Majority of Final Exam Material PDF

**November 6, 2024** Student Presentation: Anti-social Parental Behaviour, Problematic Parenting, and Aggressive Offspring Behaviour During Adulthood. - Poor supervision and harsh punishment are huge indicators of antisocial and aggression in offspring - Hypothesis: antisocial behaviours...

**November 6, 2024** Student Presentation: Anti-social Parental Behaviour, Problematic Parenting, and Aggressive Offspring Behaviour During Adulthood. - Poor supervision and harsh punishment are huge indicators of antisocial and aggression in offspring - Hypothesis: antisocial behaviours leads to aggressive behaviors in child. - Taken over 25 years - Prevalence frequency = how common a characteristic was. Graph shows that blue = history of antisocial behaviour and orange = no history of antisocial behaviour. - Results: Poor parenting + Anti-social behaviour in the parent + Low amount of Time = Increased Risk of Adult Offspring Aggression. - B.I.O.L model - Bonding and Identification based Observational Learning - You learn through observation through basic social mechanisms. - This can explain why people model deviant behaviours, it is because of this. You desire to bond. Slide 110-112: FFM may be the best... - People who score high in conscientiousness tend to: - Do well in school - Perform well at work - Be safe drivers who rarely have car accidents - Live longer Slide 113: Paper by McCrae and Antonio Terracciano - Factor analysis within culture showed that the normative American self-report structure was clearly replicated in most cultures and was recognizable in all. Slide 114: FFM (and two additional factors) in nonhuman animals - Animals show some of the traits as well, but conscientiousness is only seen in Chimps, and a sort of small correlation or connection with cats and dogs with openness and conscientiousness. - There is no animal model of conscientiousness so it is only detected among chimps. - Two additional personality dimensions with dominance and activity. Slide 115: Similarities and differences across models of personality traits/factors - Bouchard and Loehlin (2001) - Some of the models include Eysencks and Costa and McCrae - There are similarities and differences among these models. - Things like self-transcendence can be related to openness. - Religiousness could be an equivalent of a personality trait. - The ability to represent the supernatural. Slide 116-118: Trait theories: A biological perspective - Source of personality traits = Interactions between: - Biological factors (physiology), influenced by genes - Environmental factors (learning experiences) - The source of personality traits can be found in the complex and interactive nature of biology and environment. Nature vs Nurture. - "Personality is determined to a large extent by a person's genes." - Hans Eysenck - Behavioral genetics: - Study of inherited behavioral traits/tendencies - Heritability of personality - Trait comparison in twin/adoption studies - Personality trait models are also grounded in an Evolutionary perspective: - Various personality traits -- and the ability to recognize these traits in others -- may have contributed to fitness (survival/reproductive success) in ancestral human populations - "In sum, the five factors of personality, in this account, represent important dimensions of the social terrain that humans were selected to attend to and act upon." - David Buss. - There are benefits and costs to high scores on each of the traits. Slide 121-122:Evaluating Trait Theories - Strengths: - There is convincing evidence that biological factors exert considerable influence over personality traits - Weaknesses: - Measures of heritability of personality should be regarded as ballpark estimates that may vary depending on sampling procedures and a variety of other conditions. - Efforts to carve behaviour/personality into genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) components are ultimately artificial because both interact in complex ways. Currently, there is no comprehensive biological theory of personality - Eysenck's model of personality is limited - Evolutionary theory of personality is limited Slide 123: Video on the Summary of the Trait Theories **6B: Trait Theories of Personality** Slide 1: Slide 2: Slide 3: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) DOMAINS - What is internal consistency of a test? - A measure of the reliability on the test. - Cronbach's Alpha is a measure of internal consistency - How correlated an answer of a given participant to a set of questionnaire items are. (Scale reliability) - The higher this number the more likely that they are measure the same psychological construct. - Looking at the picture, if you answered Often Feel Blue as low then chances are that you would answer Dislike Myself low as well would be high. This is the basic idea of Cronbach's Alpha - +keyed items = means you would answer the opposite to the negative keyed items - keyed items = answered the opposite to the positive keyed items. Slide 4: Calculation of Cronbach's Alpha - K = Number of questionnaire items - r = Average inter-item correlation - Cronbach's Alpha is a function of the number of items in the list and the average correlation of the items. - If you increase the items in the list you will increase Cronbach's Alpha. - 0= absolutely no internal consistency, and 100= complete internal consistency. - a: - 0.70 = Good - 70% of the variance in the composite score is reliable variance. The remaining 30% is unreliable variance. - 0.80 = Very good - 0.90 = Excellent Slide 5: Graph on hypothetical question. - We can see that all the coefficients are small to moderate in their magnitude, so you can see the correlations between these items. - Using the formula, you can see that the Cronbach's Alpha = 0.73, so its pretty good. Slide 6: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) DOMAINS Slide 7: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) FACETS - C1 = Facet \#1 for Conscientiousness - C2 = Facet \#2 for Conscientiousness - C3 = Facet \#3 for Conscientiousness - Factor analysis is a statistical technique reducing many variables into a few unrelated groups of related variables, and assuming underlying causal model. Slide 8: A gentle introduction to Factor Analysis... - When a researcher has measured many variables that show some substantial correlations with each other, it may be useful to reduce the number of variables by categorizing them into groups according to the correlations. - However, when the number of variables is large and the pattern of correlations among them is complex, it is not easy to see which variables should be combined into a group. - This is where the statistical technique of factor analysis is used. - Factor Analysis vs Principle Component Anaysis: - FA: Latent factors drive the observed variables - PCA: Observed variables are reduced into components Slide 9: A gentle introduction to Factor Analysis... - Factor analysis allows the researcher to reduce many specific traits into a few more general "factors" or groups of traits, each of which includes several of the specific traits. - Factor analysis can be used with many kinds of variables, and not just personality characteristics. Slide 10: A gentle introduction to Factor Analysis... - Consider the following example of a factor analysis. - Here are the variables, from a battery of physical tests, on which a few hundred student participants were measured: Slide 11: SKIPPED TO SLIDE 34 Slide 34: Eysenck's Three Primary Dimensions of Personality (1985) - Factor loadings: - Correlations between the original variable (i.e., personality questionnaire item) and the underlying factor (i.e., personality trait) - How much a factor explains a variable (ie., or explains an answer to a question)? Slide 35: Eysenck's Three Primary Dimensions of Personality (1985) - Values of factor loadings: - Range: -1 ≤ ≤ 1 - Close to -1 or 1: High correlation - Close to 0: Weak correlation - Positive: High scores on this factor/trait were obtained by people answering "Yes" - Negative: High scores on this factor/trait were obtained by people answering "No" Slide 36: McCrae and Terracciano Paper again - The factor loadings of the different facets onto the big 5 - Factors greater than 0.40 means statistically significant - You can see that all 6 of the facets correspond with their facet they are in, but sometimes they correlate with other ones. - Somehow you get some overlap, and some of the facets may load significantly on factors other than the ones they correspond with. **November 18, 2024** Student Presentation - No findings on whether being first born changed your personality. - Extra Slides: - First Slide: - Hand-me-down personality? - The idea that birth order would have an effect on the development of personality in humans. - Born to Rebel by Frank J. Sulloway - Chapter 4 on why Siblings are like Darwin Finches - Second Slide: - Sibling rivalry and competing for parental investment. As a result we should expect some ontological effect of birth order on personality. - Third Slide: - Prediction: Firstborns should defend their privileges throug assertiveness and dominance - Rate higher on Extraversion - Prediction is supported by Sulloway. - 2nd Prediction: Firstborns should defend their privileges through aggressive and retaliatory behaviours: - Rate higher on Antagonism - Laterborns should score higher on Agreeableness - 3rd Prediction: To maintain their favoured status, firstborns should display more emotional instability (anger outbursts, sensitivity to defeat, jealousy) - Rate higher on neuroticism - 4th Prediction: Because firstborns benefit from favoured status from parents, they should show more respect for and conformity to parental authority, wishes, and values - Rate lower on openness - Laterborns should rebel more - 5th Prediction: As the most likely future family leaders, firstborns should be more responsible, organized, and planful - Rate higher on conscientiousness. - The main problem is that Sulloway used a very rudimentary and highly criticized data collection style of "Vote-Counting" - All studies are given the same weight regardless of their sample size. - True meta-analysis should require: - Statistical hypothesis testing (reject the null); Done - Effect sizes (Strength of the phenomenon); Not Done - BUT Bleskey-Rechek and Kelley 2014 show that there is a weak effect on birth order and personality. Slide 1: TOPIC 7A. