PSY 2106 Theories of Personality PDF

PSY 2105: Theories of Personality Mark Linao | MW 10:30 - 12:00 – Theories are commonly develop to explain INTRODUCTION TO psychopathology...

PSY 2105: Theories of Personality Mark Linao | MW 10:30 - 12:00 – Theories are commonly develop to explain INTRODUCTION TO psychopathology First, a theory is a set of THEORIES OF assumptions. A single assumption can PERSONALITY never fill all the requirements of an adequate theory. Mark Linao Second, a theory is a set of related assumptions. Isolated assumptions can What is Personality? neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor Humans are not alone in their uniqueness of possess internal consistency– two criteria of and variability between individual members of the a useful theory. species. Individuals within every living species A third key word in the definition is exhibit differences or variability. assumptions. The components of a theory Personality theorists have not agreed on a are not proven facts in the sense that their single definition of personality. Psychologists differ validity has been absolutely established. among themselves as to the meaning of – it should not be easily disprovable personality. Most agreed that the word “personality” Fourth, logical deductive originated from the Latin persona. reasoning is used by the researcher to persona - mask formulate hypotheses. - What you show to the world – to formulate hypotheses - Hides what it is inside – understanding & explanation Although no single definition is acceptable The final part of the definition to all personality theorists, we can say that includes the qualifier testable. Unless a personality is a pattern of relatively permanent hypothesis can be tested in some way, it is traits (should be enduring) and unique characteristics worthless. that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior. What are the different Theories? Traits contribute to individual – “different” because of different perspectives differences in behavior, consistency of Alternate theories exist because the very behavior over time, and stability of behavior nature of a theory allows the theorist to make across situations. Traits may be unique, speculations from a particular point of view. common to some group, or shared by the Theorists must be as objective as possible when entire species, but their pattern is different gathering data, but their decisions as to what data for each individual. are collected and how these data are interpreted – the pillars of the personality are personal ones. Theories are not immutable Characteristics are unique qualities laws; they are built, not on proven facts, but on of an individual that include such attributes assumptions that are subject to individual as temperament, physique, and intelligence. interpretation. – unique qualities Perspectives in Theories of Personality What is Theory? Psychodynamic theories A scientific theory is a set of related Psychodynamic theories are a set of assumptions that allows scientists to use logical psychological theories that focus on the deductive reasoning to formulate testable influence of unconscious processes and hypotheses.  inner conflicts on human behavior, Dispositional Theories emotions, and personality development. Dispositional theories are These theories are rooted in the work of psychological theories that emphasize the Sigmund Freud, a pioneering figure in role of innate personality traits, psychology, and have evolved over time characteristics, or predispositions in shaping through the contributions of various human behavior and understanding psychologists and theorists. individual differences. These theories Childhood experiences play a role in your suggest that certain traits and qualities are current personality relatively stable and consistent across Past experiences affects the personality different situations, contributing to how How can we know the things that we don’t know? individuals think, feel, and behave. Dream analysis What can we see, can be measured Word association OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, ○ Gathered secrets Extroversion, Agreeableness, and ○ What comes to mind when you hear Neuroticism the word “***” Mathematical in nature ○ Narrowed by statistics Humanistic-Existential Theories How much of it is there Humanistic-Existential Theories are psychological theories that emphasize the subjective experience of individuals, their Biological-Evolutionary Theories unique qualities, and their capacity for Biological-evolutionary theories are personal growth and self determination. psychological theories that emphasize the These theories focus on understanding influence of biology and evolution on human human behavior, emotions, and behavior, emotions, and cognitive development through the lens of processes. These theories suggest that individuality, free will, and the search for many aspects of human psychology are meaning in life. shaped by our biological makeup and Humanistic theories evolutionary history. ○ All of us wants to do good They explore how genetic factors, ○ The reason why people have physiological processes, and adaptive depression, anxiety, etc. is because behaviors have contributed to the they’re desire to be good is satisfied by bad habits development of human traits and behaviors Meaning they fall short in over time. their desire to do good Biological Theories Existential Theories ○ Behaviors and personality is ○ We are our choices distinguished by your genetics ○ We are driven by finding meaning There is something in their in life genes that are making Life is meaningless: it’s up them that way to us to create meaning in Is it really genes or how life you are brought up? How we make our Evolutionary meaning determines our ○ Traits necessary for survival are personality. the ones passed down Squished together because it’s centered on Common idea: you got it from someone else what I can do (to be good or to find (interlinked) meaning) ○ Aim is to satisfy personality and Learning (Social)-Cognitive Theories meaning. Learning-cognitive theories are psychological theories that focus on  understanding how individuals acquire A theory must also be evaluated on its knowledge, learn new behaviors, and ability to be confirmed or disconfirmed; that process information. These theories is, it must be falsifiable. examine the cognitive processes, mental To be falsifiable, a theory must be precise structures, and environmental factors that enough to suggest research that may either influence learning and behavior change. support or fail to support its major tenets. They emphasize the role of both cognitive - How can you prove that it is wrong? (thinking and mental processes) and behavioral (Observable actions and Organizes data responses) elements in shaping human A useful theory should also be able to behavior. organize those research data that are not incompatible with each other. we only know what you decide to tell us Without some organization or classification, their motivation doesn’t matter research findings would remain isolated and When you do good then you are good meaningless. Unless data are organized How you think about something into some intelligible framework, scientists ○ your thoughts affect your behavior are left with no clear direction to follow in ○ you learn from other people’s experiences the pursuit of further knowledge. - The person that may see or study the research may understand what the study mean - A good theory may be able to understand easily Guides action A fourth criterion of a useful theory is its ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day problems. - A good theory should make you want to do things. - It is not enough that it tells you what it is. It also must tell you what to do with you learn - Prescriptive and descriptive Internally consistent What makes a theory useful? A useful theory need not be consistent with Generates research other theories, but it must be consistent with The most important criterion of a useful itself. theory is its ability to stimulate and guide An internally