SEEL 113 Literary Criticism Historical Survey PDF

**SEEL 113 LITERARY CRITICISM** **HISTORICAL SURVEY OF LITERARY CRITICISM** **PLATO\ "The Republic"** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Doctrine of Forms 2\. Critique of Poetry & Poets 3\. Moral & Political Function of Literature Foundation of Literary Criticism **Doctrine of Forms...

**SEEL 113 LITERARY CRITICISM** **HISTORICAL SURVEY OF LITERARY CRITICISM** **PLATO\ "The Republic"** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Doctrine of Forms 2\. Critique of Poetry & Poets 3\. Moral & Political Function of Literature Foundation of Literary Criticism **Doctrine of Forms (Essences/Ideas**) - Plato\'s idea that ultimate reality is found in spiritual \"ideal forms\" rather than the material world laid the foundation for his critique of literature. - He argued that since the material world is just a shadow of these ideal forms, poetry and literature, which imitate the material world, are merely imitations of imitations and therefore not trustworthy as sources of truth. **Critique of Poetry and Poets** - Plato challenged the traditional Greek reliance on poetry as a source of moral and ethical knowledge. - He contended that poets produce art that is irrational and filled with lies about both ultimate and human reality. - poetry could no longer serve as a basis for morality and ethics in society **Moral and Political Function of Literature** - poets could be tolerated if they promoted the virtues of the state - This marked the beginning of the idea that literature and art should serve a moral and political purpose, supporting the state and its values. **Foundation of Literary Criticism** - By questioning the value and truth of literature and linking it to morality and politics, Plato\'s work laid the groundwork for the study of literary criticism. - His debates on the role, value, and nature of literature initiated a complex theory of criticism that has influenced Western thought for centuries. **ARISTOTLE\ "Poetics"** **Contribution to Literary Criticism** 1\. Imitation (Mimesis) as Central to Art 2\. Tragedy as an Imitation of Noble Actions 3\. Organic Unity of a Tragic Work 4\. The Concept of the Tragic Hero 5\. Literature's Universality 6\. Focus on Literary Form and Structure **Imitation (Mimesis) as Central to Art** - like Plato, recognized that art is an imitation of reality. - differed from Plato by arguing that poetry is more universal and general, and not merely an imitation of an imitation - the poet\'s role is to present what could happen, emphasizing the creative and imaginative aspects of literature. **Tragedy as an Imitation of Noble Actions**: - Aristotle focused heavily on tragedy, which he defined as the imitation of a noble and action. - tragedy should evoke emotions of pity and fear in the audience, leading to a catharsis or emotional cleansing. - This idea of catharsis is one of his most influential contributions to literary criticism. **Organic Unity of a Tragic Work** - emphasized the importance of form in tragedy, that it should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. - He viewed a tragedy as an organic whole where every part is interrelated, contributing to the overall unity of the work. **The Concept of the Tragic Hero**: - introduced the idea of the tragic hero, a character who is noble but flawed by a hamartia (tragic flaw) that leads to their downfall. **Literature\'s Universality**: - Aristotle argued that literature, especially tragedy, deals with universal themes and truths. - This universality makes literature a higher form of truth, closer to perfection than history. **Focus on Literary Form and Structure**: - Aristotle shifted the focus from the content and moral effects of literature, as Plato did, to the form and structure of literary works. - laid the groundwork for later formalist and structuralist theories. **HORACE\ "Ars Poetica"** **CONTRIBUTIONS TO LIT CRIT.** 1\. Imitation of Past Poets 2\. Pragmatic Guidelines for Writers 3\. In Medias Res 4\. Sweet and Useful Literature 5\. Audience Awareness and Public Adulation **Imitation of Past Poets** - asserted that poets should imitate other poets, particularly those of the past, with a strong emphasis on Greek models **Pragmatic Guidelines for Writers**: - Horace offered practical advice on writing, establishing a set of rules or standards for what constitutes good literature. - avoiding extremes in subject matter, diction, vocabulary, and style. **In Medias Res**: - Horace reinforced the classical convention that epics should begin in the middle of the action (*in medias res*), reflecting his belief that writers should follow the successful formulas established by Greek and Roman authors. **Sweet and Useful Literature**: - Horace believed that the ultimate aim of literature is to be both \"sweet and useful\"---that is, literature should both teach and delight. - The best works, are those that can educate while also entertaining. **Audience Awareness and Public Adulation**: - stressed the importance of understanding one\'s audience, balancing the need to instruct with the desire to entertain. - a poet\'s greatest reward was the adulation of