with companies of all sizes. Greater size can mean greater work stability, albeit ­usually ­limited ­flexibility. This limitation is accompanied by the fact that larger firms have greater resources to implement change. A smaller firm may be less stable, but can rapidly adapt to chang- ing circumstances. Unfortunately, smaller firms have fewer resources to respond to the changing ­circumstances. This means that engineers of the future should expect to be constantly improving their skills and marketability. Continuing education, flexibility, and a willingness to shift employ- ment will be required of successful engineers. Government employment traditionally meant steady employment with a relatively secure career path. This situation changed as government embraced business-based practices to reduce costs by outsourcing and contracting. A greater reliance on information technologies also reduced the manpower requirements through better communications. Although a large number of engineers remain employed by various governmental agencies, their main focus is evolving into oversight managers and controllers. Seniority currently guides progression in government service. However, the same forces found in the civilian market will generate a similar need in government employ- ment for flexibility, continuing education, and willingness to switch jobs. Engineering Jobs in an Organization. Manufacturing organizations offer many types of jobs for engineers, as shown in Figure 1-1. Many of the engineering positions in this hypothetical manufacturing company hierarchy fall under the heading of vice president of research and engi- neering. Positions in engineering research, engineering design, and related design support activities such as reliability and maintainability engineering are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10. Industrial, plant, maintenance, manufacturing, and quality engineering functions are discussed in Chapters 11 and 12. The more technically complex the product, the more engineers will be involved in t­ echnical sales, field service engineering, and logistics support, as discussed in Chapter 13. A smaller num- ber of engineers will find temporary positions or permanent careers in areas such as purchasing M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 25 13/09/13 7:23 PM  26 Corporate vice president and general manager division D M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 26 Vice Vice president Vice Vice president Vice president Vice president Vice president Vice president president contracts and president research and quality product support administration manufacturing marketing pricing finance engineering control (logistics) Technical Advanced Contracts Budgeting Research Industrial Quality Test and services product management and engineering assurance support Drafting planning and analysis equipment Engineering Reproduction subcontracts design Plant Quality Publications, Marketing General System engineering engineering control Technical data proposals, art analysis accounting Engineering design and Purchasing Library Conceptual maintenance design Procurement Training and Management Preliminary quality training system design Manufacturing control equipment services Detailed design engineering Policies and procedures Design review Customer Computer support Production facilities Communications Engineering operations support Supply support Reliability Industrial relations Maintainability Production Human factors shops Customer field Personnel administration Logistics engineering Model shop service Other support Bonding engineering Machining Welding Engineering and Modification Painting prototype model kits Calibration development, Other shops test, and evaluation Engineering laboratories Figure 1-1 Engineering activities within a division of a large corporation. (From Benjamin S. Blanchard, Engineering Organization and Management, © 1976, Figure 10-3, p. 280. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ). 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Management 27 (of technically complex parts and services) and recruiting (of technical personnel). Finally, we discuss how in today’s age of technical complexity, many general management positions are held by engineers. Management Management Defined The Australian Edmund Young, in supplementary notes used in teaching from the original edition of this chapter, wrote that “[m]anagement” has been one of the most ubiquitous and misused words in the 20th century English language. It has been a “fad” word as well. Civil engineers discuss river basin manage- ment and coastal management, doctors discuss disease management and AIDS management, and garbage collectors are now waste management experts. McFarland traces the meaning of the words manage and management as follows: The word manage seems to have come into English usage directly from the Italian maneggiare, meaning “to handle,” especially to handle or train horses. It traces back to the Latin word manus, “hand.” In the early sixteenth century manage was gradually extended to the operations of war and used in the general sense of taking control, taking charge, or directing.... Management was originally a noun used to indicate the process for managing, training, or directing. It was first applied to sports, then to housekeeping, and only later to government and business. McFarland continues by identifying “four important uses of the word management, as (1) an organizational or administrative process; (2) a science, discipline, or art; (3) the group of people running an organization; and (4) an occupational career.” Sentences illustrating each of these in turn might be (1) “He practices good management”; (2) “She is a management student”; (3) “Management doesn’t really believe in quality”; and (4) (heard from innumerable college fresh- men) “I want to get into management.” Of these four, most authors of management textbooks are referring to the first meaning (the process) when they define “management.” According to some of these authors, management is defined in the following ways: The work of creating and maintaining environments in which people can accomplish goals efficiently and effectively (Albanese) The