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality Slide 2: TOPIC 7A. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality Slide 3: Sigmund Freud (A short intro) - Austrian physician/neurologist - (1856-1939) - Founding father of Psychoanalysis: Clinical method for treating psychopathology through patient/psychoanalyst dialogue - Created an entirely new approach to understanding human personality - One of the most influential -- and controversial -- minds of the 20th century Slide 4: Freud's psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theory - Based on decades of clinical work with many patients, including the use of: - Hypnosis - Eventually abandoned hypnosis for a more indepth psychoanalysis and the interpretation of the unconscious through the interpretation of dreams. - Interpretation of Dreams - Show unconscious thoughts and desires. - Free association - Should be done with no or very little input from the psychoanalyst - Get the patient in a relaxed position, like on the psychoanalytic couch of Freuds. - Freud's original consulting room with the famous "psychoanalytic couch" and numerous artefacts from different cultures (See picture) Slide 5: Freud The Interpretation of Dreams (BOOK) - "The Interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind." - Sigmund Freud - Freud's theory: Humans have an unconscious side in which sexual and aggressive impulses are in perpetual conflict for supremacy with the defences against them. - In 1897, he began an intensive self-psychoanalysis. - "The Interpretation of Dreams": Dreams as unconscious desires and experiences. Slide 6: Psychodynamic theory: "Id came to me in a dream!" - Unlike trait theories, psychodynamic theories: - Do not focus on: - Personality traits - Inter-individual differences - Instead they Probe under the surface of personality to learn what drives, conflicts, and energies animate us for one specific individual and not comparing them. - Freud's psychodynamic theory: - Interactive effects among (un)conscious conflicting forces on the ontogeny of personality Slide 7: Freud The Ego and the Id (BOOK) - After WWI, Freud spent less time in clinical observation and focused on the application of his theories to history, art, literature and anthropology. - In 1923, he published "The Ego and the Id", which suggested a new structural model of the mind, divided into three mental components... (Next Slide) Slide 8: The Structure of Personality (Freud) - Three mental components: 1. Id 2. Ego 3. Superego - These components constitute the construction of personality. Slide 9: The id: Primary Process Thinking - Acts as a well of two groups of conflicting forces: - Life instincts (Eros) produce positive energy (Libido) leading to our: - Sexual desires - Pleasure seeking - Efforts to survive - Death instincts (Thanatos) produce negative energy leading to our: - Aggressive behaviors towards others - Self-destructive behaviors (suicide) - id means "That" in Latin Slide 10: Eros and Thanatos - Most id energies are aimed at discharging tensions related to sex and aggression - Eros = procreation, social cooperation, and survival - Thanatos = Aggression, risky behaviours, and reliving trauma Slide 11: The id: Primary Process Thinking - Operates on the pleasure principle: - The id is very Self-serving - The id always Seeks immediate gratification of innate biological: - Instincts - Needs - Wants - Urges - The id is the Basic/animalistic part of our personality... Slide 12: The id: Primary Process Thinking - The id Can only form mental images of things it desires - It Helps motivate behavior... but basic ones! - Is Irrational and impulsive - Totally unconscious (buried at deepest level) - If we were only under control of the id, the world would be chaotic! - Like a tyrannical king with huge power, but who must rely on others to carry out orders... Slide 13: The ego: Secondary Process Thinking - The ego Acts as a system of: - Information processing - Planning - Problem solving - Decision making Slide 14: The ego: Secondary Process Thinking - The ego Operates on the reality principle: - Wins power to direct behavior by relating the desires of the id to external reality - Delays action until it is practical or appropriate - The ego is Rational and considered - It Helps motivate behaviors that are well thought out - It is Partly conscious, unlike the id which is totally unconscious Slide 15: The superego: Moral Imperatives - The Superego is the Moral component of personality that: - Incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong - Acts as a judge, censor, "internalized parent" for the thoughts and actions of the ego Slide 16: The superego: Moral Imperatives - Too harsh superego: - Inhibited, rigid, unbearably guilty personality - Scoring high on perfectionism scale has a negative side as it is extremely stressful to always strive for perfection. - People who score extremely high on perfectionism die earlier since it is so exhausting. - Too weak superego: - Delinquent, antisocial, criminal personality - This persons moral standards would be too low. Slide 17: The superego: Moral Imperatives - Divided into two parts, Conscience and Ego ideal +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Divided into 2 parts | Conscience | Ego Ideal | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Reflects on actions | - Disapproved | - Approved | | that are... | | | | | - Punished | - Rewarded | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Feelings generated | Not Met: | Met: | | when its standards | | | | are... | - Guilt (internal | - Pride (internal | | | punishment) | reward | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Slide 18: The Dynamics of Personality - Called the psychodynamic theory because of how do the id, ego, and superego interact. - According to Freud: - They ARE NOT strictly defined parts of the brain ("little people") running the human mind - They ARE mental components resulting in conflicting mental processes - All of these lead to the development of an individuals personality. Slide 19: The Dynamics of Personality - Freud's model: - Personality EMERGES from a dynamic system directed by the delicate balance of power (interactions) between these 3 mental components: - Id - Ego - Superego - The entirety is greater than the sum of its parts. Slide 20: The Dynamics of Personality - Freud in a nutshell: - id: I want it now, ego: I need to do a bit of planning to get it, superego: you can't have it. It's not right. - id and superego are pretty much opposites. - Maybe: Oversimplifies... - But: Captures the core of Freudian thinking Slide 21: The Dynamics of Personality - Let's say you are sexually attracted to an acquaintance, what would each personality portion say: 1. The id... - "..." 2. The superego... - "..." 3. What does the ego say? - "..." **November 20, 2024** Student Presentation: - Results: Sexual partners increase with age and with bullying. Negative correlation with honesty humility, and positive correlation with extraversion and bullying. In younger people, higher age, lower honesty-humilty, and conscientiousness increased sexual partners. In older people, agreeableness, honesty-humilty increased sexual partners. - Cross-Sectional study Slide 22: The Dynamics of Personality - Let's say you are sexually attracted to an acquaintance: 1. The id demands immediate satisfaction of its sexual desires - "Go for it!" 2. The superego finds the very thought of casual sex shocking - "Don't ever think about it again!" 3. What does the ego say?... - "I have a plan!" Slide 23: The Dynamics of Personality - To reduce the tension, the ego can trigger actions leading to: - Friendship - Romance - Courtship - Marriage - If someone has a very powerful id: - Ego gives in and attempts a seduction - If someone has a very powerful superego: - Ego is forced to displace sexual activities by doing: - Sports, music, dancing - Push-ups... cold showers! - FREUD: Much of these processes occur at the unconscious level. Slide 24: Iceberg - Much of our psyche is below the surface much like an iceberg. Slide 25: Freud's Topographical Schema of the Mind. From book The Ego and the Id. Slide 26: Personality structure and levels of awareness - Id: Totally unconscious - Ego & superego operate at all 3 levels of awareness: - Unconscious - Preconscious (just below the surface) - Conscious Slide 27: Personality structure and levels of awareness - CONSCIOUS includes : - Perceptions - Some of the information processing ("thoughts") - Some of the decisions Slide 28: Personality structure and levels of awareness - PRE-/SUB-CONSCIOUS includes: - Recent memories - Stored knowledge Slide 29: Personality structure and levels of awareness - UNCONSCIOUS includes: - Fears - Unacceptable sexual desires - Violent motives - Irrational wishes - Immoral urges - Selfish needs - Shameful experiences - Traumatic experiences Slide 30: Personality structure and levels of awareness - Same structure as the iceberg in the previous slides. - Visible personality is the conscious part. Slide 31-32: The dynamics of personality - Is the ego always caught in the middle? - Yes (according to Freud) - Ego is the decision maker. Kind of a middle ground. - Freud's model: - Conflicts among various forces lead to a compromise forged by the ego - Overly impulsive person = Larger id, medium ego, small superego - Overly controlled person = medium sized id, smaller ego, larger superego - Healthy person = medium id, larger ego, and medium superego. - (SEE IMAGE ON SLIDE 32) Slide 33: - "Overworked/threatened ego" (facing intense pressures): - Meeting the conflicting demands of the id and superego - Dealing with external reality - Intrapsychic conflict leads to 2 types of anxiety: - Neurotic anxiety: Apprehension felt when the ego struggles to control the id's impulses - Moral anxiety: Apprehension felt when the ego's decision conflicts with the superego's standards Slide 34: The Dynamics of Personality - To relieve this anxiety it relies on ego defense mechanisms. SEE BELOW **Topic 7B: Psychodynamic Theories of Personality** Slide 1: Title Slide Slide 