the public, reflecting his view that successful literature resonates with its readers. **LONGINUS\ "On the Sublime"** **CONTRIBUTIONS TO LIT CRIT** 1\. Introduction of the Concept of the Sublime 2\. Comparative Criticism 3\. Focus on Single Elements of a Text 4\. Definition of a Literary Classic 5\. The Role of the Reader and the Critic **Introduction of the Concept of the Sublime**: - the quality in literature that elevates the reader, inspiring awe and admiration. - the sublime is not just about the content of a text, but also about the emotional and intellectual impact it has on the reader. **Comparative Criticism**: - the first literary critic to incorporate ideas from different literary traditions, in his Greek and Latin writings. - the first comparative critic in literary history, recognizing the value of cross-cultural influences in understanding and evaluating literature. **Focus on Single Elements of a Text**: - focused on individual elements that contribute to the greatness of a text. - the use of elevated language or the presence of grandeur, laid the groundwork for later critical approaches that emphasize close reading and textual analysis. **Definition of a Literary Classic**: - Longinus was the first critic to define what constitutes a literary classic. - a classic is a work that transcends its time and continues to resonate with readers across generations due to its elevated and dignified nature. **The Role of the Reader and the Critic**: - Longinus believed that all readers have an innate ability to recognize the sublime, as humans are naturally drawn to what is elevated and divine. - He also argued that to judge a literary work accurately, one must be exceedingly well-read. - This idea of the reader\'s and critic's role in determining the value of a text foreshadowed later developments in reader-oriented criticism. **Plotinus\ "Neoplatonic Philosophy"** **CONTRIBUTIONS TO LITERARY CRITICISM** 1\. Clarification of Plato's Ideas 2\. Concept of Transcendence and Unity 3\. Influence on Early Christian Thought 4\. Romantic and Transcendentalist influence 5\. Metaphysical Framework for interpretation **Clarification of Plato\'s Ideas**: - Plotinus refined Plato\'s metaphysical ideas, especially about \"The One\" and the spiritual versus material realms, influencing how scholars interpret the role of ideas, forms, and transcendence in literature and art. **Concept of Transcendence and Unity**: - Plotinus emphasized the idea of achieving unity with The One through contemplation. - This concept of transcendence influenced literary criticism by encouraging interpretations of literature that focus on spiritual or metaphysical quests, the search for higher truths, and the portrayal of the divine or ideal forms. **Influence on Early Christian Thought**: - This blend of Neoplatonism and Christianity shaped medieval and Renaissance literary criticism, where religious and metaphysical ideas were key in analyzing texts. **Romantic and Transcendentalist Influence**: - Literary critics and writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau adopted his notions of spiritual unity and transcendence, emphasizing individual intuition, the soul\'s connection to nature, and the pursuit of higher ideals, which became central themes in their literary works. **Metaphysical Framework for Interpretation** - Plotinus provided a framework where literature could be viewed as a reflection of higher, divine forms and the struggle between material existence and spiritual fulfillment. - This approach contributed to a metaphysical dimension in literary criticism that persists in various schools of thought. **Dante Alighieri** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Advocacy for vernacular language 2\. Use of multi-layered symbolism and allegory 3\. Blending Classical and Christian Traditions 4\. Theorizing Literary Purpose and Meaning **Advocacy for Vernacular Language** - Advocated the use of vernacular (language of the people) instead of Latin in literary work. - Contributed to the development of national literatures. - **Use of Multi-layered Symbolism and Allegory** - Drawing from the tradition of allegorical interpretation of Scriptures, which had been applied primarily to religious texts, Dante infused his *Divine Comedy* with multiple layers of meaning---literal, allegorical, moral, and anagogical (spiritual). - His application of semiotics (sign-reading) in a literary work was groundbreaking for its time and influenced subsequent interpretations of literature as a multi-layered discourse. **Blending Classical and Christian Traditions** - He drew on the works of classical poets like Virgil while integrating Christian theology and symbolism. This blend created a model for how literature could bridge ancient pagan wisdom and Christian teachings, making his work a touchstone for both Renaissance humanism and theological thought. **Theorizing Literary Purpose and Meaning** - He believed that literature, particularly *The Divine Comedy*, could serve as both an artistic creation and a moral guide, designed to lead the reader from a state of sin to spiritual enlightenment. - His emphasis on the moral and spiritual purpose