consistent theory is one whose further research. Without an adequate components are logically compatible theory to point the way, many of science's - Operational definition present empirical findings would have - Example: how can we decide remained undiscovered. if a behavior is aggressive? ○ A theory should compel people to build upon - If a term is defined in a research what’s already there today, that term shouldn’t change 10 ○ Makes you want to add to what i already years later said - Must be consistent over time ○ What can you add to this that would make our knowledge of this topic more wholesome ○ Motivate you to want to know more Falsifiable  Parsimonious When two theories are equal in their ability to generate research, be falsified, give meaning to data, guide the practitioner, and be self-consistent, the simpler one is preferred. If two researches pass all the criteria, the simpler one wins ○ We prefer the simpler version of the theory Dimension of the Concept of Humanity Determinism vs Free Choice Pessimism vs Optimism Causality vs Teleology Conscious vs Unconscious Biological vs Social Uniqueness vs Similarities  our overt behaviors, we often are not aware Psychoanalysis of the mental processes that lie behind them Sigmund Freud Unconscious processes often enter into consciousness but only after being Biography of Sigmund Freud disguised or distorted enough to elude Born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia censorship. They usually have to slip the (now part of the Czech Republic). primary censor and final censor. Came from a Jewish family with modest Not all unconscious processes, means. He had 10 other siblings. Despite however, spring from repression of that he is considered to be his mother's childhood events. Some come from our favorite. phylogenetic endowment. Freud went to the University of Vienna Unconscious drives may appear in Medical School consciousness, but only after undergoing Received a grant to go to Paris and study certain transformations. under Jean-Martin Charcot. He learned hypnotic techniques to treat hysteria. Preconscious While a medical student, met Josef Breuer The preconscious level of the mind who taught Freud about the concept of contains all those elements that are not catharsis. The alleviation of hysteria through conscious but can become conscious either "talking it out" quite readily or with some difficulty. Freud and Breuer's Studies on Hysteria was The contents of the preconscious published where he introduced the term come from two sources: conscious "physical analysis" that then evolved to perception and the unconscious. psychoanalysis. Freud suffered professional isolation and Conscious personal crises that led him to analyze his Consciousness, which plays a dreams. relatively minor role in psychoanalytic He published Interpretation of Dreams in theory, can be defined as those mental 1900 which catapulted Freud's fame and elements in awareness at any given point in spread his future ideas. time. Freud created the organization Vienna Ideas can reach consciousness from Psychoanalytic Society. Which boasted two different directions. First is through members like Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Steel, perceptual conscious system and mental and Carl Jung. structure. Levels of Mental Life Freud's greatest contribution to personality theory is his exploration of the unconscious and his insistence that people are motivated primarily by drives of which they have little or no awareness. It's divided into unconscious, preconscious, conscious. Unconscious The unconscious contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but that nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions. Although we may be conscious of Provinces of the Mind The Superego For nearly 2 decades, Freud's only model of In Freudian psychology, the the mind was the topographic one we have just superego, or above-I, represents the moral outlined, and his only portrayal of psychic strife was and ideal aspects of personality and is the conflict between conscious and unconscious guided by the moralistic and idealistic forces. Then, during the 1920s, Freud introduced a principles as opposed to the pleasure three-part structural model. principle of the id and the realistic principle The provinces are your id, ego, and of the ego. superego. The superego has two subsystems, the conscience and the ego-ideal. The Id A well-developed superego acts to At the core of personality and control sexual and aggressive impulses completely unconscious is the psychical through the process of repression. It cannot region called the id, a term derived from the produce repressions by itself, but it can impersonal pronoun meaning "the it," or the order the ego to do so. not-yet-owned component of personality. The superego is not concerned with All of the id's energy is spent for one the happiness of the ego. It strives blindly purpose– to seek pleasure without regard and unrealistically toward perfection. for what is proper or just. It is also called your pleasure principle. The id operates through the primary process. Because it blindly seeks to satisfy the pleasure principle, its survival is dependent on the development of a secondary process to bring it into contact with the external world. This secondary process functions through the ego. The Ego The ego, or I, is the only region of the mind in contact with reality. It grows out Dynamic of Personality of the id during infancy and becomes a Levels of mental life and provinces of the person's sole source of communication with mind refer to the structure or composition of the external world. personality; but personalities also do something. As the sole region of the mind in Thus, Freud postulated a dynamic, or motivational contact with the external world, the ego principle, to explain the driving forces behind becomes the decision-making or executive people's actions. To Freud, people are motivated to branch of personality. It is called your seek pleasure and to reduce tension and anxiety. reality principle. Your dynamics are drives and anxiety. As your ego is performing its Drives cognitive and intellectual functions, it must Drives operate as a constant motivational at the same time, try to satisfy the id, force. He used the German word "Trieb," which can conform to the superego, and do it in a be translated as "drive" or "instinct," to describe the realistic manner. Because of the pressure of powerful, innate forces that motivate human all three, the ego from time to time becomes behavior and shape psychological processes. anxious. To manage the anxious feelings, These drives are considered the basic building defense mechanisms are employed. blocks of human motivation and are the primary forces behind thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.  According to Freud, the various drives can final aim of the aggressive drive is all be grouped under two major headings: sex or self-destruction. Eros and aggression, distraction, or Thanatos. Throughout our lifetime, life and Every basic drive is characterized by an death impulses constantly struggle against impetus, a source, an aim, and an object. one another for ascendancy, but at the same time, both must bow to the reality Sex principle, which represents the claims of the The aim of the sexual drive is outer world. pleasure, but this pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction. Eros includes both the sexual drive (libido) and the broader desire Anxiety for pleasure and positive experiences. Freud defined anxiety as a felt, affective, The ultimate aim of the sexual drive unpleasant state accompanied by a physical (reduction of sexual tension) cannot be sensation that warns the person against impending changed, but the path by which the aim is danger. The unpleasantness is often vague and reached can be varied. hard to pinpoint, but the anxiety itself is always felt. Because the path is flexible and Anxiety, according to Freud, is classified because sexual pleasure stems from organs into three. Neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety, and