Literary Criticism Approaches PDF

**21^st^ CENTURY LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD** **Literary Criticism: Key Approaches** **1. Formalism** **Overview:** Formalism is concerned with the form and structure of the text itself, emphasizing the literary elements like plot, character, setting, imagery, and symbols. This...

**21^st^ CENTURY LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD** **Literary Criticism: Key Approaches** **1. Formalism** **Overview:** Formalism is concerned with the form and structure of the text itself, emphasizing the literary elements like plot, character, setting, imagery, and symbols. This approach seeks to uncover meaning through a close reading of the text\'s internal features. **Focus:** The intrinsic elements of the text, such as its language, structure, and literary devices, without considering external factors like the author's biography or historical context. **Example:** Analyzing a Shakespearean sonnet for its use of rhyme, meter, and metaphor to understand the theme of beauty and time. **Critical Questions:** \- How do specific literary elements (e.g., imagery, metaphor, symbolism) contribute to the overall meaning of the text? \- What tensions, contrasts, or paradoxes are evident in the structure of the work, and how are they resolved or left unresolved? \- How does the form (such as rhyme scheme, narrative structure, or plot progression) enhance or reflect the theme of the text? \- How do repetition and variation within the text create meaning or aesthetic effect? \- In what ways do the characters, setting, or dialogue contribute to the unity or coherence of the work? **More on Formalism:** Formalism, also known as Russian formalism, emerged in the early 20th century. This perspective draws on Ferdinand de Saussure's concepts of semiotics, exploring how signs and symbols can create new meanings within a literary text. Formalism emphasizes the medium of literature itself, particularly how poetry can creatively transform or "renew" everyday language, resulting in a "defamiliarized" artwork that offers a fresh experience to the senses. The focus is on the form and techniques employed in literature rather than its content, allowing literature to be appreciated as an independent art form that exists separately from its themes. **2. Historical Criticism** **Overview:** Historical Criticism examines the text in its historical context, exploring how the time period, political events, and cultural dynamics shape the work. It sees literature as a product of its time and place. **Focus:** The relationship between the text and its historical context, focusing on how historical events, social conditions, and the author\'s background influence the literary work. **Example:** Studying Charles Dickens' *A Tale of Two Cities* in the context of the French Revolution, examining how historical events shaped the novel\'s portrayal of social unrest. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text reflect the social, political, and economic conditions of the time in which it was written? \- What historical events or movements are referenced in the work, either directly or indirectly, and how do they influence the plot or themes? \- How might contemporary readers of the time have interpreted this work differently than modern readers? \- To what extent does the text engage with or challenge the dominant ideologies of its historical period? \- How do the author\'s personal experiences and historical context shape the creation and reception of the work? **More on Historical Criticism:** Historical criticism emphasizes that to fully comprehend a literary text, one must first understand the author including their social background, the ideas prevalent during their time, and the context in which they lived. The central premise is that whether before or after engaging with the text, it's essential to be acquainted with the author and the world they inhabited when the work was created. **3. New Criticism** **Overview:** An offshoot of Formalism, New Criticism emphasizes the close reading of the text, viewing it as a self-contained unit. It disregards external contexts and focuses entirely on the literary features within the work. **Focus:** Close reading of the text to analyze its formal elements---such as imagery, metaphor, and symbolism---without reference to the author\'s biography or historical context. **Example:** Reading John Donne's *The Flea* as an exploration of persuasion and love through the poem's metaphor and structure, without considering Donne's personal life. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the interplay of literary devices like irony, ambiguity, and symbolism create layers of meaning within the text? \- What is the central theme of the work, and how do specific textual elements reinforce this theme? \- How does the text balance unity and complexity, and where do elements of tension or conflict arise? \- How do the tone, diction, and style contribute to the overall mood and meaning of the work? \- What patterns or motifs recur throughout the text, and how do they influence the reader's interpretation of the themes? **More on New Criticism:** New Criticism is a literary approach that prioritizes "close reading" of the text itself, moving away from the historical context emphasized by traditional historicism to focus on how a work operates. This method reveals the intricacies of a piece through detailed analysis rather than exploring the author\'s life or the circumstances surrounding its creation. It has become the predominant way of analyzing literary works in middle and high school English classes. Both New Criticism and Formalism examine the relationship between a text\'s ideas and its form---specifically, what the text conveys and the methods it employs. New Criticism, sometimes called the "science of literature," investigates the technical elements of language used in a work, such as sounds, imagery, narrative style, and point of view. For