of literature has influenced centuries of literary criticism, which often seeks to uncover the ethical or didactic message within texts. **Giovanni Boccaccio** **"On the Genealogy of the Gods of the Gentiles"** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Advocacy for Vernacular Literature 2\. Fusion of Scholasticism and Humanism 3\. Defense of Poetry and Classical Myth 4\. Allegorical interpretation Influence on Future Literary Criticism **Advocacy for Vernacular Literature** - Like Dante, Boccaccio wrote in the vernacular, helping to legitimize the use of the common language for serious literary works. - His masterpiece, *The Decameron*, is a prime example of how vernacular literature could engage with profound themes and reach a wider audience. **Fusion of Scholasticism and Humanism:** - Boccaccio\'s *Genealogy of the Gods* represents a transition from the scholasticism of the Middle Ages to the humanism of the Renaissance. **Defense of Poetry and Classical Myth** - poetry serves a higher purpose by revealing truth and divine insights, asserting that it can improve life by guiding people towards understanding both truth and God - This defense of poetry had a lasting impact on literary criticism, influencing Renaissance thought and later critics. **Allegorical Interpretation** - Boccaccio emphasized the value of allegory in poetry, arguing that it reveals truth in a metaphorical \"garment of fiction.\" **Influence on Future Literary Criticism** - His work paved the way for later defenses of poetry, most notably Sir Philip Sidney's *Defense of Poesy*, and continued to resonate in the works of writers and critics for centuries, including Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, and Shelley. **Sir Philip Sidney** **An Apology for Poetry (Also known as "Defense of Poesy")** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Pioneering English Literary Criticism: 2\. Defense and Elevation of Poetry 3\. Poetry as a Moral and Emotional Force: 4\. Advocacy for the Unity of Literary Forms 5\. Lasting Influence on English Literature **Pioneering English Literary Criticism:** - Sidney is considered the first significant English critic-poet, with *An Apology for Poetry* being the first influential piece of literary criticism in English history. **Defense and Elevation of Poetry** - Following in Aristotle\'s footsteps but extending his ideas, Sidney argued that poetry surpasses history, law, and philosophy in its ability to embody truth. - He declared that poetry is not merely an artistic expression but a profound teacher of virtue, effectively promoting moral values and exposing vice more persuasively than any other discipline. **Poetry as a Moral and Emotional Force:** - Sidney saw poetry as a noble art that stirs emotions and inspires virtue in the reader. - He likened poetry to religion, claiming that both guide the soul by engaging emotions and blending truth with symbolic meaning. - This emotional and moral power of poetry, according to Sidney, distinguishes it as the noblest of human endeavors. **Advocacy for the Unity of Literary Forms** - Sidney expanded upon Aristotle\'s ideas, particularly in his discussions of tragedy. - He advocated for strict adherence to the Aristotelian unities of action, time, and place, arguing that these constraints make tragedy more effective. - He also ranked different literary genres, proclaiming poetry to be the highest form of literary art, and criticized hybrid genres like tragicomedy for their perceived lack of artistic integrity. **Lasting Influence on English Literature:** - Sidney\'s defense of poetry had an immediate and lasting impact, influencing the explosion of dramatic and poetic works in England in the decades following its publication. - His ideas reverberated through English literature, especially in the Romantic period, where his emphasis on the emotional power of poetry resonated with writers like Wordsworth and Shelley. **John Dryden** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Development of Literary Criticism as an Independent Discipline 2\. Creation of a Natural Prose Style 3\. Synthesis of Multiple Critical Perspectives 4\. Advocacy for Objective Principles of Criticism 5\. Contribution to Reader-Response Theories 6\. Analysis of Dramatic Theory in *An Essay of Dramatic Poesy* *7.* Debate on Verse in Drama **Development of Literary Criticism as an Independent Discipline:** - Dryden advanced the study of literature for its own sake, moving beyond the moral or theological preoccupations that had previously dominated criticism. - He treated literary works as subjects of analysis in their own right, focusing on their artistic and formal qualities. **Creation of a Natural Prose Style:** - Dryden\'s *An Essay of Dramatic Poesy* exemplifies his contribution to the development of a clear, natural, and simple prose style. - This style influenced modern criticism and writing, emphasizing clarity, order, and elegance. - His prose continues to serve as a model for contemporary literary criticism. **Synthesis of Multiple Critical Perspectives**: - Dryden drew from various critical traditions, including Greek, French, and English perspectives, to