Literary Appreciation 3rd Year (Arts) PDF

Sohag University Faculty of Arts English department LITERARY PRINCIPLES AND APPRECIATION Third Year (Arts) Prepared and Edited by Dr. Abdulhamid A. Alansary 1 ...

Sohag University Faculty of Arts English department LITERARY PRINCIPLES AND APPRECIATION Third Year (Arts) Prepared and Edited by Dr. Abdulhamid A. Alansary 1  Table of Contents 1. APPRECIATION The Meaning of Literature  Functions of Literature  Elements of Literature  a. characters b. plot c. Subject Matter/theme  d. setting Narrative Technique 2. CHAPTER TWO GENRES OF LITERATURE  Poetry Types of poems Elements of poetry Poetic Device 3. CHAPTER THREE DRAMA  Types of drama Elements of Drama 4. PROSE TYPE: Elements of a Novel 5. CHAPTER FIVE LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES 2  LITERARY APPRECIATION Literary appreciation is the ability to study, understand evaluate, or make a critical judgment of literary works. The writing styles, themes, figurative and non-figurative use of language, literary devices, and other elements that are visible in a literary work are considered and studied through the use of literary appreciation. Other scholars of literature also have their varying definitions of the concept of literary appreciation. Notable of these scholars are Ogenwele (2006) and Donelson and Nilsen (2009). Ogenwele (2006) defines literary appreciation as the evaluation of works of imaginative literature as an intellectual or academic exercise. Through this evaluation, the reader can properly and easily interpret the intent of the writers as well as the complexities and the advantages and disadvantages of the literary work. Similarly, to Donelson and Nilsen (2009), literary appreciation echoes this sentiment and adds that it is the process by which one ‘gauges one’s interpretive response as a reader to a literary work. Elements of Literary Appreciation There are some indispensable elements of literary appreciation. They are provided below: 1. Plot: This is a literary work's sequential arrangement of events. It's the storyline and must be detailed. 3  2. Theme: The theme is the central idea inferred from reading and interpreting the plot, imagery, and symbolism in a literary work. In other words, it is the central issue raised in the work. 3. Style: This is the way the language is structured or the ways or manner in which a work is written. Technically, every writer has his or her own style of writing. 4. Mood: This is the feeling of atmosphere that the writer created for the reader through the description of the setting, what the characters say and the use of language. This element of literary appreciation is important in order to fully appreciate the literary work by having a classical overview of the writer's intent, mood, or emotions. 5. Diction: This has to do with the author's choice of words. 6. Literary devices: The literary devices used in the work could also help the reader fully understand the work, despite the expressions used. Approaches to Literary Appreciation These are some of the approaches to literary appreciation that can be adopted in order to have a full grasp of what a particular literary work entails. They are:  The context of the literary work  The structure of the work.  The poetic devices employed in the work  The themes inherent in be literary work 7 Stages of Literary Appreciation There are 7 stages of literary appreciation which could serve as a guide to the better to evaluating literary works. 4  In Margaret Early’s Stages of Growth in Literary Appreciation, these stages are considered as parts of literary appreciation and determining the personal attitudes, reading and observing skills. These stages through which the readers go through are added to without dropping the previous stages. As a result, appreciating literary works can be considered as a lifelong process. To give more clarity, Donelson and Nilsen (2009) devised that there are 7 stages of literary appreciation. The 7 stages of Literary Appreciation are: Level 1: Pleasure and Profit (literary appreciation is a social experience) Level 2: Decoding (literacy is developed) Level 3: Lose yourself (reading becomes a means of escaping) Level 4: Find yourself (discovering identity) Level 5: Venture beyond self (‘going beyond me’, assessing the world around them) Level 6: Variety in reading (reads widely and discusses experiences with peers) Level 7: Aesthetic purposes (avid reader, appreciates the artistic value of reading) Literary Appreciation Skills There are literary appreciation skills that can help the readers strategically appreciate the text or work more. The following are literary appreciation skills that can be learned: 1. Learning to verbalize emotional responses 2. Identifying characters 3. Identifying sensory expressions 4. Understanding the figurative language 5  5. Identifying the tone and mood 6. Enjoying the humor 7. Appreciating poetry/prose works The teaching strategies that can be employed to gain literary appreciation skills are:  Listening  Speaking  Oral Interpretation  Dramatization  Reading  Writing  Art How To Write A Literary Appreciation Learning how to write a literary appreciation requires answering some necessary questions and following some adaptable formats. In this section, we will be considering the literary appreciation of a poem. Some of the important questions to ask before writing a literary appreciation of a poem are: 1. Who wrote the poem? 2. When and where was the poem written? 3. Does the poem appear in the original language? Otherwise, the readers can be advised to consider the translation of the poem. This is because an interpretation of the language of the poem can equally alter its meaning. 4. Is the title's meaning readily obvious? or is it subjective to multiple possibilities or meaning? 6  5. Does the poet's life suggest any special point of view, such as political affiliation, religious sect, career interest, musical talent, family or personal problems, travel, or handicap? 6. Does the poem belong to a particular period or literary movement? 7. Is the poem part of a special collection or series? 8. Identifying genre/category/type/style 9. Who is the narrator of the poem? 10. What is the point of view from which the poem was written and the tone in which it was written? 11. What is the mood of the poem? 12. What is the main theme of the poem? You can also consider the side themes. 13. Why did the poet write the poem and what influenced him? 14. What are the elements of idealism and realism (idealism is the beauty of great literature, realism)? 