2: Title Slide Slide 3: The Dynamics of Personality - To relieve this anxiety it relies on ego defense mechanisms. SEE BELOW - Same slide as Slide 34 above. Slide 4-5: (Some) ego-defense mechanisms - Ego-defense mechanisms are (Mainly) unconscious mental processes that: - Block - Deny - Distort - Redirect - reality in order to protect the ego from anxiety - Repression, Displacement, Regression, and Identification are examples of this. - Look at this graph and make some study questions on the different types. - Projection is another one. Slide 6: Ego-defense mechanism: Projection - Freud might argue that this woman is projecting her anger from some deeper conflict onto this man. - The man might love her, and she believes that he hates her. She is projecting. Slide 7: (Some) ego-defense mechanisms - Reaction formation Slide 8: Ego-defense mechanism: Reaction formation - At the same time that televangelist Jimmy Swaggart was preaching the evils of sex to millions...... he was regularly interacting with prostitutes and molesting children. - This is showing reaction formation as he says one thing and does another. - Hypocrisy pretty much. Tell someone not to do something that you yourself are doing. Slide 9: (Some) ego-defense mechanisms - Rationalization: creating false by plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour. Slide 10: Ego-defense mechanism: Rationalization - "Sour Grapes" - This fox has a longing for grapes. He jumps, but the bunch still escapes. So he goes away sour; And, 'tis said, to this hour declares that he's no taste for grapes. - Because he cannot get the grapes he therefore says he doesn't like them. Slide 11: - Sublimation Slide 12: Ego-defense mechanism: Sublimation - Freud argued that creativity was often the result of sublimation -- the redirection of psychic energy from an unacceptable outlet (e.g., compulsive sexual behavior) to an acceptable outlet (e.g., a work of art). Slide 13: Ego-defense mechanism: Sublimation - Unacceptable impulses, such as a desire to hurt others, are channelled into socially acceptable activities. - Think contact sports where you can hurt others. Slide 14: Ego-defense mechanisms: (Mainly) unconscious - Cartoon Slide 15: \[VIDEO 17: Nine Ego-Defense Mechanisms -- Which ones fit your personality?\] Slide 16: How does psychodynamic theory explain personality development? - Psychosexual stages are key developmental periods that leave their marks on adult personality (Freud, 1933). - Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development Stage Approximate Age Erotic Focus Key Challenges, tasks, experiences --------- ----------------- ------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Oral 0-1 Mouth (sucking, biting) Weaning, dependency Anal 2-3 Anus (expelling or retaining feces) Toilet training, cleanliness, control, compliance Phallic 4-5 Genitals (masturbating) Identifying with adult role models, coping with Oedipal crisis Latency 6-12 None (sexually repressed) Expanding social contacts Genital Puberty onward Genital (being sexually intimate) Establishing intimate relationships, contributing to society through working - Latency stage is a sort of pause where someone expands their social contacts. Slide 17: How does psychodynamic theory explain personality development? - Each psychosexual stage has its own: - Sexual/erotic focus (i.e., urges for physical pleasure) - Challenges/tasks that need to be addressed before moving to the next stage Slide 18: How does psychodynamic theory explain personality development? - The way these challenges are handled (supposedly) shapes personality - Fixation: Failure to move forward from one stage to the next (i.e., the child's development "stalls" for a while) caused by: - Excessive gratification of needs at a particular stage - Excessive frustration of those needs Slide 19: How does psychodynamic theory explain personality development? - (Whole or partial) fixations can explain future: - Personality disorders - "Normal" personality in most people (Freud thought we are all ± fixated at some point in our development) Slide 20: The Oral Stage - 0-1 yr: Pleasure comes from mouth - Oral fixation → 2 types of personality: - Excessive gratification → Oral-dependent people are characterized as: - Gullible (literally swallow things easily!) - Passive - In need of a lot of attention (being mothered) - Excessive frustration → Oral-aggressive: - Use mouth to express hostility (through biting, shouting, cursing) Slide 21: The Oral Stage - A Freudian would say that this woman's smoking and nail biting are signs of an oral fixation Slide 22: The Anal Stage - 2-3 yrs: Pleasure comes from bowel movements - Anal fixation → 2 types of personality: - Harsh toilet training → Anal-retentive ("holding-on"), reflected in people who are: - Orderly, compulsively clean, obstinate, stingy - Lenient toilet training → Anal-expulsive ("letting-go"), reflected in people who are: - Disorderly, messy, lenient, generous, destructive Slide 23: The Anal Stage - Freudians believe that the type of toilet training (a parental attempt to regulate a child's biological urges) can influence an individual's personality, with consequences lasting throughout adulthood Slide 24: The Phallic Stage - 4-5 yrs: Pleasure comes from genital touching - Becoming aware of sex differences - Identification with adult role models (same-sex parents) - Oedipus conflict: A little boy's... - Sexual attraction to his mother - Feelings of rivalry with his father - Electra conflict: A little girl's... - Sexual attraction to her father - Feelings of rivalry with her mother - Phallic fixation → Phallic personality which is reflected in people through: - Vanity, exhibitionism, sensitive pride, narcissism Slide 25: The Phallic Stage - Two examples - Freud believed that little girls suffer from "penis envy" - Identification with adult role models (same-sex parents) - B.I.O.L model - About bonding and identification and how you learn actions from imitations and through bonding. Slide 26: \[VIDEO 18: Psychoanalytic Theory -- What Freud thought of Personality\] Slide 27: However... Slide 28: Evolutionary theories Evolve! - Theories die when they are not supported by empirical evidence. Slide 29: Freud and the Americans book. (NATHAN G. HALE Jr.) - Freud's legacy is a shaky one. He has, for the most part, fallen completely out of favor in academia. - Virtually no institution in any discipline would dare use him as a credible source. Slide 30: Freud and the Americans - While Freud's ideas appear intriguing and even common sensical...... there's very little empirical evidence to back up the ones that are testable. - Modern psychology has produced very little to substantiate many of his testable claims. Slide 31: Freud and the Americans - There's no scientific evidence in support of the idea that boys lust after their mothers and hate their fathers. - His notion of "penis envy" is now both laughable and tragic. - There's no proof of the id, ego, or superego. Slide 32: Freud and the Americans - There's also no evidence to support the notion that human development proceeds through oral, anal, phallic, and genital stages. - Nor that the interference, or arresting, of these stages leads to specific developmental manifestations ("fixations"). Slide 33: The Verdict on Freud Paper - "\[T\]here is literally nothing to be said, scientifically or therapeutically, to the advantage of the entire Freudian system or any of its component dogmas. - As a research paradigm, it's pretty much dead." - Crews 1996 **November 25, 2024** Slide 34: - Many of Freud's methodologies, techniques, and conclusions have been put into question. - Moreover, his theories have even proved damaging --- and even dangerous --- to certain segments of the population. - His perspectives on female sexuality and homosexuality are reviled, causing many feminists to refer to him by a different kind of 'F' word. - Some even argue that his name should be spelled "Fraud" and not Freud. Slide 35: Killing Freud - "Freud is truly in a class of his own. Arguably no other notable figure in history was so fantastically wrong about nearly every important thing he had to say. But, luckily for him, academics have been \-- and still are \-- infinitely creative in their efforts to whitewash his errors, even as lay readers grow increasingly dumbfounded by the entire mess." - Todd Dufresne, PhD (Professor of Philosophy, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON) Slide 36: - Okay, sure, Freud's got some problems... But he also nailed a few things... - Unconscious mind (even though he didn't discover that!) - Brain/mind can be compartmentalized - Suppressed memories - Defense mechanisms - Underpinnings of dreams Slide 37: Evaluating Psychodynamic theories - Strengths: - Personality development proceeds through a series of stages - Early life experiences are critical events in personality formation - Weaknesses: - Violating the principle of falsifiability: Many psychodynamic concepts are still impossible to confirm or disconfirm - Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients - Basing theories of personality development on: - Retrospective accounts: Illusion of causality between sequential events - Fallible memories of patients: Adults' inaccurate recollection of childhood Slide 38: Other Psychodynamic theories of Personality - Jung's Analytical Psychology (e.g., collective unconscious, archetypes, anima/animus) - Adler's Individual Psychology Other Psychodynamic Theories of Personality - Klein & Winnicott's Object-Relations Theories **Topic 8A Learning/Cognitive/Behavioural Theories of Personality** Slide 1: Title Slide Slide 2: Title Slide Slide 3: Four Major Personality Theories - Trait theories - Psychodynamic theories - Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories - What we are addressing now. - Humanistic theories - Why the Plural? - Within each major theory: Variations on a same theme - i.e:... theories Slide 4: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - These can be labelled in various ways: - Learning theories - Cognitive theories - Behavioral theories - Social learning theories - Cognitive-social learning theories - Cognitive-social theories - Social-cognitive theories - Cognitive-behavioral theories Slide 