create a comprehensive approach to literary criticism. - He incorporated the best insights from classical and contemporary critics, helping to enrich and expand the discipline of English literary criticism. **Advocacy for Objective Principles of Criticism:** - Dryden was instrumental in promoting the idea that literary criticism should be guided by objective principles rather than subjective or moral judgments. - This shift helped move criticism toward a more systematic and analytical approach, laying the groundwork for future literary theories. **Contribution to Reader-Response Theories**: - Dryden\'s emphasis on how readers and critics appreciate texts rather than solely on how texts are constructed helped pave the way for reader-response theories. - He recognized the importance of the audience\'s reception and interpretation of literary works, a perspective that has had lasting influence on modern literary criticism. **Analysis of Dramatic Theory in *An Essay of Dramatic Poesy*:** - Dryden explored various debates about drama, particularly those concerning the Aristotelian unities of time, place, and action. - He engaged in discussions about the proper use of language, decorum, and the differences between English and French theater. - His nuanced approach allowed for a balance between classical ideals and the evolving English dramatic tradition, including a defense of Shakespearean drama. **Debate on Verse in Drama:** - Dryden\'s consideration of rhymed verse versus blank verse in drama reflects his engagement with the formal aspects of literature. - While he initially advocated for rhymed verse, he later shifted to blank verse, showcasing his evolving views on poetic form in drama. **Joseph Addison** **"The Tatler", "The Spectator"** **Contributions to Literary Criticism** 1\. Popularization of Literary Criticism 2\. Focus on the Sublime and Greatness in Literature. 3\. Blending Morality and Wit 4\. Respect for Classical Criticism 5\. Broad Scope of Criticism 6\. Focus on Audience Response 7\. Enlightenment of the Common Citizen **Popularization of Literary Criticism:** - Addison made literary criticism accessible to the general public, writing for a broad audience that included the common person, especially women. - By using simple, clear, and polite language, Addison brought classical and contemporary readings into the everyday discussions of ordinary citizens. **Focus on the Sublime and Greatness in Literature:** - Addison emphasized the sublime, which he defined as literature's power to transcend the imagination and display the immensity of life. - For him, greatness in literature was not about following formal rules but about evoking great ideas and fervent passions. - - This focus on the emotional and imaginative impact of literature marked a shift toward appreciating the experiential qualities of a text rather than just its technical execution. **Blending Morality and Wit** - Addison sought to combine wit with morality in his essays, enlivening ethical and philosophical ideas with engaging and accessible language. - His goal was to elevate the moral and intellectual understanding of his readers while entertaining them, a blend that made his writings both instructive and enjoyable. **Respect for Classical Criticism:** - Addison paid homage to ancient critics, particularly Aristotle and Longinus, often asserting that the past critics had already said most of what needed to be said. - However, his work was not merely a repetition of classical ideas but rather an attempt to expound upon them in a way that was relevant to contemporary readers. **Broad Scope of Criticism** - Addison believed that literary criticism should be broad, encompassing not just literature but also touching on politics, sciences, arts, society, and other concerns pertinent to humanity. - He argued that curiosity is one of humanity\'s strongest and most lasting appetites, and as such, criticism should engage with a wide range of topics to satisfy that curiosity. **Focus on Audience Response** - Rather than dissecting the genius of the writer, Addison was interested in the interaction between literature and its audience. - He believed that a critic's role was to examine the effects of literature on its readers and to foster an appreciation for the sublime and greatness in writing, thus contributing to the development of audience-response theories. **Enlightenment of the Common Citizen** - One of Addison's most enduring contributions was his effort to educate and enlighten the general British public. - By presenting the writings of classical authors in a way that could be discussed in social settings like coffeehouses and tea tables, Addison helped democratize literary criticism, making it a subject for public debate rather than an exclusive field for scholars. **ALEXANDER POPE** **Key Contributions** 1\. emphasis on classical imitation 2\. the role of natural genius and knowledge of the classics 3\. importance of Rules and Restraint 4\. poetic diction and personification of abstract ideas 5\. defense of classical values in a changing world 6\. grounding criticism in mimetic and rhetorical theories 7\. custodian of cultural values **Emphasis