other than the genitals, much behavior realistic anxiety. originally motivated by Eros is difficult to recognize as sexual behavior. Neurotic Anxiety The flexibility of the sexual object or Neurotic anxiety is defined as person can bring about a further disguise of apprehension about an unknown danger. Eros. The erotic object can easily be People may experience neurotic anxiety in transformed or displaced. the presence of a teacher, employer, or Sex can take many forms, including some other authority figure because they narcissism, love, sadism, and previously experienced unconscious masochism. feelings of destruction against one or both Infants are primarily self-centered, parents. with their libido invested almost exclusively on their own ego. This is what you call Moral Anxiety narcissism. It's divided into two, primary Moral anxiety stems from the conflict narcissism and secondary narcissism. between the ego and the superego. After A second manifestation of Eros is children establish a superego— usually by love, which develops when people invest the age of 5 or 6 - they may experience their libido on an object or person other than anxiety as an outgrowth of the conflict themselves. between realistic needs and the dictates of Sadism is the need for sexual their superego. pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person. Masochism is when the Realistic Anxiety person experiences sexual pleasure from Realistic anxiety is closely related to suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either fear. It is defined as an unpleasant, by themselves or by others. nonspecific feeling involving a possible danger. Aggression The aim of the destructive drive, These three types of anxiety are seldom according to Freud, is to return the clear-cut or easily separated. They often exist in organism to an inorganic state. Because the combination, as when fear of water, a real danger, ultimate inorganic condition is death, the becomes disproportionate to the situation and hence precipitates neurotic anxiety as well as feelings when confronted with distressing realistic anxiety. emotions or desires. Anxiety serves as an ego-preserving Reactive behavior can be identified mechanism because it signals us that some danger by its exaggerated character and by its is at hand. obsessive and compulsive form Defense Mechanisms Displacement Defense mechanisms are psychological Displacement involves redirecting an strategies or coping mechanisms that individuals emotional response from its original source use unconsciously to protect themselves from to a less threatening target. emotional distress, anxiety, or threats to their In displacement, however, people self-esteem. These mechanisms operate at an can redirect their unacceptable urges into a unconscious level and help people manage variety of people or objects so that the uncomfortable emotions and thoughts. original impulse is disguised or concealed. Although defense mechanisms are normal and universally used, when carried to an extreme Fixation they lead to compulsive, repetitive, and neurotic It refers to an unresolved, persistent behavior. focus on a particular stage of psychosexual Because we must expend psychic energy to development establish and maintain defense mechanisms, the Psychical growth normally proceeds more defensive we are, the less psychic energy we in a somewhat continuous fashion through have left to satisfy id impulses. This, of course, is the various stages of development. The precisely the ego's purpose in establishing defense process of psychologically growing up, mechanisms-to avoid dealing directly with sexual however, is not without stressful and and aggressive implosives and to defend itself anxious moments. against the anxiety that accompanies them When the prospect of taking the next The principal defense mechanisms step becomes too anxiety provoking, the identified by Freud include repression, reaction ego may resort to the strategy of remaining formation, displacement, fixation, regression, at the present, more comfortable projection, introjection, and sublimation. psychological stage. Repression Regression The most basic defense mechanism, Regression involves reverting to a because it is involved in each of the others. less mature or earlier stage of development Repression is a specific defense in response to stress or anxiety. mechanism in psychology that involves the Once the libido has passed a unconscious act of pushing or suppressing developmental stage, it may, during times of distressing, unwanted, or painful thoughts, stress and anxiety, revert back to that earlier memories, or feelings out of conscious stage. awareness. A common way for adults to react to anxiety-producing situations is to revert to Reaction Formation earlier, safer, more secure patterns of One of the ways in which a behavior and to invest their libido onto more repressed impulse may become conscious primitive and familiar objects. is through adopting a disguise that is directly opposite its original form. Reaction formation involves expressing the opposite of one's true  Projection Projection involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to someone else. When an internal impulse provokes too much anxiety, the ego may reduce that anxiety by attributing the unwanted impulse to an external object, usually another person. Introjection Stages of Development Introjection is a psychological Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual concept that refers to the process by which development outlines four stages that individuals an individual internalizes or takes in external pass through during early childhood. attitudes, beliefs, values, or characteristics ➔ people grow up in different stages of others. Freud proposed that each stage is Whereas projection involves placing associated with a specific erogenous zone (an area an unwanted impulse onto an external of the body sensitive to pleasure) and a object, introjection is a defense mechanism corresponding developmental task. These stages whereby people incorporate positive are crucial in shaping an individual's personality qualities of another person into their own and psychological development. ego. ➔ Erogenous zone - the part of your body that you are People introject characteristics that trying to satisfy they see as valuable and that will permit To Freud, the first 4 or 5 years of life, or the them to feel better about themselves. infantile stage, are the most crucial for personality formation. This stage is followed by a 6- or 7-year Sublimation period of latency during which time little or no Sublimation involves channeling sexual growth takes place. Then at puberty, a unacceptable impulses or desires into renaissance of sexual life occurs, and the genital socially acceptable and constructive stage is ushered in. Psychosexual development activities. eventually culminates in maturity. Each of these defense mechanisms ➔ each stage are trying to satisfy a specific body part serves the individual by protecting the ego ◆ even at a young age, child possess sexual satisfaction from anxiety, but each is of dubious value from society's viewpoint. According to Freud, one mechanism-sublimation helps Infantile Period both the individual and the social group. One of Freud's most important The sublimated aim is expressed assumptions is that infants possess a most obviously in creative cultural sexual life and go through a period of accomplishments such as art, music, and pregenital sexual development during the literature, but more subtly, it is part of all first 4 or 5 years after birth. human relationships and all social pursuits. Close observers accept the idea that children show an interest in the genitals, delight in sexual pleasure, and manifest sexual excitement. ➔ kids at a young age starts to be sexually curious Freud divided the infantile stage into three phases according to which of the three primary erogenous zones is ➔ oral-sadistic period undergoing the most salient development. ◆ causing pain through your mouth The oral phase begins first and is followed ◆ eating, smoking in order by the anal phase and the phallic ◆ resentment because ur not fed the same way as it used to phase. The three infantile stages overlap with one another and each continues after As children grow older, the the onset of later stages. mouth continues to be an erogenous zone, and by the time they become adults, they are capable of gratifying 1. Oral Phase their oral needs in a variety of ways, Because the mouth is the including sucking candy, chewing first organ to provide an infant with gum, biting pencils, overeating, pleasure, Freud's first infantile stage smoking cigarettes, pipes and of development is the oral phase. cigars, and making biting, sarcastic ➔ oral because we eat remarks. ➔ to feel good to put something in your mouth ◆ putting things in your 2. Anal Phase mouth feels good In the anal stage, children ◆ we need to trust the person become aware of their ability to feeding control their bowel movements. if not, distrustful Successful toilet training is a crucial personality arises task during this stage. Conflict can emerge if there are issues related to The primary focus in the oral control, obedience, or rebellion. stage is on oral pleasures, such as The aggressive drive, which sucking and biting. during the first year of life takes the The sexual aim of early oral form of oral sadism, reaches fuller activity is to incorporate or receive development during the second year into one's body the object-choice. when the anus emerges as a This phase is divided into sexually pleasurable zone. two: oral receptive and oral sadistic. - potty training or toilet training During this oral-receptive ➔ Aggressive tendencies can arise here phase, infants feel no ambivalence ➔ overlap between oral sadistic & anal phase toward the pleasurable object and This phase is divided into two their needs are usually satisfied with subphases, the early anal and the a minimum of frustration and anxiety. late anal. Infants' defense against the During the early anal environment is greatly aided by the period, children receive satisfaction emergence of teeth. At this point, by destroying or losing objects. At they pass into a second oral phase, this time, the destructive nature of which Freud called the oral-sadistic the sadistic drive is stronger than the period. erotic one, and children often behave aggressively toward their parents for frustrating them with toilet training. Then, when children enter the late anal period, they  sometimes take a friendly interest ➔ kids become aware of the sexual differences toward their feces, an interest that between people stems from the erotic pleasure of ➔ Masturbation is nearly universal defecating. Frequently, children will ➔ children starts to masturbation ◆ child gets scolded by parents present their feces to the parents as ◆ child suppresses masturbation a valued prize. ➔ start of sexual feeling 💩 ➔ self control and discipline is taught at this time ◆ you feel sexual feeling for your ➔ children become interested with their poop parents ◆ treating the poop as a part of the self ◆ you offer it to your parents Male Oedipus Complex ◆ if your parent are accommodating you Freud believed that respond positively preceding the phallic stage an infant ◆ if they reject, you become anally retentive ➔ anally retentive character boy forms an identification with his father; that is, he wants to be his father. Later he develops a sexual This mode of narcissistic and desire for his mother; that is, he masochistic pleasure lays the wants to have his mother. foundation for the anal character - This condition of rivalry people who continue to receive toward the father and incestuous erotic satisfaction by keeping and feelings toward the mother is known possessing objects and by arranging as the simple male Oedipus them in an excessively neat and complex. orderly fashion. ➔ you'd like to be your father ➔ anal character ➔ u think its ok to love ur mother romantically ◆ because ur parent rejected ur poop ➔ boys develop fear in their father This anal eroticism ◆ rivalry arises becomes transformed into the anal The term castration anxiety triad of orderliness, stinginess, describes the fear that arises in and obstinacy that typifies the adult young boys during the Oedipal anal character. phase. Boys may become afraid that their fathers will punish them (often 3. Phallic Phase by castration) for their feelings At approximately 3 or 4 years toward their mothers. This anxiety of age, children begin a third stage arises from the belief that the father, of infantile development-the phallic as a rival for the mother's attention, phase, a time when the genital area possesses the power to take away becomes the leading erogenous the source of the boy's desire—the zone. penis. During the phallic stage, ➔ fear of males of punishment for loving their masturbation is nearly universal, but mother because parents generally suppress these activities, children usually Female Oedipus Complex repress their conscious desire to Like boys, pre-Oedipal girls masturbate by the time their phallic assume that all other children have period comes to an end. genitals similar to their own. Soon they discover that boys not only possess different genital equipment, but apparently something extra.  Girls then become envious of this In summary, the female and appendage, feel cheated, and desire male phallic stages take quite to have a penis. This experience of different routes. penis envy is a powerful force in the First, the castration complex formation of girls' personalities. for girls takes the form of penis penis envy envy—not castration anxiety. girls want to be like boys Second, penis envy last for years precedes the female Oedipus last forever complex, whereas for boys the girls desire to be with boys opposite is true; that is, the desire to be giving birth to a boy to castration anxiety follows the male have penis in their life Oedipus complex. Third, because penis envy Preceding the castration takes place prior to the female complex, a girl establishes an Oedipus complex, little girls do not identification with her mother similar experience a traumatic event to that developed by a boy; that is, comparable to boys' castration she fantasizes being seduced by her anxiety. mother. Fourth, because girls do not These incestuous feelings experience this traumatic event, the are later turned into hostility when female Oedipus complex is more the girl holds her mother responsible slowly and less completely dissolved for bringing her into the world than the male Oedipus complex. without a penis. Her libido is then turned toward her father, who can boys suffer more compared to girls satisfy her wish for a penis by giving if penis envy is resolved, it follows forever her a baby, an object that to her has become a substitute for the phallus. The desire for sexual intercourse with the father and accompanying feelings of hostility for the mother are known as the simple female Oedipus complex in x. Girls blame their mother for not giving them penis Develop resentment to the mother therefore developing sexual feelings for the father who can give them penis Latency The female Oedipus Freud believed that, from the 4th or complex is only incompletely 5th year until puberty, both boys and girls resolved by the girl's gradual usually, but not always, go through a period realization that she may lose the of dormant psychosexual development. love of her mother and that sexual This latency stage is brought about intercourse with her father is not partly by parents' attempts to punish or forthcoming. discourage sexual activity in their young children. If parental suppression is successful, children will repress their sexual drive and  direct their psychic energy toward school, during adolescence; thus, the mouth, anus, friendships, hobbies, and other nonsexual and other pleasure-producing areas take an activities. auxiliary position to the genitals, which now attain supremacy as an erogenous zone. ➔ people suppress sexual desire ➔ at this stage, sex is the priority ➔ energy is directed to other things like school, Maturity Continued