5: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - B.F. Skinner - Expert in operant conditioning. One of the founding figures of the philosophy of radical behaviourism. - Albert Bandura - Reciprocal determinism. One of the founders of the social learning theory. - Walter Mischel - Marshmallow test. Doesn't believe in personality. Slide 6: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality... were: - Developed in the 1960s, as an alternative to previous theories arguing that personality "lies within yourself" (putting an emphasis on the "nature" side): - Trait theories: Stable and built-in (biological/genetic) internal predispositions: - Personality traits - But also... personality trait -- context/situation interaction - Psychodynamic theories: Hidden, internal, and conflicting mental processes: - Id, ego, and superego - But also... external reality, moral imperatives, fixations due to early life experiences - These theories seem to be a counter response to the above theories. Slide 7: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - In these theories Personality is viewed as the below: - Is a collection of behavioral patterns learned from personal experiences ("nurture" side) - Combines learning principles, cognitive processes, and the effect of social relationships - What you are/become is the combined consequences of your: - Daily behaviors/social interactions (Behavioural Side of the theory (Skinner)) - Beliefs, interpretations, expectations, and knowledge about those behaviors/social interactions (Cognitive/learning side of the theory (Bandura/Mischel)) - Ability to constantly adjust your behaviors/social interactions in the context of ongoing feedback (Cognitive/learning side of the theory (Bandura/Mischel)) Slide 8: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - As soon as we say that Personality: - Is all about learning - Develops as a result of various learning circumstances and processes - Then we need to define what learning is. - How do you define learning? Slide 9: (Some) definitions of learning - Learning is a term that everyone understands...... even though it eludes satisfactory technical definition. - Acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences, and may involve synthesizing different types of information. - Psychological process (or processes) by which knowledge is acquired from experience. - Occurs when certain experiences lead to long-term change in behavior that reflects the acquisition of knowledge about these experiences. Slide 10: (Some) definitions of learning - Functionally, learning allows individuals to adjust their behavior to the local environment through individual or social experiences. - Usually it is better and adaptive, but sometimes it can be maladaptive. - The counterpart to the previous slide. Slide 11: Different (non-exclusive) types of learning - Non-associative learning (change in behavior due to repeated exposure to a single stimulus, in the absence of any apparent association between stimuli and responses): - Habituation - Sensitization - Associative learning (change in behavior as a result of one event being paired with another. i.e., learning the association between S-S or R-S) - Classical conditioning (Pavlov) - Operant / instrumental conditioning (Skinner)... see also trial-and-error learning - Other forms of learning include: - Discrimination - Categorization - Concept formation - Phase-specific learning - Latent learning - Insight learning - Learning set - Social learning (above mentioned forms of learning are mostly "individual") Slide 12: - Most learning situations comprise components of these different kinds of learning Slide 13: - Types of learning that do not play a major role in the acquisition of "context/situation-specific response tendencies" characteristic of personality - Habituation - Sensitization - Discrimination - Categorization - Concept Formation - Latent Learning - Insight Learning - Learning Set - This doesn't mean that they are insignificant in the development of personality, but probably not highly relevant. Slide 14: - Individuals acquire "context/situation-specific response tendencies" characteristic of personality through 3 main types of learning (but also a few others: like phase-sensitive learning) - Classical conditioning - Operant/instrumental conditioning - Social learning - These are the most important types of learning in personality. Slide 15: Classical Conditioning - Learning about the temporal contingencies in the world around - "Lightening always precedes thunder" Slide 16: Classical Conditioning - Through repeated associations between: - A biologically relevant stimulus (unconditioned stimulus, UCS, which naturally elicits an unconditioned response, UCR) - and an initially neutral stimulus (NS, which elicits no response)... - The NS eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which can alone elicit a conditioned response (CR) Slide 17: Classical Conditioning - A hypothetical example on how a personality disorder could develop. - Repeated negative association between: - Loud music (Neutral S) and being laughed at at parties (UCS) Slide 18: Classical Conditioning - Repeated negative association between: - Loud music (NS) and feeling rejected at parties (UCR) Slide 19: Classical Conditioning - Loud music (CS) associated with feeling socially rejected (CR) - Social phobia (a form of Avoidant Personality Disorder): - Can develop through classical conditioning Slide 20: Classical Conditioning - A Clockwork Orange (Kubrik, 1971): - The "Ludovico technique" as a fictional aversion therapy to treat violent criminals - Watching violent/sexualized movie scenes (stimulus 1) ←→ Listening to Beethoven's 5th Symphony (Stimulus 2) is then associated with: - Experiencing drug-induced nausea (UCS/UCR) Slide 21: Classical Conditioning - The above slide leads to: - Listening to Beethoven's 5th symphony (CS) causing conditioning-induced nausea which leads to: - Alex no longer being a criminal since rape is no longer enticing to him. Slide 22: Operant Conditioning - Also called instrumental conditioning, it is learning about the temporal contingencies of one's own actions in the world around. (Operating in the world) - "Don't touch a hot plate" - You will learn by touching the hot stove to never touch a hot stove again. Slide 23: Operant Conditioning - An individual's behavior is modified (in frequency, form, or intensity) by association with its consequences (positive, negative, or neutral) - Through its own actions (hence "operant" or "trial-and-error"), the individual learns the temporal contingency between: - A particular action (e.g., pressing a lever) - and its outcome, in the form of the presentation of a biologically significant stimulus (unconditioned stimulus: UCS) - Skinner's Experimental Box - During the early training period, a discriminative stimulus (e.g. a light) may be present, to help the individual establish the action-outcome contingency Slide 24: Operant Conditioning - An individual's behavior is modified (in frequency, form, or intensity) by association with its consequences - The UCS can be: - Positive (reinforcement, e.g. food reward) - Negative (punishment, e.g. electric shock) - Neutral (no consequence) Slide 25: Operant Conditioning - Hyper-aggressiveness / chronic violence: - A form of Antisocial Personality Disorder - Can develop through operant conditioning - "Positive" association: - Beating up spouse Gaining influence within couple Slide 26: Skinner's Princicples Applied to Personality - Skinner was not a personality theorist! - His principles of operant conditioning were not meant to be included in a theory of personality. - However, his principles have attracted the attention of personality researchers because: - They are experimentally controlled - They provide testable hypotheses for predicting: - Intra-individual behavioral consistency over time and across contexts/situations - Inter-individual behavioral variation within contexts/situations Slide 27: Skinner on Personality Structure: A View From the Outside - Skinner showed little interest in what goes on "inside" people (e.g., Freud's mental components of personality structure: id-ego-superego) because... it is unobservable! - Radical behavioral determinism: Free will is an illusion because... behavior is fully determined by environmental stimuli. Slide 28: Skinner's Principles Applied to Personality - In Skinner's view, an individual's personality is a collection of response tendencies that are tied to various stimulus situations. - A specific stimulus situation may be hierarchically associated with a number of response tendencies that vary in strength, depending on past operant conditioning. - Stimulus situation: Large party where you know relatively few people. Then we get the operant response tendencies: - Response 1: Circulate, speaking to others only if they approach you first. - Response 2: Stick close to the people you already know - Response 3: Politely withdraw by getting wrapped up in the host's book collection - Response 4: Leave at the first opportunity. Slide 29: Skinner's Principles Applied to Personality - How can Skinner's principles explain intra-individual behavioral consistency over time and across contexts/situations? Slide 30: Skinner's principles applied to personality - Each individual has some stable response tendencies that were acquired through personal experience via operant conditioning. - If similar response tendencies are positively reinforced (i.e., they bring about similar rewards/positive consequences) over time and across environmental conditions... - They are usually maintained Slide 31: Skinner's principles applied to personality - If similar response tendencies are: - Only intermittently positively reinforced - Or negatively reinforced (i.e., they bring about punishment/negative consequences)...... over time and across environmental conditions... - They may change, but they are enduring enough to create a certain degree of consistency in a person's behavior - Children's tendency to throw temper tantrums does not disappear if their parents do not ignore them all the time. - If your impulsive decisions sometimes backfire, your tendency to be impulsive may slightly decline. **November 27, 2024** Slide 32: - Extinguish the robbing/bartering