process of achieving desired results through efficient utilization of human and material resources (Bedeian) The process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people and other organizational resources (Certo) A set of activities (including planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and control- ling) directed at an organization’s resources (human, financial, physical, and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner (Griffin) M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 27 13/09/13 7:23 PM  28 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management The process by which managers create, direct, maintain, and operate purposive organizations through coordinated, cooperative human effort (McFarland) The process of acquiring and combining human, financial, informational, and physical resources to attain the organization’s primary goal of producing a product or service desired by some segment of society (Pringle, Jennings, and Longnecker) Albanese provides a set of definitions of the word management suggested by a sample of busi- ness executives: Being a respected and responsible representative of the company to your subordinates The ability to achieve willing and effective accomplishments from others toward a common business objective Organizing and coordinating a profitable effort through good decision making and people motivation Getting things done through people The means by which an organization grows or dies The overall planning, evaluating, and enforcement that goes into bringing about “the name of the game”—profit Keeping your customers happy by delivering a quality product at a reasonable cost Directing the actions of a group to accomplish a desired goal or objective in the most efficient manner Management Levels Ensign or admiral, college president or department chair, maintenance foreman, plant manager, or company president—all are managers. What skills must they have, what roles do they play, what functions do they carry out, and how are these affected by the level at which they operate? Let us look at each of these questions in order. Management is normally classified into three levels: first-line, middle, and top. Managers at these three levels need many of the same skills, but they use them in different proportions. The higher the management level is, the further into the future a manager’s decisions reach, and more resources placed at risk. First-line managers directly supervise nonmanagers. They hold titles such as foreman, supervi- sor, or section chief. Generally, they are responsible for carrying out the plans and objectives of higher management, using the personnel and other resources assigned to them. They make s­hort-range ­operating plans governing what will be done tomorrow or next week, assign tasks to their work- ers, supervise the work that is done, and evaluate the performance of individual workers. F ­ irst-line ­managers may only recently have been appointed from among the ranks of people they are now supervising. They may feel caught in the middle between their former coworkers and upper manage- ment, each of which feels the supervisor should be representing them. Indeed, they must provide the linking pin between upper management and the working level, representing the needs and goals of each to the other. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 28 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Management 29 Many engineers who go into a production or construction environment quickly find t­hemselves assigned as a foreman or supervisor. The engineer may find such an assignment a satisfying chance to make things happen through his or her own actions and decisions. Doing so effectively, while according the workers the courtesy and respect merited by their years of experience, requires tact and judgment. If the engineer can achieve this balance, he or she may be surprised to find that the team members are respectful in return and are helpful to the engineer in learning his or her job. Middle managers carry titles such as plant manager, division head, chief engineer, or ­operations manager. Although there are more first-line managers than any other in most organi- zations, most of the levels in any large organization are those of middle management. Even the lowest ­middle manager (the second-line manager, who directly supervises first-line managers) is an indirect manager and has the fundamentally different job of managing through other manag- ers. Middle managers make plans of intermediate range to achieve the long-range goals set by top management, establish departmental policies, and evaluate the performance of subordinate work units and their managers. Middle managers also integrate and coordinate the short-range decisions and activities of first-line supervisory groups to achieve the long-range goals of the enterprise. A major management movement of the 1990s, driven by the need to become more competitive, has been the drastic reduction in the number of middle managers—often leading to the elimination of half the ­management levels between supervisor and top manager. This has become possible in part because modern c­ omputer-based management information systems bring decision-making information directly to higher levels of management that previously had to be summarized in turn by each level of middle management, and in part because nonmanagers are now better educated and are often organized into teams empowered to make some of the decisions previously reserved for lower management. Top managers bear titles such as chairman of the board, president, or executive vice president; the top one of these will normally be designated chief executive officer (CEO). In government, the top manager may be the administrator (of NASA), secretary (of state or commerce), governor, or mayor. While they may report to some policymaking group (the board of directors, legislature, or council), they have no full-time manager above them. Top managers are responsible for defining the character, mission, and objectives of the enterprise. They must establish criteria for and review long-range plans. They evaluate the per- formance of major departments, and evaluate leading management