latency is reinforced The genital period begins at puberty through constant suppression by parents and continues throughout the individual's and teachers and by internal feelings of lifetime. It is a stage attained by everyone shame, guilt, and morality. who reaches physical maturity. The sexual drive, of course, still In addition to the genital stage, exists during latency, but its aim has been Freud alluded to but never fully inhibited. The sublimated libido now shows conceptualized a period of psychological itself in social and cultural maturity, a stage attained after a person accomplishments. has passed through the earlier ➔ continuous suppression and awakening until developmental periods in an ideal manner. the next stage Unfortunately, psychological maturity ➔ you turn to more meaning and productive seldom happens, because people have too pursuits many opportunities to develop pathological disorders or neurotic predispositions. Genital Period ➔ people has stopped growing already Puberty signals a reawakening of ➔ You are physically mature the sexual aim and the beginning of the ◆ you are expected to psychologically mature genital period. Individuals seek to establish Critiques of Freud healthy, mature relationships and express Did Freud Understand women, gender, and their sexual desires in socially acceptable sexuality? ways. ➔ freud does not understand women ➔ sexist perspective ➔ sexual energy is channelled to another ➔ Freud is a product of his time person ○ women were under men ➔ reproduction is possible ➔ Freud was his mother’s favorite ◆ “I'd like to create something” ◆ His the king of his female sibling ◆ He grow up in an environment that First, adolescents give up women serve him autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person instead of toward themselves. Was Freud a Scientist? Second, reproduction is now ➔ freud’s principles are not scientific possible. ➔ Freud’s study became a scaffold for other Third, although penis envy may ideas continue to linger in girls, the vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the penis had for them during infancy. Fourth, the entire sexual drive takes on a more complete organization, and the component drives that had operated somewhat independently during the early infantile period gain a kind of synthesis Individual Psychology Alfred Adler Introduction to Adlerian Theory Alfred Adler has had a profound effect on Overview of Individual Psychology such later theorists as Harry Stack Sullivan, Karen Individual psychology presents an optimistic Horney, Julian Rotter, Abraham H. Maslow, Carl view of people while resting heavily on the notion of Rogers, Albert Ellis, Rollo May, and others. social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all Although his writings revealed great insight humankind. into the depth and complexities of human personality, Adler evolved a basically simple and Biography of Alfred Adler parsimonious theory. To Adler, people are born with Alfred Adler was born on February 7, 1870, weak, inferior bodies —a condition that leads to in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna. feelings of inferiority and a consequent As a young boy, Adler was weak and sickly dependence on other people. Therefore, a feeling and at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. of unity with others (social interest) is inherent in This experience, along with the death of a people and the ultimate standard for psychological younger brother, motivated Adler to become health. a physician. Individual psychology, as developed by Adler's poor health was in sharp contrast to Alfred Adler, focuses on the uniqueness of each the health of his older brother Sigmund. person and their pursuit of social interest, Several of Adler's earliest memories were self-improvement, and personal goals. It offers a concerned with the unhappy competition holistic view of human development and behavior, between his brother's good health and his with a strong emphasis on the social and own illness. community aspects of human existence. Like many second born children, however, More specifically, the main tenets of Alfred continued the rivalry with his older Adlerian theory can be stated in outline form: brother into middle age. 1. The one dynamic force behind people's The lives of Freud and Adler have several behavior is the striving for success or interesting parallels. superiority. He wasn't a remarkable student and 2. People's subjective perceptions shape their somehow struggled with getting his medical behavior and personality. degree 3. Personality is unified and self-consistent. late fall of 1902, Freud invited Adler and 4. The value of all human activity must be three other Viennese physicians to attend a seen from the viewpoint of social interest. meeting in Freud's home to discuss 5. The self-consistent personality structure psychology and neuropathology. This group develops into a person's style of life. was known as the Wednesday 6. Style of life is molded by people's creative Psychological Society until 1908, when it power. became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. During the next few years, Adler became Striving for Success even more convinced that psychoanalysis The first tenet of Adlerian theory is: The one should be much broader than Freud's view dynamic force behind people's behavior is the of infantile sexuality. striving for success or superiority. During the last several years of his life, Adler reduced all motivation to a single Adler frequently visited the United States, drive-the striving for success or superiority. where he taught individual psychology at Regardless of the motivation for striving, Columbia University and the New School for each individual is guided by a final goal. Social Research. Even infants have an innate drive toward growth, completion, or success. Because infants are small, incomplete, and weak, they feel inferior development rather than from a strictly and powerless. personal vantage point. To compensate for this deficiency, they set a fictional goal to be big, complete, and strong. Thus, Subjective Perceptions a person's final goal reduces the pain of inferiority Adler's second tenet is: People's subjective feelings and points that person in the direction of perceptions shape their behavior and personality. either superiority or success. People strive for superiority or success to If children feel neglected or pampered, their compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the goal remains largely unconscious. Conversely, if manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality children experience love and security, they set a but by their subjective perceptions of reality, that is, goal that is largely conscious and clearly by their fictions, or expectations of the future. understood. Fictionalism Striving Force for Compensation Our most important fiction is the goal People strive for superiority or of superiority or success, a goal we created success as a means of compensation for early in life and may not clearly understand. feelings of inferiority or weakness. Fictions are ideas that have no real The striving force itself is innate, but existence, yet they influence people as if its nature and direction are due both to they really existed. feelings of inferiority and to the goal of Whether true or false, fictions have superiority. a powerful influence on people's lives. Although the striving for success is Adler's emphasis on fictions is innate, it must be developed. At birth it consistent with his strongly held teleological exists as potentiality, not actuality; each view of motivation. Teleology is an person must actualize this potential in his or explanation of behavior in terms of its final her own manner. purpose or aim. Teleology is usually concerned with Striving For Personal Superiority future goals or ends, whereas causality Some people strive for superiority ordinarily deals with past experiences that with little or no concern for others. produce some present effect. Their goals are personal ones, and As fictions, these perceptions