practice in Balinese long-tailed macaques... - Stop rewarding (+ punish?) - Rewarding only 10% of the events, may be enough to maintain the motivation! Slide 33: Skinner's principles applied to personality - How can Skinner's principles explain inter-individual behavioral variation within contexts/situations? - To say that individuals are different in their personality is just to say that they behave differently due to different personal histories. Slide 34: Skinner's principles applied to personality - In similar contexts, Jane is sociable whereas Ana is withdrawn... - According to Skinner, this behavioral difference: - Basically Ana was reinforced when withdrawn or punished when sociable and Jane was reinforced for friendly chatting and sociability or punished for being withdrawn. Slide 35: Skinner's principles applied to personality - In similar contexts, Jane is sociable whereas Ana is withdrawn... - In the past: - Accordingly, the so-called "sociability" trait is just another case of operant conditioning. Slide 36: Behavioural Perspective (VIDEO) **Topic 8B** Slide 1: Title Slide Slide 2: Title Slide Slide 3: Different views on the role of cognition in behavior/personality Freud Skinner Bandura ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Theory Psychodynamic Behavioural Social learning Mental/Cognitive processes: Nature Irrational (unobservable) Rational Mental/cognitive processes: role in personality Major Minor Major Behavioural (personality) determinism Result of conflicting mental forces Radical: Fully determined by environmental stimuli Reciprocal: Interactions between behaviour, environment, and cognition Slide 4: Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Like Skinner: Personality is largely shaped through learning. - Unlike Skinner: - Learning is not a process in which individuals are passive participants - "Individuals are self-organizing, proactive, self reflecting, not just reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by external events" (Bandura, 1999) - Somehow individuals are active participants in their own transformations. Slide 5: Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Internal mental events - Environmental contingencies - Overt behavior - Each box influences one another in the image on the slide. Slide 6: Natural Selection - One-way/deterministic evolutionary process (individuals are "passive" when facing their environment) - You have the traits or you don't have the traits to make it to the next generation. - Luck of the draw - This is not only how it works however. - Evolution is a fact, and not a theory anymore. Slide 7: Natural Construction - Two-way/reciprocal evolutionary process (Individuals are "active" when facing their environment) - Individuals are not passive when it comes to their own evolution and this is through the process of niche construction. - Individuals as "ecological engineers" modify their environment through → - Activities - Metabolic processes - Choices - Local environment (through accumulation and long enough persistence) this then creates a → - Constructed Niches - Once you have a constructed niche, then you create new selection pressures (the little environment sieve on Slide 6) and change it. This is why it is a reciprocal evolutionary process. - F. John Odling-Smee, Kevin N. Laland, and Marcus W. Feldmen - Examples of this niche construction in non-animals is birds migrating, beaver dams, and earthworms modifying the chemical structure of the soil, etc. Slide 8: Example of Cultural Niche Construction in Humans - An example of this niche construction is lactose tolerance. - So dairy farming is the activities and choices that humans choose - The modifications could be in cheese and milk and such - Then the constructed niche would be all this and the change in the environment would be the lactose intolerance that is created. - We can see that cultures in the northern hemisphere that are descended from pastoralists are less lactose intolerant since these genes are selected out. - Culture can shape the human genome. Slide 9: Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Internal mental events - Environmental contingencies - Overt behavior - So the reciprocal arrows between behaviour and environment are niche construction Slide 10: Bandura's reciprocal determinism - Cognition: Expectation of failure in class - Environment: Likelihood of success in test - Behavior: Studying (alone/with others) - If you confront your belief about failing a class based on previous experience or knowledge about yourself, with a variety of environmental conditions or outcomes, then adjusting your study behaviours, this will feed back to your personal/cognitive factors. Slide 11: Bandura's reciprocal determinism - According to Bandura, individuals are: - Neither unfortunate victims battered by the environment (not passive) - Nor masters of their own destiny - You are rather, somewhere in-between. Both master and victim. Slide 12: Skinner's concept of "Radical behavioral determinism" - The brain and the black box. - Skinner's view is that as long as you can understand the inputs and behaviour of the black box, then that's all you need. Though, Skinner doesn't believe in free will. Slide 13: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - Environmental stimulus on the left side, and then behaviour or output on the second box from the right. - These boxes can be viewed as cognitive models. - Environmental Stimulus → They get encoded and categorized → This event might have relevance to our goals → Then if the event is important, you may formulate a plan for action → Then you would execute this plan through behaviour → Then the behaviour itself or the plan might be adjusted based on the outcome of the behaviour. - Though there are 3 additional boxes here that act as upstream regulators or moderators. Once the behavioural plan is generated you could have the (1) behaviour outcome expectancy which will judged whether the behaviour will produce the desired outcome. There might also be the (2) self-efficacy expectancy model which is a confidence rating of how able we believe ourselves to execute this plan. The third box would be the (3) competencies of executing this behaviour. - Individuals would vary greatly in these three boxes and Bandura and Mischel argue this is what creates our personalities. Slide 14: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - A real-life example of this model. Slide 15: Bandura's Self-Efficacy Expectancy - "I think I can": - That belief may have provided a psychological barrier to faster performance until Bannister thought he could, and then did it. Slide 16: Learning/cognitive/behavioral theories of personality - Personality: - Is a collection of behavioral patterns learned from personal experiences ("nurture" side) - Combines learning principles, cognitive processes, and the effect of social relationships - What you are/become is the combined consequences of your: - Daily behaviors/social interactions (Skinner) - Beliefs, interpretations, expectations, and knowledge about those behaviors/social interactions (Bandura and Mischel) - Ability to constantly adjust your behaviors/social interactions in the context of ongoing feedback (Bandura and Mischel) - Old slide, but question could be, "Who believed that we become who we are through our daily behaviours and social interactions? A: Skinner" Slide 17: A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality Paper (Mischel and Shoda) - Graph shows 10 different situations and then the behaviour that each individual performs in each situation and we can see that these two people perform very different behaivours in each situation and very similar in some. Slide 18: - "Simplified illustration of types of cognitive-affective mediating processes that generate an individual's distinctive behavior patterns. Situational features are encoded by a given mediating unit, which activates specific subsets of other mediating units, generating distinctive cognition, affect, and behavior in response to different situations. Mediating units become activated in relation to some situational features, deactivated (inhibited) in relation to others, and are unaffected by the rest. The activated mediating units affect other mediating units through a stable network of relations that characterize an individual. The relation may be positive (solid line), which increases the activation, or negative (dashed line), which decreases the activation." (Mischel & Shoda, 1995) - All the units (circles) are connected to each others and act as mediating process. Slide 19: - Mischel thinks we should not talk about personality because it is not easily measured. - Part of why he introduced the situation-behaviour if... then... profiles. - If you are in a given situation you might want to respond this way. - The right side is an eye, if that is confusing. **December 2, 2024** Slide 21: Personality and Locus of Control - An individual's belief that the consequences of their actions are primarily controlled by either : - Internal (personal) variables - Looks at themselves when things go right or wrong - External (environmental) variables - Look externally rather than at themselves when things go right or wrong - Julian Rotter (1916-2014) - American psychologist who proposed the concept of Locus of Control Slide 22: Personality and Locus of Control - People with an internal locus of control tend to: - Work harder - Use better health practices: - Preventive medicines - Exercise regularly - Quit smoking -... than people with external locus of control - "Internals" believe that achievement of their goals (even collective goals) depends upon their personal efforts towards accomplishing those goals - Humans are religious because they are pattern detecting (and pattern over detecting like seeing faces in the clouds), pattern creating in their rituals (Which is reassuring), cause inferring, purpose seeking, and storytelling animals. - So it is a bit of both external and internal locus of control. Slide 23: Bandura's social learning theory of personality (The Basics) - \"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.... - Individual learning, but: - It is costly - Dangerous - And not very adaptive. - Since we are intrinsically social beings, we learn a lot through observation. Slide 24: Bandura's social learning theory of personality (The Basics) -... Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." - Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977 - Observational learning - You are not observing the actions, but rather the outcomes. - We learn through both direct and indirect learning. Slide 25: Bandura's social learning theory of personality - Observational learning: (A) = model/demonstrator - You need an observer (naive subject) and the modeler - Think showing your child how to shave or sweep up. - We seem to acquire a lot of our personality through developmental phases through observational learning. Slide 26: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - Indirect (only the model is rewarded) - 1\. Vicarious\* reinforcement = Observational learning argues that: - Seeing another individual obtain tangible rewards makes observers attend to the model and aim for the same rewards. - Expectancy about reinforcement is formed by observing another's behavior and the consequences that it produces. - Learner will not gain the reward until they learn. - 2\. Traditional learning (traditional social learning) - 3\. BIOL model Slide 27: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - Vicarious social learning: - Through close visual attention to the detailed behaviours and fine grained actions of the teacher, the observer can learn a variety of complex actions. This requires a keen sense of sensory motor ability and some guidance. Slide 28: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - The more sequential and complex the behavior the more times we must: - Observe it being executed - Practice what we have observed - Many response tendencies are the product of: - Imitation - Observer replicating the exact same actions to hopefully get the same reward. - Teaching - The teacher modifies their behaviour in the presence of the naive observer by things like slowing down their behaviour for the observer. The teacher does not incur immediate benefits, but the observer will acquire skills more rapidly, efficiently, and more similarly to the teacher. - Teaching and imitation are a high-fidelity transmission process. - Humans evolved at a really high degree to imitate and teach Slide 29: Imitation/Teaching? - Surveys of patterns of cultural transmission in humans (parent-offspring correlations): - Habits: 0.07 - Sports: 0.13 - Entertainments: 0.16 - Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1982) - Attitudes towards feminism: 0.34 - Most values: 0.5-0.6 - Political party affiliation: 0.8-0.94 - Boyd and Richerson (1985) - Show a much stronger correlation than the Cavalli-Sforza study. - Picture is from Jaws. Father does thinking things with his hands, but then the son copies him. Slide 30: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - Traditional learning: - Obtaining tangible rewards from socially acquired behaviours allows their maintenance (absence of tangible rewards leads to their extinction) - Model performs the action, and the observer gains the reward. Slide 31: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning (« B.I.O.L. ») - Conformity and a motivation to identify with/act like others and maintain social relations with others are intrinsically rewarding and guide social learning (tangible rewards: not required/secondary) - You learn by observing to bond with the model. No reward since the bonding, being like others, and fitting in is the reward. Slide 32: - B.I.O.L. Bonding and Identification-based Observational Learning - Frans De Waal (2001) The Ape and the Sushimaster - About social connection that drives social learning, that exists mainly in humans, but not only in humans. We can see it in animals too, but not as prevalent. Slide 33: Three theories about the role of reward in social learning - According to the BIOL model: - Doing like others is intrinsically rewarding (belongingness) - Tangible rewards are not required Slide 34: Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning (« B.I.O.L. ») - Video 20 - Dead Poets Society, teaching the power and influence of conformity. We can almost not resist the power of conformity. Slide 35: Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning (« B.I.O.L. ») - Video 22 - BIOL model. Slide 36: Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning (« B.I.O.L. ») - Video 23 - Stone playing macaques Slide 37: Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning (« B.I.O.L. ») - The power of social media. **Lecture 9: Humanistic Theories of Personality** Slide 1: Title Slide Slide 2: Title Slide - Humanistic is different than the humoral theories. Slide 3: Humanistic Theories of Personality - Emerged in the 1960s in reaction (counter-response) to the other theories: 1. Trait theories (Eysenck) 2. Psychodynamic theories (Freud) 3. Behavioral/learning theories (Skinner) - Views of these above personality theories were too... - Deterministic (genes, physical/social environment) - Mechanistic - Fragmented - Pessimistic/conflictual - Probably referring to the id. - Dehumanizing (unconscious forces) - Animalistic (sex, aggression, reward, punishment) - Ignorant of the "unique human qualities" Slide 4: Humanistic Theories of Personality - Humanistic personality psychologists argue that: - "Animal personality" has little (if any) significance/relevance to human personality - Humans can rise above their primitive animal heritage and control their biological urges - Humans are largely conscious and rational beings who are not dominated by unconscious, irrational needs and conflicts Slide 5: Humanistic Theories of Personality - From a humanistic perspective: 1. Biology may hand us temperamental dispositions that limit our general (re) activity 2. Early-life mishandled challenges may somehow shape our adult personality 3. The current physical environment may deal us some tough experiences 4. Our parents/peers may treat us as we would not have wished... - Free Will = Our ability to choose that which is not controlled by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces Slide 6: Humanistic Theories of Personality - Humanistic personality psychologists talk about: - An optimistic alternative to Freud's pessimistic view of the human spirit - Humans' unique potential/capacity for: - Self-awareness - Choice - Responsibility - Personal growth - We can consciously: - Seek our fullest potential (self-actualization) - Control our own behavioral destiny! Slide 7: "It's Never Too Late To Be What You Might Have Been" - George Elliot - Humanistic Theories can be summed up in this quote. Slide 8: Humanistic Theories of Personality - Two central themes: 1. Validity of subjective experience: - How we act is more determined by our unique view/interpretation of the world and ourselves than objective reality. - Our subjective experience is as genuine and valid as anyone's else... -... Even though some individuals' subjective experience may not be adaptive! 2. Phenomenological approach: - To fully grasp an individual's behavior, we need to understand this individual's personal subjective experience. Slide 9: Two Major Humanistic Theorists of Personality - Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers Slide 10: - Maslow = What? Type of questions - What should be ideally and ultimately reached in human life? - Rogers = How? Type of questions - How or which mechanisms can we actually reach self-actualization? Slide 11: Maslow's Self-Actualization Theory - Hierarchy of Needs - Healthy Personality Slide 12: Maslow's Self-Actualization Theory - Human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs, according to priority: 1. Basic/lower needs must be met before... 2. Higher needs are aroused and can be satisfied - Progression occurs if the lower needs are satisfied, and regression occurs if lower needs are not being satisfied. Moving up this pyramid is our innate drive towards personal growth. - Might be good to get study questions on the order of these. Lowest = physiological needs and highest = self-actualization, etc. Slide 13: Maslow's need for self-actualization - Need to fulfill one's highest potential: "What a man can be, he must be" (Maslow) - If you have a great musical talent, but must work/live as a civil servant... - At the top is one\'s true intellectual and emotional potential. Slide 14: Maslow's healthy personality - Maslow's search for the small proportion of self-actualized persons: - Long-term data collection (psychological tests/interviews) on a large population of college students - "If you plan on being anything less than who you are capable of being, you will probably be unhappy all the days of your life." - Maslow **December 4, 2024** Slide 15: Maslow's Healthy Personality - Maslow's search for the small proportion of self-actualized persons: - Case studies of historical figures - Einstein, Gandhi, and Henry David Thoreau - Thoreau was an activist and environmental scientist and published his book titled Walden. It is a reflection on a simple lifestyle surrounded by nature, and to have independence from material goods, have self-reliance. Didn't name it self-actualization though. Slide 16: Maslow's Healthy Personality? - A more moden version of Walden is the movie Into the Wild - The real person was Christopher McCandless who was inspired by Walden and he went hiking in Alaska and seeked a mobile lifestyle. Left material resources behind like burning his ID and giving all his money away. Worked on self-reliance and lived off nature. He was very unprepared and died and was later disovered by a moose hunter, but may have actually achieved self-actualization according to his journal that he wrote near the last days of his life. - In a purely theoretical lens he had a very strong view of how he should live his life without worrying about what others thought of him. Professor sees it as a version of Walden that was derailed and extreme. Slide 17: Maslow's Healthy Personality - Self-Actualized people are Both: - Childlike and mature - Rational and intuitive - Conforming and rebellious Slide 18: Maslow's Healthy Personality - Video 20 BIOL Model and Conformity (Dead Poets Society) - John Keating who is an unorthodox teacher and tells his students to become aware of the dangers of conformity. Slide 