instance, when reading a poem about love, New Criticism would analyze its structure, such as its 14 lines of iambic pentameter and its rhyming scheme. The poem\'s intent lies in the subtlety and unity of the text itself, with meaning arising directly from the text on the page. When applying New Criticism to a text, you can focus on three key aspects: form, meaning, and function. **4. New Historicism** **Overview:** New Historicism blends the study of literature with historical context but emphasizes that history itself is also subject to interpretation. It explores how texts are shaped by, and in turn shape, the culture and power structures of their time. **Focus:** The interaction between the text and its historical, social, and political environment, exploring how power relations and ideologies influence both the text and history. **Example:** Analyzing Shakespeare's *The Tempest* for its commentary on European colonialism and how it reflects 16th-century power dynamics, while also considering how the text might shape cultural understandings of colonialism. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text both reflect and shape the cultural, political, and social dynamics of its historical context? \- How are power relations---such as class, gender, or race---negotiated or represented within the text and its historical backdrop? \- In what ways does the text challenge or reinforce the dominant ideologies and discourses of its time? \- How does the text interact with other contemporary works, events, or cultural productions of the same period? \- How might the text be seen as contributing to or resisting the formation of historical narratives or cultural memory? **More on New Historicism:** New historicists aim to uncover the political role of literature as it was created, exploring how cultures produce and sustain themselves. They strive to unveil the historical truths and authority present in a text to understand the dominant ideas and assumptions of its time. Consequently, history transcends mere facts or timelines; it becomes a complex reflection of human reality and thought. Literature produced in a specific era can reveal its social structures, taboos, biases, challenges, practices, and more. Additionally, new historicism seeks to trace how these ideas have evolved alongside changes in the literary text itself. **5. Marxism** **Overview:** Marxist criticism examines literature through the lens of class struggle, materialism, and economic power. It considers how literature reflects, reinforces, or challenges the ideologies of a given society. **Focus:** Class, power, and economic structures, focusing on how texts reveal the ideologies of their time and how they depict relationships between different social classes. **Example:** Reading George Orwell's *Animal Farm* as a critique of totalitarianism and an allegory of class struggle and economic inequality. \- How are the dynamics of class struggle or economic inequality represented in the text? \- How does the text depict the relationships between the working class and the ruling class, and what message does this convey about power and oppression? \- How does the work reflect or critique the socio-economic structures of its time, especially in terms of labor, wealth, and exploitation? \- In what ways does the text either reinforce or challenge the dominant ideology of capitalism or materialism? \- How are characters\' identities shaped by their social class, and how do class conflicts drive the plot or theme? **More on Marxism:** Have you ever wondered why some people are wealthy while others are impoverished? This question is central to Marxism, founded by Karl Marx, who sought to understand how capitalist society operates and the implications for different social classes. He identified a struggle between two main classes: capitalists, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, or workers, who produce goods but do not own the resources they use. A key concept in Marxism is **alienation**, which refers to the disconnection workers experience in a capitalist system. Workers are alienated in several ways: Workers experience alienation in several significant ways within a capitalist system. First, they are alienated from the productive process itself, as they have no say in the decision-making regarding how and what to produce, with capitalists setting all the rules and conditions. Second, they are alienated from the products of their labor, as they rarely have the opportunity to use or benefit from what they produce, which is intended solely for the capitalists\' profit. Third, the demands of mass production and competition lead to alienation from society and other individuals, fostering indifference as workers prioritize their survival over communal relationships. Lastly, they are alienated from their inherent need for creativity and social connection, as the relentless focus on production stifles their ability to express themselves and develop meaningful interactions with others. As a result of this alienation, workers feel diminished and incomplete, losing a sense of their humanity and connection to the world around them. **6. Postcolonialism** **Overview:** Postcolonialism explores literature produced in or about former colonies and examines the cultural legacies of colonization. It critiques the ways in which literature has been used to reinforce colonial ideologies and gives voice to previously marginalized perspectives. **Focus:** The effects of colonization on cultures, identities, and literature, often focusing on the power dynamics between colonizers and colonized peoples. **Example:** Analyzing Chinua Achebe's *Things Fall Apart* for its portrayal of pre-colonial African culture and the devastating impact of European colonization. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text depict the relationships between colonizers and colonized people, and what does this say about power, identity, and resistance? \- In what ways does the text challenge or reinforce colonial ideologies, stereotypes, or representations of the "Other"? \- How are the cultural, linguistic, and political consequences of colonization addressed in the text? \- How do characters negotiate their identities in a world shaped by colonial domination, displacement, or hybridity? \- What strategies of resistance or subversion does the text employ to critique colonial authority or reclaim indigenous voices? **More on Postcolonialism:** Postcolonialism refers to a period or theory that emerges after a colony achieves independence from its colonizing nation. Postcolonialism examines how colonization has influenced the political, economic, and social environments of these formerly colonized countries. It also explores how these nations respond to their newfound independence and the lingering ties to their former colonizers. Many literary works depict characters grappling with their identities following colonization, focusing on how they cope with the emotional, economic, and political consequences left by the colonizers. Postcolonialism critically analyzes these texts, encouraging readers to examine the impacts of colonization and imperialism on the characters. Additionally, it investigates how the influence of the colonizers persists beyond the colonial period and affects the future of the postcolonial nation. **7. Decolonization** **Overview:** Decolonization goes beyond Postcolonialism by actively working to undo the intellectual and cultural legacies of colonialism. It seeks to reclaim indigenous narratives, languages, and identities from colonial domination. **Focus:** Reclaiming cultural identity, language, and autonomy from the forces of colonization, often critiquing the lingering effects of colonialism in contemporary culture. **Example:** Reading Ngũgĩ wa Thiong\'o's *Decolonising the Mind*, which advocates for the rejection of European languages in African literature, as an effort to decolonize African thought and culture. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text seek to reclaim indigenous or native perspectives that were erased or marginalized by colonial powers? \- How does the language used in the text reflect efforts to decolonize thought, identity, or culture? \- In what ways does the text dismantle colonial narratives and offer alternative histories or truths? \- How does the text address the psychological and cultural impacts of colonialism, and what paths for healing or restoration are suggested? \- How does the author challenge or reject Western forms of knowledge, art, and culture in favor of indigenous traditions or viewpoints? **More on Decolonization:** A way to address the lingering influence of colonizers on the colonized is through the concept of decolonization. Decolonization is the intellectual process of reclaiming the independence that colonies once had before colonization. This involves deconstructing the dominant ideas, cultural practices, and beliefs imposed by the colonizers from the minds of the indigenous people. It is a thorough and transformative process aimed at severing the ties that connect the colonies to their colonizers and restoring the power that was lost during colonization. Although postcolonialism and decolonization are distinct concepts, they both address issues of identity and belonging. When colonial powers invade a territory, they often dismantle indigenous beliefs and cultural practices, replacing them with their own. Consequently, when these colonies gain independence, they typically face the challenge of establishing a cohesive national identity. **8. Romanticism** **Overview:** Romanticism emerged in the late 18th century as a reaction to the Enlightenment\'s focus on reason and science. It emphasizes emotion, nature, and individualism, often idealizing the natural world and human imagination. **Focus:** The celebration of emotion, individual experience, imagination, and the sublime power of nature. Romantic works often reflect a sense of awe toward the natural world and explore deep emotional states. **Example:** Analyzing William Wordsworth's *Tintern Abbey* for its reflection on the beauty of nature and the power of memory and imagination in shaping personal identity. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text celebrate or emphasize the power of individual emotion, imagination, and intuition? \- How is the natural world portrayed, and what relationship does the individual or society have with nature in the text? \- How does the text reflect a critique of industrialization, rationalism, or materialism in favor of spiritual or emotional transcendence? \- In what ways does the work explore the sublime, particularly in its depiction of awe, terror, or beauty in nature? \- How do the characters' inner lives---emotions, dreams, desires---drive the narrative, and what does this suggest about human experience? **More on Romanticism:** Romanticism emerged as a literary critical movement in the 1800s and lasted for about fifty years before being succeeded by modernism. It emphasizes human emotions and imagination, responding to the disillusionment with Enlightenment values of reason that followed the French Revolution of 1789. Romanticism champions individual freedom, encouraging people to explore their emotions and imaginative ideas, often leading to an egocentric focus on personal feelings. It also stresses individualism, prompting individuals to think for themselves and support their own liberal beliefs. The movement draws inspiration from the remote past, nostalgia, and the exotic, aiming to illuminate personal emotions to better engage with the world. The term \"romanticism\" originates from medieval romance, highlighting heroic individuals and their thrilling adventures, which starkly contrasted with the formality of earlier literary forms like couplet poems. In English literature, romanticism began with the lyrical ballads of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, who described poetry as a "spontaneous overflow of