need their strivings are motivated largely by not be conscious or understood. exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority, Nevertheless, they bestow a purpose on all or the presence of an inferiority complex. of people's actions and are responsible for a Some people create clever disguises consistent pattern that runs throughout their for their personal striving and may life. consciously or unconsciously hide their self-centeredness behind the cloak of social Physical Inferiorities concern. Because people begin life small, Striving For Success weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or In contrast to people who strive for belief system about how to overcome these personal gain, are those psychologically physical deficiencies and become big, healthy people who are motivated by social strong, and superior. But even after they interest and the success of all humankind. attain size, strength, and superiority, they People who strive for success rather may act as if they are still small, weak, and than personal superiority maintain a sense inferior. of self, of course, but they see daily These physical handicaps have little problems from the view of society's or no importance by themselves but become meaningful when they stimulate  subjective feelings of inferiority, which serve Social interest refers to an individual's as an impetus toward perfection or innate and fundamental capacity to connect with completion. and contribute to the well-being of others and society as a whole. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality Social interest is a necessity for The third tenet of Adlerian theory is: perpetuating the human species. Personality is unified and self-consistent. Origins of Social Interest In choosing the term individual psychology, Social interest is rooted as Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is potentiality in everyone, but it must be unique and indivisible. developed before it can contribute to a Although behaviors may appear useful style of life. inconsistent, when they are viewed from the Adler's theory underscores the perspective of a final goal, they appear as clever importance of a supportive and encouraging but probably unconscious attempts to confuse and family environment in fostering healthy subordinate other people. personality development. Adler believed that the effects of the Organ Dialect early social environment are extremely Adler believed that an individual's important. The relationship a child has with physical health and organ functioning could the mother and father is so powerful that it have an impact on their psychological smothers the effects of heredity. well-being and vice versa. He viewed the individual as a holistic being where mental Importance of Social Interest and physical factors influence each other. Social interest was Adler's yardstick In fact, the deficient organ expresses for measuring psychological health and is the direction of the individual's goal, a thus "the sole criterion of human values" condition known as organ dialect. Healthy individuals are genuinely concerned Through organ dialect, the body's about people and have a goal of success organs "speak a language which is usually that encompasses the well-being of all more expressive and discloses the people. individual's opinion more clearly than words In summary, people begin life with a are able to do" basic striving force that is activated by ever-present physical deficiencies. These Conscious and Unconscious organic weaknesses lead inevitably to Alfred Adler's perspective on the conscious feelings of inferiority. Thus, all people and unconscious aspects of the mind possess feelings of inferiority, and all set a differed from Freud's in that he placed less final goal at around age 4 or 5. emphasis on the unconscious as a determinant of behavior and more on conscious goals, feelings of inferiority, and an individual's subjective experience. The harmony between the conscious and unconscious contributes to a unified personality Social Interest The fourth of Adler's tenets is: The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.  social interest, neurotics tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) live in their own private world, and (3) have a rigid and dogmatic style of life. Adler recognized three contributing factors, any one of which is sufficient to contribute to abnormality: (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies, (2) a pampered style of life, and (3) a neglected style of life. Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies Exaggerated physical deficiencies, whether congenital or the result of injuiry or Style of Life disease, are not sufficient to lead to Adler's fifth tenet is: The self-consistent maladjustment. They must be accompanied personality structure delve into a person's style of by accentuated feelings of inferiority. life. Adler's concept of exaggerated Style of life refers to the unique way in physical deficiencies underscores the which a person approaches, makes choices, and importance of understanding how pursues goals. The style of life is deeply influenced individuals respond to feelings of inferiority. individual's early experiences, perceptions, and While some degree of compensation is a beliefs. healthy and motivating response to these A person's style of life is fairly well feelings, excessive focus on physical established by age 4 or 5. After time, all our actions shortcomings can hinder personal growth revolve around our unified style of life. and well-being. People with a healthy, socially useful style of life express their social interest through action. Pampered Style of Life A pampered style of life lies at the Creative Power heart of most neuroses. Pampered people The final tenet of Adlerian theory is: Style of have weak social interest but a strong life is molded by people's creative power. desire to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic Creative power is the innate human relationship they originally had with one or capacity to actively shape one's life, overcome both of their parents. feelings of inferiority, pursue meaningful goals, and The term pampered style of life contribute to the wellbeing of others and society. refers to a particular pattern of behavior and Adler acknowledged the importance of personality development that can result heredity and environment in forming personality. from an overly indulgent or overprotective People, however, are much more than a product of upbringing, typically by parents or heredity and environment. They are creative beings caregivers. who not only react to their environment but also act on it and cause it to react to them Neglected Style of Life Adler believed that people are what they The third external factor contributing make of themselves. The creative power endows to maladjustment is neglect. Children who humans, within certain limits, with the freedom to feel unloved and unwanted are likely to be either psychologically healthy or unhealthy and borrow heavily from these feelings in to follow either a useful or useless style of life. creating a neglected style of life. According to Adler, the one factor Abused and mistreated children underlying all types of maladjustments is develop little social interest and tend to underdeveloped social interest. Besides lacking create a neglected style of life. They have  little confidence in themselves and tend to and to seek revenge, thereby safeguarding overestimate difficulties connected with life's one's own tenuous self-esteem. major problems. The third form of neurotic aggression, self-accusation, is marked by Safeguarding Tendencies self-torture and guilt. Some people use self-torture, including masochism, Alfred Adler's concept of "safeguarding depression, and suicide, as means of tendencies" refers to the various strategies or hurting people who are close to them. Guilt behaviors that individuals may employ to protect or is often aggressive, self-accusatory maintain their self-esteem, defend against feelings behavior. of inferiority, and ensure their