19: Maslow's Healthy Personality - Video 24 Role Model and Self-Actualization (Dead Poets Society) - Seize the day (Carpe Diem) Slide 20: Maslow's Healthy Personality Slide 21: Roger's Person Centered Theory (How?) - Self-concept - (In)congruence - Recurrent anxiety - Defensive behaviors - Carl Rogers and his person centered theory of personality. Slide 22: Rogers' Self-Concept - (General definition of self-concept): A person's perception of their own personality traits - (Rogers version of self-concept): Conscious collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior - Your self-concept = your own mental picture of yourself - "I am easygoing" - "I am sly and crafty" - "I am pretty" - "I am hardworking" - You are aware of these beliefs Slide 23: Rogers' model of personality structure (See image) - Too much incongruence undermines one's psychological well-being - When your self-concept meshes with your actual experience there is congruence, though there can not be 100% overlap. - Incongruence is when the self-concept does not mesh well with your actual experience. - Self-concept = Im so smart / Actual experience = F's on your tests - This messes with you. Slide 24: \[VIDEO 25: Expectations vs. Reality\_500 Days of Summer\] Slide 25: Rogers' model of personality development/dynamics - CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES - Love from parents is: - If you believe that affection from others is conditional → May feel the need to distort shortcomings to feel worthy of affection → May lead to a relatively incongruent self-concept → Causing recurrent anxiety → Leading to defensive behaviours to protect inaccurate self-concept → Which then cycles back to the relatively incongruent self-concept. - Having unconditional love is the opposite. Slide 26: Rogers' model of personality development/dynamics - YOUNG ADULTHOOD EXPERIENCES - I believe that I'm such a good friend, but then you get feedback from boyfriends/girlfriends: - "You're a self-centered, snotty brat!" - Defensive behaviours because of this incongruence might lead to: - "My boyfriend is just frustrated because I won't get more serious with him" - "My female friend is just jealous because of my good looks" - These both look like rationalization Slide 27: Evaluating Humanistic Theories - Strengths: - Refreshing/new perspective on the study of personality - Emphasis on the role of: - Subjective experience - Self-concept - Healthy personality Slide 28: Evaluating Humanistic Theories - Weaknesses: - Poor measurability and testability: - Personal growth? - Self-actualization? - Unrealistic view of human nature - Self-actualized persons are very rare and look too perfect! - More philosophical than scientific view Slide 29: \[VIDEO 26: Humanistic theory of personality\_Maslow & Rogers\] Slide 30: A recap on the four major views of personality... - May have short answer type questions that will require you to get an overview of these 4 major theories that we discussed. Slide 31: Image - Hans Eysneck is trait theory, though called biological view on this slide. Slide 32: Image - A slightly different summary from the last slide Slide 33: Image - The major influences on personality Slide 34: Which Theories Can(not) be Applied to Nonhuman Animals? - Can you imagine a cat self-actualizing? **Topic 10: Heritability of Personality** Slide 1: Title Slide Slide 2: Title Slide Slide 3: The Wrong Questions - (Genetic Determinism) - There are many ways to phrase questions - The wrong way to approach is to be aware of any forms of genetic determinism - The idea that an organism's phenotype is determined by their genotype alone. Genetic factors alone are causally responsible for behavioural traits and outcomes. - So they would believe that environment does not influence anything. Slide 4: Gay Gene? - Is there a specific gene for specific diseases or traits? - The IQ gene? - This is not grounded in any serious or solid science. Slide 5: About Huntington's Disease - "The cause is in the genes and nowhere else. Either you have the Huntington\'s mutation and will get the disease or not. This is determinism, predestination and fate on a scale of which Calvin never dreamed. It seems at first sight to be the ultimate proof that the genes are in charge and that there is nothing we can do about it. It does not matter if you smoke, or take vitamin pills, if you work out or become a couch potato. The age at which the madness will appear depends strictly and implacably on the number of repetitions of the \'word\' CAG in one place in one gene." (p. 56) - Matt Ridley book called Genome (1999) Slide 6: About Huntington's Disease - "Huntington\'s disease is at the far end of a spectrum of genetics. It is pure fatalism, undiluted by environmental variability. Good living, good medicine, healthy food, loving families or great riches can do nothing about. Your fate is in your genes." (p. 64) - A very rare exception to determinism. Slide 7: - Robert Plomin book called Blueprint (2018) - Genes cannot cause anybody to do anything, any more than you can live in the blueprint of your house. - From the Book Slide 8: Nature or Nurture, Either Way It's Your Parents Fault - Genes influence behaviors/diseases indirectly, by affecting the biological functioning of particular body systems that mediate phenotypes via: - Nervous system - Hormonal regulation - Like other complex phenotypic traits, cognitive/personality traits are modulated by an interaction between the individual's genes and environment, during its ontogeny Slide 9: Goals of Behavioral Genetics 1. What % of variance (interindividual differences) is due to: a. Genetic causes? b. Environmental causes? 2. What is the nature of these underlying causes? 3. How do genes and environment interact to influence the development of a particular phenotype? - Matt Ridley book Nature via Nurture - It is not one or the other Slide 10: Heritability of Personality: - The "H word" and the "P word" ! - Examples of wrong ways to ask important but value-laden, thus slippery questions: - "A gene for personality?" - "Is who you are heritable?" - "Nature versus Nurture of individuality?" Slide 11: Controversy about genes and personality - Many people worry about how research findings linking genetics and personality may be misused to support: - Particular political agendas - If individual differences in sensationseeking are caused by specific genes, should we hold juvenile delinquents responsible for "stealing cars for joy rides"? - Pessimism about possibilities for change... - Eugenics - Daniel J Kevles book In The Name of Eugenics (1995) Slide 12: Controversy about genes and personality - Modern psychologists who study the genetics of personality are typically extremely careful in their attempts to educate others about the use and potential misuse of their findings... Slide 13: Genes and Personality - Variant Gene Tied to a Love of New Thrills Article by Natalie Angier **December 9, 2024** Slide 14: Review Article - Comorbidity of Personality Disorder Among Substance Use Disorder Patients: A Narrative Review - Parmar and Kaloiya - Yellow = high scores on some personality traits can increase the risk for individuals chance of developing substance use disorders. Slide 15: The "Personality Triangle" - Dopamine → ✓ Fine motor control ✓ Sequential thought ✓ Anticipation of pleasure **✓ Novelty-seeking** - Slide is just a reminder from previous classes. - Interactions among 3 neurotransmitters that affect behavioral expression through changes in: - Mood - Emotion - Reactivity - Serotonin → ✓ Sleep onset **✓ Depression/anxiety** ✓ Aggressiveness ✓ Impulsivity Slide 16: The Meaning of Heritability: Definition and Examples - A statistical estimate of the proportion (or percentage) of the total variation in a trait that is attributable to genetic variation **within a group** (the rest: environmental variation) - Heritability values vary from: - 0.0 to 1.0 (proportion) - 0 to 100% (percentage) - Example: A trait heritability value of 0.60 means that 60% of the total variation in this trait (within the study group) is due to genetic variation - Example of a **highly heritable trait**: Body height - Within a group of equally well-nourished individuals, most (≈ 90%) of the variation in body height among them can be explained by their genetic differences - 90% is very high. - Example of a **lowly heritable trait**: Table manners - Most variation among individuals can be explained by differences in upbringing Slide 17: The meaning of heritability: Key concepts (and misconceptions) - Heritability is a population-level measure, not an individual-level measure - Only populations (groups of individuals) have heritability (not separate individuals) - For a given individual, genetic and environmental effects are inextricably intertwined - Genes and environment influence eachother. - An estimate of heritability applies only to a particular population living in a particular environment - If the environmental conditions change, the same population may show different heritability values for the same trait - If you change the environment conditions then you must change the trait as well. - You need to link heritability to an environment that you know quite well. - The trait under study must vary among individuals in the population for it to have a measurable heritability - An invariable trait has no heritability - TRY AND REMEMBER THESE MISCONCEPTION FOR THE EXAM. Slide 18: The meaning of heritability: Key concepts (and misconceptions) - Strong selection (natural, sexual, artificial) on a (behavioral) trait reduces its genetic variation, and thus reduces its heritability - Heritability needs variation to be expressed. - Heritability is NOT a measure of the degree of genetic CONTROL of a (behavioral) trait - Even highly heritable traits can be modified by the environment - Because heritability values are computed from correlations (which can fluctuate from sample to sample), they are regarded as estimates rather than absolutely precise statistics Slide 19: Heritability values of different personality traits and in different animal taxa - Most important column is [*H*^2^]{.math.inline} Slide 20: Heritability values of different personality traits and in different animal taxa - In a sample of 128 subjects of male juvenile