on Classical Imitation** - For Pope, the primary task of both the poet and the critic was to imitate the classical masters (Homer, Aristotle, Horace, and Longinus) rather than nature itself. - This emphasis on imitation grounded his criticism in the mimetic tradition, which holds that literature should imitate established models and principles derived from the classics. **The Role of Natural Genius and Knowledge of the Classics** - Pope asserted that a good poet must possess natural genius, but this genius had to be tempered with an understanding of classical literature and the rules of poetry. - He believed that natural talent alone was insufficient without the discipline provided by the study of classical models and adherence to their established rules. - This combination of innate talent and rigorous study was central to producing refined and polished work. **Importance of Rules and Restraint** - For Pope, good poetry and criticism were governed by strict rules, restraint, and good taste. - He believed in following established traditions and guidelines set by the classical authors. - This meant rejecting emotional excesses, free verse, and other forms of unrestrained expression in favor of a more polished and refined poetic style. - In particular, Pope elevated the heroic couplet as the standard for verse, emphasizing formal structure, balance, and clarity in poetry. **Poetic Diction and Personification of Abstract Ideas** - Pope placed great emphasis on poetic diction, advocating for a highly stylized and formal language in poetry. - He also endorsed the personification of abstract ideas, a common device in Neoclassical poetry, which lent an air of intellectual sophistication and elegance to literary works. - These stylistic preferences helped to establish fixed standards for poetic language during the 18th century. **Defense of Classical Values in a Changing World** - Pope saw the critic\'s role as a defender of the classical values that had been discovered and established by the ancients. - In a world undergoing cultural change, the critic\'s task was to validate and maintain these values, ensuring that literature adhered to standards of good taste and cultural refinement. - This view positioned the critic as a custodian of tradition and cultural continuity. **Grounding Criticism in Mimetic and Rhetorical Theories** - Pope\'s literary criticism was grounded in both mimetic theory (imitation of classical models) and rhetorical theory (the structuring and patterning of language). - He believed that poetry should not only imitate the classics but also follow established rhetorical structures, such as the heroic couplet, which lent poetry its formal discipline and artistic elegance. **Custodian of Cultural Values** - Pope saw the critic as a guardian of cultural and moral values. - In a period of cultural flux, the critic\'s responsibility was to uphold standards of taste and ensure that literature remained true to classical ideals. - This conservative approach helped define the Neoclassical period\'s emphasis on order, clarity, and decorum in literature. **William Wordsworth** **Key Contributions** 1\. shift to common life and language 2\. redefinition of poetry 3\. the role of the poet 4\. focus on subjectivity and emotion 5\. critique on formalism 6\. reader-response theory 7\. foundations of English Romanticism **Shift to Common Life and Language** - Wordsworth championed the idea that poetry should focus on common life and everyday experiences, rather than the lives of aristocrats and royalty. - He believed that the humble and rustic life best expressed the essential passions of the human heart. - He also advocated for the use of plain, everyday language in poetry instead of the formal, elevated diction of previous eras. **Redefinition of Poetry** - Wordsworth redefined poetry as the \"spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.\" - He emphasized emotion and imagination as central to poetry, rather than reason and restraint. - This marked a significant departure from previous traditions that prioritized formal structure and reasoned thought in poetry. **The Role of the Poet** - Wordsworth reimagined the role of the poet, seeing the poet as a person speaking to other people, with deep sensibility and emotional insight. - The poet was no longer merely a preserver of cultural values but an individual expressing their personal thoughts and emotions. - The poet\'s individuality and emotions became central to their work. **Focus on Subjectivity and Emotion** - Wordsworth emphasized the importance of the subjective experience of both the poet and the reader. - He argued that poetry should evoke emotions and connect the reader to the poet\'s feelings, allowing for a shared emotional experience. **Critique of Formalism** - Wordsworth rejected the formal constraints of previous poetic traditions, such as heroic couplets and rigid rhyme schemes. Instead, he favored free expression of emotions and a more natural, unrestrained form of poetry. **Reader-Response Theory** - Wordsworth suggested that readers should judge poetry based on their own feelings and emotional responses, rather than relying on the