personnel to gauge their readiness for promotion to key executive positions. Bedeian paints a picture of the typical top manager: a ­college graduate (85 percent), probably with some postgraduate work (58 percent) and often a graduate degree (40 percent); usually from a middle-class background, often born to fathers in business or a profession; age 50 to 65, with work experience concentrated in one, two, or three companies; and with a work week of 55 to 65 hours. Most CEOs have previously special- ized in finance, banking, administration, or marketing (13 to 15 percent each); about 11 percent each come from technical, production/operations, or legal careers. One often finds a household products company led by a marketer, an electric utility led by a lawyer, or an electronics firm led by an engineer (who has mastered the art of management). Often, an organization will look for a top manager with particular strength in the functional area in which the enterprise is currently facing a challenge. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 29 13/09/13 7:23 PM  30 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management Managerial level Lowest Middle Top Technical skills Interpersonal skills Conceptual skills Figure 1-2 Skills required versus management. Managerial Skills Katz suggests that managers need three types of skills: technical, interpersonal, and concep- tual. Technical skills are skills (such as engineering, accounting, machining, or word processing) ­practiced by the group supervised. Figure 1-2 shows that the lowest level managers have the greatest need for technical skills, since they are directly supervising the people who are doing the t­echnical work, but even top managers must understand the underlying technology on which their industry is based. Interpersonal skills, on the other hand, are important at every management level, since every manager achieves results through the efforts of other people. Conceptual skills represent the ability to “see the forest in spite of the trees”—to discern the critical factors that will determine an orga- nization’s success or failure. This ability is essential to the top manager’s responsibility for setting long-term objectives for the enterprise, although it is necessary at every level. Managerial Roles—What Managers Do Henry Mintzberg gives us another way to view the manager’s job by examining the varied roles a manager plays in the enterprise. He divides them into three types: interpersonal, informational, and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles are further divided into three types, depending on the direction of the relationship: The figurehead role involves the ceremonial or legal actions of the symbolic head of an ­organization in welcoming dignitaries and signing official documents; largely outward rela- tionships. Many such events lose significance if they are delegated. The leader role is the widely recognized downward relationship of selecting, guiding, and motivating subordinates. This role is considered in detail in Chapter 3. The liaison role consists primarily of the horizontal relationships with peers and people in other organizations that are built and nurtured for mutual assistance. The modern term ­networking is much the same. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 30 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Management 31 Informational roles are also of three types, depending on the direction of information flow: The monitor role involves collecting information about both internal operations and exter- nal events. This is done by reviewing activities and reading reports internally, attending professional meetings or trade shows, and reading the professional and trade literature to monitor the external environment and understand the trends that will affect the future of the enterprise. The researcher (often a supervisor) who performs this function is known as a gatekeeper. The disseminator role involves the transmission of information internally to subordinates, superiors, and peers so that everyone has the information necessary to do their job. The man- ager here acts as a telephone switchboard in transmitting information. This role as the source of information, if carefully handled, can strengthen a manager’s formal authority. The spokesman [or spokesperson] role, normally carried out by higher management, involves speaking for the organization to the press, the public, and other external groups. In an internal version of this role, which might be called advocate, successful supervisors carry the ball for their subordinates to get the resources they need or the rewards they have earned. Decisional roles are of four kinds in this typology: The entrepreneurial role of initiating change, assuming risk, and transforming ideas into ­useful products. The disturbance handler role of dealing with unforeseen problems or crises and resolv- ing them. The use of penalties is only one—and often the least effective—mechanism for ­handling disturbances. The resource allocator role of distributing the (normally scarce) resources of money, labor, materials, and equipment where they will provide the greatest benefit to the organization The negotiator role of bargaining with suppliers or customers, subordinates, peers, or superi- ors to obtain agreements favorable to the enterprise (or at least the portion of it for which the manager is responsible). Functions of Managers Henri Fayol, the famous French mining engineer and executive, divided managerial activities into five elements: planning, organizing, command, coordination, and control. These elements, now called functions of managers, have proven remarkably useful and durable over the decades. Although each management author has his or her favored set of functions, almost all include plan- ning, organizing, and controlling on their list. Command has become too authoritative a word in today’s participative society and has been replaced by leading, motivating, or actuating. Few authors treat coordinating as a separate function. Nonetheless, as the late management author Harold Koontz concluded, “There have been no new ideas, research findings, or techniques that cannot readily