bony fishes, 37% of the variation in the "aggressiveness" personality trait are attributable to genetic variation (i.e., variation upon which natural selection can act) - [*H*^2^]{.math.inline} *=* 0.37 on the graph on the first row. - We can see that females aggressiveness is only 25% heritable. - Heritability is based on many side factors like sex. Slide 21: Heritability values of different personality traits and in different animal taxa - In a sample of 42 subjects of passerine birds (e.g., wrens), 22% of the variation in the "exploratory tendency" are attributable to genetic variation (i.e., variation upon which natural selection can act) - [*H*^2^]{.math.inline} *=* 0.22 on the Passeriformes row beside Dingemanse et al (2002) - There is a lot of additional information that is needed to define heritability. Slide 22: Measuring heritability by designing a truncation selection experiment - Raven population: Inter-individual variation in the latency to approach novel objects ("Novel approach scores") - How fast are they going to the new object? Slide 23: Measuring heritability by designing a truncation selection experiment - Step \#1: - We measure the novel approach scores of all the birds in the population when they reach 12 months of age - Mean approach score for Generation 1: - X0 = 60 sec - You can see that in generation two, the mean speed decreases to 70 seconds Slide 24: Measuring heritability by designing a truncation selection experiment - Step \#2: - We "truncate" (cut off) the population variation in novel approach scores by allowing only those individuals with approach scores \> 80 sec to breed. - Mean approach score for this subpopulation of Generation 1: - X1 = 90 sec - Selection differential (variation upon which natural selection could act): - S = X1 - X0 = 30 sec - X1 = 90 seconds and X0 = 60 seconds - S = selection differential Slide 25: Measuring heritability by designing a truncation selection experiment - Step \#3: - We raise the offspring produced by the truncated subpopulation of Generation 1 until 12 months of age and we measure their novel approach scores. - Mean approach score for Generation 2: - X2 = 70 sec - Response to selection: - R = X2 -- X0 = 10 sec - X2 = 70 seconds and X0 = 60 seconds - R = Response to selection Slide 26: Measuring heritability by designing a truncation selection experiment - Heritability = R/S = 10/30 = 0.33 - One-third of all the variation in approach scores is due to genetic variation - (i.e., variation upon which natural selection can act) Slide 27-28: Real-world Measures of Heritability - Scientists have no way to measure the heritability of a (behavioral) trait directly - They must infer it by comparing, in different environments, the behaviors of individuals whose degree of genetic relatedness is known - Selective breeding = Eugenics in humans - This is the same graph that you were shown for last midterm. Slide 29: Selective Breeding Studies - Method: Artificial selection = Identify individuals that possess certain desirable phenotypic traits (e.g., morphology, personality) and have them mate ONLY with other individuals that possess these traits - Hypothesis: - If heritability for trait X = 0 → Selective breeding should fail - If heritability for trait X = high → Rapid (years/decades/centuries) evolution of the trait - Considering the success of selective breeding in dogs, these personality traits must be (moderately? highly?) heritable - Basset hounds are calm - Terriers are excitable - Spaniels are sociable Slide 30: Behavioural Syndrome (Species Level) - Kenth Svarthberg (2006) article on Breed-Typical Behaviour in Dogs - Historical Remnants or recent Constructs - We've seen this one before, and basically they found that breed typical behaviours in dogs are recent constructs that occurred in the last decade. Slide 31: Real-World Measures of Heritability - Family Studies = Pedigree Studies Slide 32: Family Studies - Method: Various types of relatives with different known degrees of genetic relatedness Slide 33: Family Studies - This is showing the degree of relatedness between relations. - It is impossible to have 0% relatedness since we have a shared common ancestor. Slide 34: Family Studies - Method: Various types of relatives with different known degrees of genetic relatedness o - Hypothesis: - If the trait is heritable, there will be phenotypic similarity among relatives/kin - Prediction: - Closer relatives, who share more genes, should be more similar with regard to that trait than more distant relatives, who share fewer genes - You actually test the prediction, not the hypothesis since it is vague. Slide 35: Family Studies - Gottesman, 1991 - Schizophrenia and heritable Slide 36: Family Studies - Strength: First step to assess whether or not a trait "runs in families" - Weakness: Such correlations do not provide conclusive evidence that the trait is highly influenced by genes - Why not? - Family members generally share not only genes but also similar environments - Closer relatives are more likely to live together than more distant relatives - Genetic and environmental effects cannot be disentangled Slide 37: Real-World Measures of Heritability - Twin Studies = Cloning Studies in animals - The strengths and weaknesses of family studies are why we have other studies like this. Slide 38: Twin Studies - Method: Two types of twins: - Identical (monozygotic: MZ) - Fraternal (dizygotic: DZ) - Hypothesis: - If the trait is highly heritable, there will be strong phenotypic similarity between twins - Prediction: - MZ twins, who share more/all genes (100%), should be more similar with regard to that trait than DZ twins, who share fewer genes Slide 39: Twin Studies - Heritability = Twice the difference between the correlation among MZ twins and the correlation among DZ twins - 40% of the behavioral variance are accounted for by genetic variance. Slide 40: Twin Studies - McGue et al. 1993 and Loehlin 1992 - Findings showing intelligence and personality are heritable. Slide 41: Twin Studies - Loehlin (1992) - Found that Identical twins are much closer in personality showing that there is some heritability in personality. Slide 42: Twin Studies - Similar results to the last slide found by Zuckerman (1991) using the PEN model from Eysenck. - Again shows that personality is heritable. Slide 43: Twin Studies - You can see that these disorders show a lot of heritability, with Huntington's disease being 100% heritable. Slide 44: Twin Studies - Strength: Both types of twins usually share similar environmental conditions: - Grow up in the same home - At the same time - With similar social networks - Weaknesses: - Even MZ twins are not strictly identical in intelligence and personality → Environmental influences? (no control environmental group) - MZ twins may be treated more alike than DZ twins Slide 45: Real-World Measures of Heritability - Adoption studies = cross-fostering studies in animals - This is the furthest step to take for studies and is usually the best. Slide 46: Adoption Studies - Method: Two types of twins in two types of environments: - Identical (monozygotic: MZ) reared together / apart - Fraternal (dizygotic: DZ) reared together / apart - Strength: Control for both genetic variation and environmental variation Slide 47: Adoption Studies - Shows the study done on the Minnesota Twins that were reared apart allowing for the study of both genetic and environmental factors. (Tellegen et al 1988) - Both genetic and environmental effects Slide 48: Adoption Studies - Plomin and Caspi 1999 - The strongest single predictor of most major personality traits is the standing of one's biological parents on the same trait: - About 50% of the variation in broad personality traits are genetically heritable. - Shows that the big 5 traits are highly heritable, but also influenced greatly by our environment. Slide 49: Table 9.2: Heritability of Some Psychological Traits Slide 50: Personality Traits by Gerald Matthews, Ian J. Deary, and Martha C. Whiteman - There will be no exam questions based on specific heritability, but there will be on things like 50% heritability of big 5 traits. Slide 51: Adoption Studies - Shared environment: Aspects of the environment that are the same for people within a family: - Same household - Same parents - Same socioeconomic status - Same books in home library - Same pets - Nonshared environment: Aspects of the environment that are unique to each individual: - Differential parental treatment - Different friends - Different schools - Different hobbies (± reading, ≠ types of books) Slide 52: Adoption Studies - If shared environment is important in the development of personality traits: - Biologically unrelated (adoptive) siblings raised together should be very similar - Biological siblings raised together should be more similar than those raised apart Slide 53: Adoption Studies - If shared environment is important in the development of personality traits: - Biologically unrelated (adoptive) siblings raised together should be very similar - RESULT: On average, the correlation for personality traits between unrelated siblings raised together is ≈ 0 - Biological siblings raised together should be more similar than those raised apart - RESULT: Non-significant differences in personality traits Slide 54: Adoption Studies - These results may seem surprising: - "Why are children raised in the same family so different from one another?" (Plomin article) - Theories in developmental psychology and social science long emphasized the importance of specific strategies in raising children... - However, these results do not indicate that upbringing or parental styles are not important... Slide 55: - Experiences unique to each member of the family are key in understanding the development of personality: - Differential treatment of children by parents - Different friends - Different schools, teachers - Different hobbies Slide 56: Personality Traits Book by Gerald Matthews, Ian J. Dreary, and Martha C. Whiteman - Plomin, Asbury and Dunn (2001) - Gave a list of influences on why children are different that grow up in the same household. - Test-retest reliability = taking a test again and getting the same score. No = low reliability and Yes = high reliability Slide 57: Video 31 Nature-Nurture of Personality