psychological well-being. Withdrawal Freudian defense mechanisms operate Personality development can be unconsciously to protect the ego against anxiety, halted when people run away from whereas Adlerian safeguarding tendencies are difficulties. Adler referred to this tendency largely conscious and shield a person's fragile as withdrawal, or safeguarding through self-esteem from public disgrace. distance. Excuses, aggression, and withdrawal are Adler recognized four modes of three common safeguarding tendencies, each safeguarding through withdrawal: (1) designed to protect a person's present style of life moving backward, (2) standing still, (3) and to maintain a fictional, elevated feeling of hesitating, and (4) constructing self-importance. obstacles. Excuses Moving backward is the tendency The most common of the to safeguard one's fictional goal of safeguarding tendencies are excuses, superiority by psychologically reverting to a which are typically expressed in the "Yes, more secure period of life. Moving backward but" or "If only" format. is designed to elicit sympathy, the These excuses protect a weak—but deleterious attitude offered so generously to artificially inflated— sense of self-worth and pampered children. deceive people into believing that they are Psychological distance can also be more superior than they really are. created by standing still. This withdrawal Aggression tendency is similar to moving backward but, Another common safeguarding in general, it is not as severe. By doing tendency is aggression. Adler held that nothing, people safeguard their self-esteem some people use aggression to safeguard and protect themselves against failure. their exaggerated superiority complex, that Closely related to standing still is is, to protect their fragile self-esteem. hesitating. Some people hesitate or Safeguarding through aggression vacillate when faced with difficult problems. may take the form of depreciation, Although hesitating may appear to other accusation, or self-accusation. people to be self-defeating, it allows Depreciation is the tendency to neurotic individuals to preserve their inflated undervalue other people's achievements sense of self-esteem. and to overvalue one's own. This The least severe of the withdrawal safeguarding tendency is evident in such safeguarding tendencies is constructing aggressive behaviors as criticism and obstacles. gossip. Accusation, the second form of an aggressive safeguarding device, is the tendency to blame others for one's failures  Critique of Adler Adler's theory, like that of Freud, produced many concepts that do not easily lend themselves to either verification or falsification. Is individual psychology internally consistent? Does it include a set of operationally defined terms? Although Adlerian theory is a model for self-consistency, it suffers from a lack of precise operational definitions. Terms such as goal of superiority and creative power have no scientific definition. Masculine Protest In contrast to Freud, Adler believed that the psychic life of women is essentially the same as that of men and that a male-dominated society is not natural but rather an artificial product of historical development. According to Adler, cultural and social practices —not anatomy— influence many men and women to overemphasize the importance of being manly, a condition he called the masculine protest. Family Constellation Adler almost always asked patients about their family constellation, that is, their birth order, the gender of their siblings, and the age spread Analytical Psychology between them. Adler formed some general Carl Jung hypotheses about birth order. Overview of Analytical Psychology Analytical psychology rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone. Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally toned experiences inherited from our ancestors. These inherited images make up what Jung called the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious includes those elements that we have never experienced individually but which have come down to us from our ancestors.  carl Jung used from supernatural became more intense as their friendship Not scientific cooled. the most practical application among all He died June 6, 1961, in Zürich, a few theories of personalities weeks short of his 86th birthday. At the time Collective unconscious of his death, Jung's reputation was Phylogenetic worldwide, extending beyond psychology to not incidental, but central include philosophy, religion, and popular culture. Biography of Carl Jung ○ jung was molested by a trusted father figure Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, ○ Jung drew parallel with Freud 1875, in Kesswil. ○ studies further Jung theories Jung's father, Johann Paul Jung, was a minister in the Swiss Reformed Church, and Levels of the Psyche his mother, Jung, like Freud, based his personality Emilie Preiswerk Jung, was the daughter of theory on the assumption that the mind, or psyche, a theologian. has both a conscious and an unconscious level. ○ so much supernatural components: Unlike Freud, however, Jung strongly his background was religious asserted that the most important portion of the his father was a minister unconscious springs not from personal experiences Mother: daughter of a theologian of the individual but from the distant past of human Jung saw his mother as having two existence, a concept Jung called the collective separate dispositions. On one hand, she unconscious. Of lesser importance to Jungian was realistic, practical, and warmhearted, theory are the conscious and the personal but on the other, she was unstable, unconscious. mystical, clairvoyant, archaic, and ruthless. During his school years, Jung gradually Jung was the first person to use the word psyche became aware of two separate aspects of Collective unconscious: his self, and he called these his No. 1 and drives personality No. 2 personalities. ○ Dualities: & experiences different aspect of personality While in medical school, Jung began to Conscious attend a series of seances with relatives According to Jung, conscious images are from the Preiswerk family, including his first those that are sensed by the ego, whereas cousin Helene Preiswerk, who claimed she unconscious elements have no relationship with could communicate with dead people. the ego. Freud and Jung developed a strong mutual Ego is not the whole personality, but must respect and affection for one another, be completed by the more comprehensive self, the talking during their first meeting for 13 center of personality that is largely unconscious. straight hours and well into the early Healthy individuals are in contact with their morning hours. conscious world, but they also allow themselves to Jung and Freud delivered a series of experience their unconscious self and thus to lectures at Clark University in Worcester, achieve individuation. Massachusetts. During their 7-week trip and while they were in daily contact, an underlying tension between Jung and Freud slowly began to simmer. Almost immediately after Jung and Freud returned from their trip to the United States, personal as well as theoretical differences  Freud: personality will show in your consciousness Jung’s most controversial idea Consciousness is not my personality each and everyone inherited our ancestors memory just center of ego What happened 1000 years ago drives who Healthy people: unconscious drives me you are today Our personality is more of unconscious Final goal: individuation The collective unconscious does not refer to inherited ideas but rather to humans' innate Personal Unconscious tendency to react in a particular way whenever their The personal unconscious embraces all experiences stimulate a biologically inherited repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived response tendency. experiences of one particular individual. Humans, like other animals, come into the Our personal unconscious is formed by our world with inherited predispositions to act or react individual experiences and is therefore unique to in certain ways if their