opinions of critics. - He emphasized that the reader\'s individual perception and imagination were crucial in appreciating poetry, laying the groundwork for what would later develop into reader-response theory. **Foundations of English Romanticism** - By emphasizing individuality, emotion, and imagination, Wordsworth laid the foundation for the Romantic movement in English literature. - His ideas shifted the focus of literary criticism towards the expressive school, which valued personal expression and the reader\'s emotional engagement with a text. **Percy Bysshe Shelley** **Key Contributions** 1\. Platonism and Neoplatonism 2\. Imagination and Emotion 3\. Poetry as the highest art form 4\. The Poet as a visionary 5\. Rejection of didacticism 6\. paradigmatic shift **Platonism and Neoplatonism** - Shelley\'s literary theory is deeply influenced by Plato\'s concept of Ideal Forms. - He adopted and adapted Plato\'s belief that the material world is a representation of an ultimate, spiritual reality known as \"The One.\" - For Shelley, poetry is the highest form of art that allows access to these Ideal Forms and spiritual truth. **Imagination and Emotion** - Shelley emphasized the importance of imagination and emotion over reason and rationality in poetry. - He redefined poetry as the \"expression of the imagination\" and saw it as the key to accessing transcendental and spiritual truths. - This represents a shift from the Neoclassical focus on order and reason to a Romantic emphasis on the individual, imagination, and emotional depth. **Poetry as the Highest Art Form** - Shelley argued that poetry is the most sacred and perfect of all art forms, placing it above philosophy, history, science, and reason. - He believed that poetry was not just a form of artistic expression but also a teacher and guide to ultimate Truth. - Poetry, for Shelley, occupied a superior place among all disciplines because it connects individuals to the spiritual and transcendental. **The Poet as a Visionary** - Shelley viewed the poet as the greatest type of artist, one who could foresee the future within the present. - Poets, in his view, are not limited to literary figures but include architects, painters, musicians, and lawmakers---anyone who embodies the poetic spirit. - Poets, according to Shelley, are teachers and prophets who can lead humanity toward Truth and beauty. **Rejection of Didacticism** - Shelley moved away from the didactic (moralistic) elements of previous literary traditions. - He did not believe that poetry\'s purpose was to impart moral lessons or adhere to strict rules of reason or structure. - Instead, poetry\'s value lies in its capacity to elevate the mind to higher spiritual and emotional experiences. **Paradigmatic Shift** - Shelley\'s ideas marked a significant shift in literary criticism from the rationality of the Neoclassical Age to the imaginative and emotional focus of British Romanticism. - His emphasis on the spiritual, imaginative, and emotional nature of poetry shaped Romantic literary theory and continues to influence literary criticism today. **Hippolyte Adolphe Taine** **Key Contributions** 1\. historical approach to literary analysis 2\. Race, milieu, moment, and dominant faculty 3\. scientific and deterministic approach 4\. literature as a reflection of the author's psyche 5\. rejection of transcendental or intuitive explanations **Historical Approach to Literary Analysis** - Taine is credited with pioneering the historical method in literary criticism. - In his seminal work *History of English Literature* (1864), Taine argued that a text cannot be fully understood without considering the historical, cultural, and psychological context of the author. - He viewed literature as a product of various environmental and personal influences. **Race, Milieu, Moment, and Dominant Faculty**: Taine introduced a systematic approach to understanding literature by identifying four main categories of influence on a literary work: - Race: Refers to the shared intellectual and emotional traits of people born and raised in the same country or ethnic group. - Milieu (Environment): Examines the surroundings and cultural context in which the author lives, arguing that different nationalities and cultures produce distinct responses to life. - Moment (Historical Period): Considers the dominant ideas and worldview prevalent during the time the text was written, which helps in understanding the motivations and actions of characters. - Dominant Faculty: Refers to the individual talent or unique quality of the author that distinguishes them from others who share similar cultural or historical backgrounds. **Scientific and Deterministic Approach** - Influenced by scientific determinism, Taine believed that literature, like any natural phenomenon, is the \"result of given causes.