M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 31 13/09/13 7:23 PM  32 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management be placed in these classifications.” Koontz chose and (with coauthor Heinz Weihrich) defined his favored list of the functions of managers as follows: Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them; it requires decision making—choosing future courses of action from among alternatives. Organizing is that part of managing that involves establishing an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in an enterprise. Staffing [included with organizing by most authors] involves filling, and keeping filled, the positions in the organizational structure. Leading is influencing people to strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of organization and group goals. It has to do predominantly with the interpersonal aspect of managing. Controlling is the measuring and correcting of activities of subordinates to ensure that events conform to plans. Engineering managers need to understand the body of knowledge that has been developed by management theorists and practitioners and organized under this framework, and this is the purpose of Part II of this book. Today the accepted functions of management are planning, organizing, lead- ing, and controlling. Leading and motivating are treated in Chapter 3, planning and the associated subfunction of decision making are treated in Chapters 4 and 5, organizing in Chapters 6 and 7, and controlling in Chapter 8. Wherever possible, the particular implications of these functions for the technical employee and the technology-affected organization are emphasized. The engineering manager also needs to understand the particular problems involved in ­managing research, development, design, production/operations, projects, and related technical environments. Parts III and IV treat the application of these management functions to the specific environments in which most engineers and engineering managers will work. Management: Art or Science? Earlier in this chapter the characteristics of a profession were discussed, and engineering was shown to meet all the criteria of a profession. Management also has a body of specialized knowledge, which is introduced in Part II. Many managers will have first completed bachelor’s or master’s degree programs in business administration, public administration, or engineering management, but the following applies, as Babcock has observed elsewhere: The knowledge need not be obtained only in such formal programs. It may be acquired by ­personal study, in-house employee education programs, seminars by all kinds of consultant entrepreneurs, or programs of many professional societies. Sometimes this formal or informal e­ducation is obtained before promotion [into] the management hierarchy, but often it occurs after promotion. A very small proportion of the broad range of managers belong to management-specific organi- zations such as the American Management Association, the Academy of Management, or (for engineers) the American Society for Engineering Management. They are more likely (especially in technical areas) to belong to management divisions or institutes within discipline-oriented pro- fessional societies. Considerations of standards, ethics, certification, and the like become those of the parent societies, not the management subset. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 32 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Engineering Management: A Synthesis 33 Engineering Management: A Synthesis What is Engineering Management? Some writers would use a narrow definition of “engineering management,” confining it to the direct supervision of engineers or of engineering functions. This would include, for ­example, supervision of engineering research or design activities. Others would add an activity we might consider the engineering of management—the application of quantitative methods and ­techniques to the practice of management (often called management science). However, these narrow defi- nitions fail to include many of the management activities engineers actually perform in modern enterprises. If engineering management is broadly defined to include the general management responsibili- ties engineers can grow into, one might well ask how it differs from ordinary management. The engineering manager is distinguished from other managers because he [or she] possesses both an ability to apply engineering principles and a skill in organizing and directing people and projects. He is uniquely qualified for two types of jobs: the management of technical functions (such as design or production) in almost any enterprise, or the management of broader functions (such as marketing or top management) in a high-technology enterprise. Other Engineering Management Definitions Engineering management is the art and science of planning, American Society for organizing, allocating resources, and directing and Engineering Management controlling activities that have a technological component. Engineering management is designing, operating, and Omurtag (1988) continuously improving purposeful systems of people, machines, money, time, information, and energy by integrating engineering and management knowledge, techniques, and skills to achieve desired goals in technological enterprise through concern for the environment, quality, and ethics. Engineering management is the discipline addressed IEEE (1990) and Kocaoglu to making and implementing decisions for strategic (1991) and operational leadership in current and emerging technologies and their impacts on interrelated systems. Source: Timothy Kotnour and John V. Farr, “Engineering Management: Past, Present, and Future,” Engineering Management Journal, vol. 17, no. 1, March 2005. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 33 13/09/13 7:23 PM  34 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management Need for Engineers in Management Herbert Hoover, a very successful mining engineer and manager, recognized the importance of the American engineering manager in an address to engineers the year he was elected president of the United States: Three great forces contributed to the development of the engineering profession. The first was the era of intense development of minerals, metallurgy, and transportation in our great West.... Moreover, the skill of our engineers of that period owes a great debt to American educa- tors. The leaders of our universities were the first of all the educators of the world to recognize that upon them rested the responsibility to provide fundamental training in the application of science to engineering under the broadening influence and cultivation of university life. They were the first to realize that engineering must be transformed into a practice in the highest sense, not only in the training and character but that the essential quality of a profession is the instal- lation of ethics.... A third distinction that grew in American engineering was the transformation from solely a technical profession to a profession of administrators—the business manager with technical training. There are several reasons engineers can be especially effective in the general management of technically oriented organizations. High-technology enterprises make a business of doing things that have never been done before. Therefore, extensive planning is needed to make sure that everything is done right the first time—there may not be a second chance. Planning must emphasize ­recognizing and resolving the uncertainties that determine whether the desired product or outcome is feasible. Since these critical factors are often technical, the engineer is best capable of recognizing them and managing their resolution. In staffing a technically based enterprise, engineering managers can best evaluate the capability of technical person- nel when they apply for positions and rate their later performance. Further, they will better understand the nature and motivation of the technical specialist and can more easily gain their respect, confidence, and loyalty. George H. Heilmeier, president and CEO of Bellcore (and an electrical engineer), makes clear the advantages of an understanding of technology in top management: Competition is global, and the ability to compete successfully on this scale is fostered by ­corporate leaders who can do the following: Really understand the business. Understand both the technology that is driving the business today and the technology that will change the business in the future. Treat research and development as an investment to be nurtured, rather than an expense to be minimized. Spend more time on strategic thinking about the future as they rise higher in the corporation. Are dedicated to solving a customer’s problem or satisfying a need, which is how I would define true marketing as opposed to sales. Place a premium on innovation. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 34 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Engineering Management: A Synthesis 35 Why Study Engineering Management? It helps the engineer become a more effective technical specialist and strengthens the ability to lead people and projects. As a specialist, the engineer becomes more effective through under- standing how his or her engineering skills can best support the goals of the organization and its customers. And the trained engineering manager becomes uniquely qualified for two types of positions: management of the technical functions (such as research, design, or production), and the management of broader functions (such as marketing or general management) in the high- technology enterprise. Source: Daniel L. Babcock, September 2005. Management and the Engineering Career A National Engineers Registry Survey conducted in 1969 analyzed the extent to which engineers were employed in management. This survey revealed that about 18 percent of engineers had no regular supervisory responsibility and another 18 percent provided only indirect or staff supervi- sion. The remainder (almost two-thirds) were acting as managers: 12 percent over a team or unit; 22 percent over a project or section; 20 percent over a major department, division, or program; and 10 percent in the general (top) management of an organization. This survey is now almost 35 years old, and in the last decade many companies have reduced the numbers and levels of management positions and given more decision-making authority to teams at the working level. Nevertheless, most engineers can expect a transition to management responsibilities at some point in their professional careers. The Bureau of Labor Statistics currently records the total employment M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 35 13/09/13 7:23 PM  36 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management Professional Societies Associated with the Engineering Management Discipline Group Professional Societies Engineering Management across American Society for Engineering Disciplines Management Canadian Society for Engineering Management Engineering Management within an Institute of Industrial Engineers Society for Engineering Discipline Engineering and Management Systems IEEE Technology Management Council Institute of Industrial Engineers Society of Manufacturing Engineers Society of Petroleum Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers American Society for Mechanical Engineers Disciplines Associated with Processes and Association for the Advancement of Cost Tools Used by the Engineering Manager Engineering International Council of Systems Engineering Project Management Institute American Society for Quality Institute for Supply Management Management of Technology International Association for Management of Technology Product Development Management Association General Management Academy of Management Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences Engineering Education American Society of Engineering Education Source: Timothy Kotnour and John V. Farr, “Engineering Management: Past, Present, and Future,” Engineering Management Journal, vol. 17, no. 1, March 2005. for engineering managers at 187,000, with a 7 percent increase expected by 2016. Despite this, undergraduate engineering education offers little preparation for such a possibility. To meet this need, many engineering schools now provide degree programs in engineering management, which blends business and engineering, as shown in Figure 1-3. Professional societies are an additional way engineers may improve their managerial skills. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 36 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Engineering Management: A Synthesis 37 Engineering Management Plant and industrial Production engineering and operations management Project engineering Marketing Accounting Advanced Finance design Economics and research Administration Business Engineering Figure 1-3 The engineering management education program. (From Daniel L. Babcock, “B.S. and M.S. Programs in Engineering Management,” Engineering Education, November 1973, p.102). This book provides some insight into the nature of management and the environments in which the engineer is most likely to encounter the need for an understanding of management as his or her career progresses. Chapters 3 through 8 examine the functions of technology management. Chapters 9 through 13 examine the management of technology through the product life cycle. In the last three chapters, the career implications for the engineer are summed up. These are shown in the advance organizer in Figure 1-4. Managing Engineering and Technology Management Functions Managing Technology Personal Technology Leading Research Ethics Planning Design Time management Decision making Production Career Organizing Quality Controlling Marketing Project management Figure 1-4 Managing engineering and technology. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 37 13/09/13 7:23 PM  38 Chapter 1   Engineering and Management Discussion Questions 1-1. The precursors of today’s engineers listed in the quotation from Wickenden had no classes and few or no books from which to learn scientific principles. How can you explain their success? 1-2. What are the different dimensions of the terms engineering and management? Discuss. 1-3. Why is it so important for an engineer today to have knowledge of multiple disciplines in addition to his field of expertise? 1-4. What are the different roles that an engineer needs to play in a firm in addition to the tradi- tional roles of design, development, and testing? 1-5. What are the similarities in the definitions of management quoted from authors of manage- ment textbooks? Do the definitions provided by business executives differ in any way? Form your own definition of management. 1-6. A manager’s role is highly challenging and dynamic as compared to those of other employees (nonmanagers) in a company. Discuss the factors that make this so. 1-7. How does the job of a top manager differ from the jobs in the several levels of middle management? 1-8. Identify the three types of skills needed by an effective manager, as conceived by Robert L. Katz, and describe how the relative need for them might vary with the level of management. 1-9. From the 10 managerial roles provided by Mintzberg, choose three or four that you consider most important for the first-line manager, and explain your selection. Repeat for middle- level and top managers. 1-10. Is management both an art and a science? State your views on this using examples. Sources Albanese, Robert, Management: Toward Accountability for Performance (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1975), p. 28. Albanese, Robert, Managing: Toward Accountability for Performance, 3rd ed. (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1981), p. 5. Babcock, Daniel L. and Sarchet, Bernard R., “Is Engineering Management a Profession?” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, November 1981, pp. 107–109. Babcock, Daniel L., “Is the Engineering Manager Different?” Machine Design, March 9, 1978, pp. 82–85. Bedeian, Arthur G., Management, 2nd ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989), p. 6. “Breaking Ground,” Engineering [London], 1:1, January 5, 1866, p. 1. Certo, Samuel C., Modern Management: Diversity, Quality, Ethics, and the Global Environment, 6th ed. (Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1994), p. 6. The Engineering Team (New York: Engineers’ Council for Professional Development (now Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, 1979). Fayol, Henri, Administration Industrielle et Générale, Constance Storrs, trans. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., 1949). Florman, Samuel C., “Engineering and the Concept of the Elite,” THE BENT of Tau Beta Pi, Fall 1992, p. 19. M01_MORS3229_06_PIE_C01.indd 38 13/09/13 7:23 PM  Statistical Sourcebook 39 Griffin, Ricky W., Management, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993), pp. 5–6. Heilmeier, George H., “Room for Whom at the Top?: Promoting Technical Literacy in the Executive Suite,” THE BENT of Tau Beta Pi, Spring 1994. Hoover, Herbert C., “The Engineer’s Contribution to Modern Life,” an address to the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers on receiving their Saunders Mining Medal at their 1928 annual meeting, reprinted in Dugald C. Jackson, Jr. and W. Paul Jones, eds., The Profession of Engineering (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1929), pp. 119–120. Katz, Robert L., “Skills of an Effective Administrator,” Harvard Business Review, 52:5, September–October 1974, pp. 90–112. McFarland, Dalton E., Management: Foundations and Practices, 5th ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1979), pp. 4–5. Mintzberg, Henry, selected excerpts from The Nature of Managerial Work, Chapter 4. Copyright © 1973 by the author. Reprinted by permission of Harper-Collins Publishers, Inc. Pringle, Charles D., Jennings, Daniel F., and Longnecker, Justin G., Managing Organizations: Functions and Behaviors (Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company, 1988), p. 4. Weihrich, Heinz and Koontz, Harold, Management: A Global Perspective, 10th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1993), pp. 20–21. Wickenden, William E., drafted before his 1947 death, later edited and collated by G. Ross Henninger as A Professional Guide for Young Engineers, rev. ed. (New York: Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, 1981), p. 7. Young, Edmund J., personal communication, August 1988. Statistical Sourcebook The following is a useful source website. (October, 2012)