present experiences touch each of us. on these biologically based predispositions. Some images in the personal unconscious In summary, the collective unconscious is a can be recalled easily, some remembered with deep and shared layer of the unconscious mind difficulty, and still others are beyond the reach of that contains universal symbols and themes known consciousness. as archetypes. where unlikeable feelings are buried Why do parents suddenly have overwhelming feelings unique to you of love when they see their child? Combined freud’s preconscious & unconscious You inherited the feelings that you love your child Contents of the personal unconscious are Automatically will manifest called complexes. A complex is an emotionally Collective unconscious: toned conglomeration of associated ideas. Reaction to the event itself The concept of a complex refers to a core it is driven by inherited feelings/ideas pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and We are programmed to act a certain way desires that are organized around a common you know you should act this way despite theme or idea. not experiencing it before passing of memories Complexes are largely personal, but they may also be partly derived from humanity's collective experience. Archetypes Complex: collection of ideas in your personal Archetypes are ancient or archaic images unconscious that derive from the collective unconscious. ex. inferiority complex They are similar to complexes in that they are emotionally toned collections of associated Collective Unconscious images. But whereas complexes are individualized In contrast to the personal unconscious, components of the personal unconscious, which results from individual experiences, the archetypes are generalized and derive from the collective unconscious has roots in the ancestral contents of the collective unconscious. past of the entire species. Archetypes have a biological basis but It represents the deepest and most originate through the repeated experiences of universal layer of the unconscious mind shared by humans' early ancestors. all human beings across cultures and throughout history. The contents of the collective unconscious do not lie dormant but are active and influence a person's thoughts, emotions, and actions.  everyone inherits the same archetypes reflects your roles and responsibilities in the society Complex vs Archetypes most appropriate self in a given situation both are similar in a sense that it is Question: does this translate to hypocrisy or like your unconscious ideal self? different in the category of unconscious Archetype: universal ideas Shadow Complex: when your idea is different from The shadow, the archetype of darkness among other people and repression, represents those qualities we do Result of personal experiences not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from this is how i define something ourselves and others. because this is what i experienced The shadow represents the unconscious Archetype: formed because it happened and often hidden aspects of an individual's generations to generations isn’t created once personality, encompassing both the negative and constantly manifested by different positive traits and emotions that are repressed or generations denied. Recognizing and integrating the shadow is Dreams are the main source of archetypal an essential step in the process of psychological material, and certain dreams offer what Jung growth and achieving a more complete and considered proof for the existence of the archetype. authentic sense of self. Although a great number of archetypes exist as vague images, only a few have evolved to the you don’t like about yourself point where they can be conceptualized. The most Everything i don't want others to see I'll hide in the shadow notable of these include the persona, shadow, individuation anima, animus, great mother, wise old man, Acrd to Jung, everyone wants to be whole hero, and self. Desire to be whole If you don’t embrace your shadow, you dreams not related to reality are your archetype cannot be complete You may not like them, it’s still part of you Persona Can cause abnormal development Persona is a fundamental concept representing the social mask or facade that Anima an individual presents to the outside world. The anima specifically refers to the inner Each of us, Jung believed, should feminine aspect within the psyche of a man. Jung project a particular role, one that society believed that all humans are psychologically dictates to each of us. bisexual and possess both a masculine and a Although the persona is a necessary feminine side. side of our personality, we should not The feminine side of men originates in the confuse our public face with our complete collective unconscious as an archetype and self. remains extremely resistant to consciousness. To become psychologically healthy, Jung believed that the anima originated Jung believed, we must strike a balance from early men's experiences with women-mothers, between the demands of society and what sisters, and lovers —that combined to form a we truly are. generalized picture of women. men & women are biologically bisexual Both have feminine and masculine tendencies Conflict between men and women Anima: exist in men Animus to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, Animus is a concept that represents the monsters, serpents, or demons. inner masculine aspect within the psyche of a The image of the hero touches an archetype woman. It is the counterpart to the anima, which within us, as demonstrated by our fascination with represents the inner feminine aspect within a man's the heroes of movies, novels, plays, and television psyche. programs. Whereas the anima represents irrational The origin of the hero motif goes back to moods and feelings, the animus is symbolic of earliest human history-to the dawn of thinking and reasoning. consciousness. In conquering the villain, the hero is Jung believed that the animus is symbolically overcoming the darkness of responsible for thinking and opinion in women just pre-human unconsciousness. as the anima produces feelings and moods in men. — archetype stems from feelings of inferiority & feelings of weakness animus: women Rational thinking stems from masculinity because of that we create hero Emotional and hysterical steams from feminine traits A hero has relatable problems If this person can overcome it, I can too Great Mother Everyone, man or woman, possesses a Self great mother archetype. This pre-existing concept Jung believed that each person possesses of mother is always associated with both positive an inherited tendency to move toward growth, and negative feelings. perfection, and completion, and he called this The great mother represents two opposing innate disposition the self. forces - fertility and nourishment on the one hand As an archetype, the self is symbolized by a and power and destruction on the other. person's ideas of perfection, completion, and It's the archetypal image that represents the wholeness, but its ultimate symbol is the mandala. nurturing, protective, and sometimes destructive It represents the strivings of the collective aspects of the feminine in its universal and unconscious for unity, balance, and wholeness. collective form. This archetype embodies the archetypes of all archetypes maternal qualities of fertility, creation, sustenance, Combine all archetypes into one cohesive self and transformation. Wise Old Man The wise old man, archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans' preexisting knowledge of the mysteries of life. People dominated by the wise old man archetype may gather a large following of disciples by using verbiage that sounds profound but that really makes little sense because the collective unconscious cannot directly impart its wisdom to an individual. The wise old man archetype is personified in dreams as father, grandfather, teacher, philosopher, guru, doctor, or priest. Hero The hero archetype is represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part god, who fights against great odds  Attitud