\" - He proposed that a work of art could be understood through the combination of race, milieu, moment, and the author\'s dominant faculty, which collectively shape the literary creation. - This idea was influenced by Darwinian thinking and emphasized a more rational and empirical understanding of literature. **Literature as a Reflection of the Author\'s Psyche** - Taine argued that a literary text is a \"fossil shell\" that reveals the inner life of the author. - He emphasized that studying both the text and the author\'s personal and psychological characteristics is necessary to gain a complete understanding of the work. Rejection of Transcendental or Intuitive Explanations - Taine\'s approach marked a departure from the Romantic era\'s emphasis on intuition and imagination as sources of truth. - He replaced these with a focus on rational and scientific inquiry, viewing literature as a reflection of historical and social forces rather than as a product of purely individual creativity. **Matthew Arnold** **Key Contributions** 1\. poetry as a source of truth and values 2\. classical influence 3\. the function of criticism 4\. touchstone theory 5\. critic as cultural guardian 6\. Separation of critic and poet from society 7\. impact on modern criticism **Poetry as a Source of Truth and Values** - Arnold argued that poetry could provide the necessary truths, values, and guidelines for society in an era where science and rationalism had overtaken traditional religion and Romanticism. - He believed poetry had a unique power to convey \"higher truth and seriousness,\" a concept he adapted from Aristotle's *Poetics*. **Classical Influence** - Arnold reintroduced classical criteria into literary criticism, drawing heavily from Plato, Aristotle, and Longinus. - He emphasized that literature reflects societal values and concerns, and like classical writers, he believed in a hierarchy of literary greatness, which should be identified through objective criteria. **The Function of Criticism** - In essays like "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" (1865), Arnold declared that criticism should create \"a current of true and fresh ideas\" while remaining detached from politics and other biases. - He believed the critic\'s disinterested perspective was essential for advancing high culture, which would pave the way for the creation of great poetry. **Touchstone Theory** - Arnold developed the *touchstone* theory, where critics should compare new poems to lines from classical works that possess the \"sublime.\" - By measuring contemporary poetry against these standards, critics could judge whether a poem achieved \"higher truth or seriousness.\" **Critic as Cultural Guardian** - Arnold redefined the role of the literary critic as more than just an interpreter of literature. - The critic became an authority on culture, values, and taste, tasked with defending high culture and determining what should be considered great literature. - This new role extended beyond literary analysis to shaping and preserving societal ideals. **Separation of Critic and Poet from Society** - Arnold built upon Wordsworth's ideas by suggesting that both poets and critics should remain separate from society. - This distance would enable them to create and evaluate works that could uplift society from its \"baser elements\" and preserve noble characteristics. **Impact on Modern Criticism** - Arnold's influence was profound, establishing literature and culture as objects of veneration and setting a standard for modern critics. - His work became a rallying point or a standard of opposition for future literary theorists, particularly in their debates over the role of criticism and culture. **Henry James** **Key Contributions** 1\. formulating a theory of the novel 2\. realism in fiction 3\. the organic nature of the novel 4\. show, don't tell 5\. rejection of the Omniscient narrator 6\. emphasis on the reader's judgment 7\. legitimizing the novel **Formulating a Theory of the Novel** - In his essay *The Art of Fiction* (1884), James provided one of the first well-articulated theories of the novel in English literature. - He believed that a novel is a \"personal, direct impression of life\" and that its value depends on the intensity of this impression. - He rejected romantic notions of suspended disbelief and emphasized realism as central to fiction. **Realism in Fiction** - James advocated that novels should represent life realistically, showing life \"in action\" rather than through romantic or overly scientific lenses. - He argued that a good novel must be interesting and grounded in recognizable reality. **The Organic Nature of the Novel** - James introduced the idea that a work of fiction should be organic, growing according to its own principles and themes rather than merely accumulating realistic data. - He believed a novel should not just tell a story but develop its own life and coherence. **Show, Don\'t Tell** - James was a strong advocate for showing rather than telling in fiction. - He preferred indirect narration, where the story is revealed through characters' actions and emotions rather than an omniscient narrator. - This technique, he argued, created a stronger illusion of reality and made the story more engaging for readers. **Rejection of the Omniscient Narrator** - James rejected the use of an all-knowing, third-person narrator as the sole vehicle for storytelling. - He believed that stories should be shown through multiple perspectives, allowing for a more complex and realistic