emotions." William Blake later joined them as a key figure in the movement. Romanticism gained momentum in Germany, where writers celebrated the bizarre, mysterious, and supernatural. A second phase of romanticism occurred from 1805 to 1830, emphasizing cultural naturalism and native origins through folklore and music. Sir Walter Scott revived interest in history, while poets like John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley propelled English poetry into a deeper romantic consciousness, exemplified by Mary Shelley's novel *Frankenstein*. As romanticism spread across Europe, it became more focused on exploring national historical and cultural significance and the struggles of individuals within these contexts. **9. Modernism** **Overview:** Modernism arose in the early 20th century as a response to the alienation brought about by industrialization and war. It is characterized by experimentation with form, fragmentation, and a focus on subjective experience. **Focus:** The breakdown of traditional narrative structures, fragmentation of perspective, and exploration of alienation, disillusionment, and the search for meaning in a chaotic world. **Example:** Reading T.S. Eliot's *The Waste Land* as a reflection of post-World War I disillusionment and the fractured nature of modern life, with its fragmented narrative and collage of literary references. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text experiment with narrative form, structure, or language to reflect the disjointed or fragmented nature of modern life? \- In what ways does the work depict alienation, disillusionment, or existential crisis, especially in relation to modern society? \- How does the text respond to major historical events like World War I or technological advancements, and how do these events shape the themes? \- How do the characters grapple with questions of identity, meaning, or the search for purpose in a world that feels unstable or chaotic? \- What role does subjectivity or stream-of-consciousness play in the narrative, and how does this affect the reader's understanding of the characters or events? **More on Modernism:** Modernism is a literary and cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily in Europe and North America. It encompasses a wide range of artistic disciplines, including literature, visual arts, and music. Modernism is marked by a deliberate break from traditional forms and conventions, focusing on new ways of perceiving reality, experimentation with narrative techniques, and often reflecting themes of alienation, dislocation, and fragmentation. Writers associated with modernism include figures like T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce. Characterized by a rejection of tradition, modernism sought to explore innovative approaches and venture into uncharted territories, striving for uniqueness and creativity. It emphasized possibilities and the importance of individuality. **10. Postmodernism** **Overview:** Postmodernism developed after World War II as a reaction against Modernism. It is marked by irony, playfulness, and skepticism toward grand narratives. Postmodern works often blur the boundaries between high and low culture, reality and fiction, and meaning and chaos. **Focus:** Playfulness, self-referentiality, and the questioning of absolute truths and traditional narrative forms. Postmodernism often challenges established conventions and celebrates multiplicity of meaning. **Example:** Analyzing Kurt Vonnegut's *Slaughterhouse-Five* for its non-linear narrative, blending of fiction and reality, and use of dark humor to explore the absurdity of war. **Critical Questions:** \- How does the text challenge traditional narrative structures, such as linearity or closure, and what effect does this have on meaning? \- In what ways does the text play with the boundaries between fiction and reality, or between high and low culture? \- How does the text use irony, parody, or pastiche to critique dominant cultural or social norms? \- How are notions of identity, truth, or knowledge destabilized or questioned in the text, and what does this suggest about postmodern thought? \- How does the text invite multiple interpretations, resisting any single or authoritative reading, and what does this say about meaning in a postmodern context? **More on Postmodernism:** The concept of postmodernism initially emerged in architecture. It fundamentally rejects the modernist approach of pursuing novelty and avant-garde ideas. Postmodernism offers a skeptical interpretation of culture, art, history, architecture, and literature, implying a critical perspective on artistic works. Rather than focusing on ornamentation or innovation, postmodernists emphasize variety. This movement entirely dismisses the modernist principles of \"totality,\" \"unity,\" and comprehensiveness. In the 1970s, what Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan referred to as the \"literature of silence\" began to take shape through the works of authors like Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Samuel Beckett, and Ernest Hemingway. These writings often explore ontology, which is the nature of being and the experiences of becoming, existing, and living as individuals. Postmodernism encourages the creation of art that transcends mere acts or products; it invites individuals to engage fully with their existence and embody the art itself. **References:** Abrams, M. H. (1999). *A glossary of literary terms* (7th ed.). Heinle & Heinle. Barry, P. (2017). *Beginning theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory* (4th ed.). Manchester University Press. Eagleton, T. (2008). *Literary theory: An introduction* (Anniversary ed.). University of Minnesota Press. Greenblatt, S. (1988). *Shakespearean negotiations: The circulation of social energy in Renaissance England*. University of California Press. Sayuno, C. and Chua, R. (2019). *21^st^ century literature from the Philippines and the world.* Diwa Learning Systems Inc.