portrayal of life. **Emphasis on the Reader\'s Judgment** - James maintained that the ultimate test of a novel is whether it resonates with readers. - He believed that despite all theories or critiques, the reader\'s personal response---whether they like the work or not---remains the most important measure of a novel's success. **Legitimizing** the Novel - By establishing a well-thought-out theory of fiction, James elevated the novel as a serious subject for literary criticism, placing it on par with poetry and other literary forms. **Mikhail Bakhtin** **Key Contributions** 1\. Dialogism 2\. Heteroglossia 3\. Polyphony 4\. Carnival and carnivalization 5\. hybridization 6\. dialogized heteroglossia 7\. cultural and theoretical impact **Dialogism** - Bakhtin\'s concept of the *dialogic* emphasizes that all language is dialogic, meaning it involves an interaction between speaker and listener. - Language is not a monologue but a dynamic relationship between at least two individuals. - This view extends to personal consciousness, which Bakhtin describes as an inner dialogue consisting of multiple voices shaping who we are. This idea leads to the concept of *unfinalizability*, meaning no individual is ever completely understood or fully defined. **Heteroglossia** - Bakhtin coined the term *heteroglossia*, or \"multilanguagedness\", to describe the multiplicity of languages within any culture. - This includes not only spoken languages but various forms of social speech used by individuals depending on context and audience. - For Bakhtin, heteroglossia is a defining characteristic of the novel, where multiple worldviews, experiences, and dialogues coexist. **Polyphony** - In his analysis of novels, particularly those of Dostoevsky, Bakhtin introduced the concept of *polyphony*. - A polyphonic novel contains multiple independent voices, each with its own truth. - Unlike non-polyphonic novels, where the author predetermines the outcome, a polyphonic novel allows characters, readers, and the author to interact as equals in shaping the novel\'s meaning and truth. - This creates a more dynamic and open-ended narrative structure. **Carnival and Carnivalization** - Bakhtin developed the idea of *carnival* to describe the joyful, chaotic atmosphere in certain novels, especially polyphonic ones. - In a carnivalized novel, many voices and perspectives clash and interact in a playful, anarchic way, creating a sense of relativity and joyful disorder. - This concept applies to how characters and ideas engage in a \"seriocomic\" environment where all are tested and transformed. **Hybridization** - Bakhtin introduced the concept of *hybridization*, where two or more different languages or voices within a single utterance or text clash and interact. - This process creates complex layers of meaning, often blending or opposing ideas and styles in the novel. **Dialogized Heteroglossia** - In his essay *Discourse in the Novel* (1935), Bakhtin argued that novels are characterized by *dialogized heteroglossia*, where multiple perspectives, voices, and discourses engage in an ongoing dialogue within the text. - The narrator\'s voice is key to unifying these dialogues, while meaning emerges not solely from the text but from the interaction between the speaker, listener, reader, and characters. **Cultural and Theoretical Impact** - Bakhtin\'s ideas extend beyond literature to culture, politics, religion, and society. - His theories on language and dialogue have become foundational in contemporary cultural theory and criticism, influencing fields like postmodernism, structuralism, and reader-response theory. **Modern Literary Criticism** **End of Dominance by Single Theorists** - The deaths of Matthew Arnold (1888) and Henry James (1916) marked a shift in literary criticism. - Arnold\'s passing ended the era where one person or theory dominated literary movements. **Diversification of Literary Criticism** - After Arnold, literary theory became splintered and diversified, with no single theory or critic universally recognized as dominant. - Instead, a variety of distinct voices and schools of thought emerged. **Biographical and Historical Approaches** - At the end of the 19th century, many critics focused on biographical and historical approaches to texts, influenced by Taine's historical interests and Henry James's theory of the novel. **Rise of Multiple Schools in the 20th and 21st Centuries:** - Different schools of criticism emerged in the 20th and 21st centuries, each focusing on specific aspects of a text and asking different questions. **Modernism and New Criticism** - Modernism, particularly New Criticism (the first critical movement of the 20th century), emphasized breaking from the past and downplaying cultural and historical influences. - These critics focused on analyzing the text itself as self-contained. **Cultural Poetics** - Emerging in the 1980s, Cultural Poetics argued for a reawakening of historical consciousness, claiming that literature cannot be separated from its historical and cultural context. - They criticized text-only approaches for being incomplete and biased, emphasizing the evolving nature of truth across different eras.