15. What are the major ideas you can grasp while preparing a summary of the poem? 16. Lastly, what is the literary and historical context of the poem? Noteworthy, the above questions are mere examples that can guide you while preparing to write a literary appreciation. They can also be adopted while appreciating any other genres. To learn how to write a literary appreciation of a poem, follow the steps below: 1. Read The Poem Aloud 7  Read the whole poem aloud, look up unclear vocabulary, and write down paraphrases where necessary. Take your time to fully understand the poem. 2. Organize Your Writing Approach Organize your writing approach stanza by stanza or by themes and ideas that are reflected in the poem. 3. Employ Quotations Make use of quotations and adopt them in your sentences. These are quotations of lines from the poem as they are relevant to the paragraph or line. Use short quotations. It doesn't necessarily have to be a long quotation; a single word can suffice. They, however, must be supportive of the point you are making. 4. Begin The Introduction Hence, you begin the literary appreciation of the poem. You are expected to give an introduction to the poem and the poet, the publication, an analysis of the literary movement, and what the poem represents. Also, include the title, the purpose of the poem, and any other necessary background information about the poem. Under this section, ensure you spark the interest of the reader with an interesting opening, contextualize the poem and poet for proper understanding, and then proceed to briefly discuss the subject, speaker/hearer set-up, physical setting, occasion or event, and overall form. 8  5. Write The Main Body This should be based on a critical description or summary of each stanza of the poem. Evaluate and interpret them by employing quotations from the poem. You can then proceed with the discussion on the literary and language aspects of the poem and your personal opinion or perspective as a whole. 6. Conclude This is where you conclude your literary appreciation of the poem. You inform the readers about the theme of the poem, the tools employed in conveying the message of the poem, and how useful and effective they were. However, conclude strongly in the same way you started. The Difference Between Literary Appreciation and Literary Criticism There is a subtle difference between literary appreciation and literary criticism. The difference is that literary appreciation is majorly the ability to evaluate as well as enjoy works of literature. The goal is largely pleasure. Literary criticism on the other hand seeks to understand why and how a particular literary work works. Importance of Literary Appreciation 9  Literary appreciation is an alienable part of literature. In the same vein, its importance to the understanding of literature, its benefits and the literary works can't be overemphasized as it is. The following are the importance of literature appreciation: 1. Proper Evaluation: Hence, one of the importance of literature is that it allows proper evaluation of literary works. 2. Connection Between The Readers And Writers: It also gives more intimation between the readers and the writers— like some sort of connection focused on the same literary pieces. 3. It Gives More Value: Another importance of literary appreciation is that through such attempt of evaluation, literary works become more valuable. 4. Information And Imagination: It helps us to have full grasp of the informative and imaginative aspects of literature. Literary appreciation focuses on the adequate grasp of the definitions and applications of traditional literary devices such as plot, character, metaphor, setting, and symbolism which may be encountered within texts. Conclusion Literary appreciation as stated earlier is inseparable from literature as they work hand in hand for the better evaluation, and understanding of literature. Through it, literature stands the chance to be more valued. 10  In essence, the meaning of literary appreciation is, in other words, reading, understanding, and making a critical judgment of the theme, style, use of figurative and non-figurative language, and other elements of a literary work. As a result, when an attempt is made to discuss and judge a work of literature with the intent of giving feedback or an opinion about the work, such an attempt is called literary appreciation. Literary appreciation is concerned with the acquisition of the artistic skills needed to react instantaneously to any literary work in the various genres of poetry, prose, and drama. Although there are specific skills required for each genre, there are also basic principles and concepts that cut across the genres. Regardless of the genre, literary appreciation is a test of comprehension and analysis of the theme, subject matter, the use of figurative and non-figurative language, as well as the structural features of a given passage. The objective is to determine the total impact of the excerpt in question. In effect, literary appreciation is an attempt to evaluate, understand, and enjoy any work of art or literature. UNSEEN PROSE AND POETRY To start with, “prose” means a language not in verse form, often attributed to the writers of the 19th Century. In other words, it is a non-metrical writing or speech. Thus, a writer can write in such a manner that the write-up does not conform to any special rhythmic standard. While “poetry” is a collection of poems, in general. In effect, poem means a piece of creative writing, written or composed in verse form. Verse, itself means, a form of writing arranged in lines each conforming to a pattern of accented and unaccented syllables. When prose or poetry is unseen, it does not portend a brooding omnipotence in the sky, 11  rather it simply means that the piece of creative writing, whether it is prose or poetry, is to be translated or explained, without prior knowledge of the reader. PURPOSE OF APPRECIATION The purpose of appreciating a work of art is to enter the world of a literary artist successfully, to integrate and involve oneself in his thoughts or feelings, and to be able to read his mind impartially as presented in his work so as to understand and arrive at a just assessment or better evaluation of his work. Three basic questions usually come into focus when a piece of literary work is to be appreciated. These are: (i) What is the writer telling the reader? (theme) (ii) How is the writer expressing himself or herself (style)? (iii) What is the relationship between the subject matter and style? And how far has the style helped or hindered the subject matter? (Personal judgment). These three points; theme, style, and personal judgment must be treated when appreciating or criticizing literary work. The process of analyzing a piece of literary work to determine its quality is known as appreciation. Before commencing the appreciation of any literary text, familiarity with the elements of fiction is essential. These elements are theme, plot, setting, characterization, and language. Armed with this knowledge, we should then go on to show how these elements are dealt with in the text being analyzed. These elements are interrelated and should, therefore to create a unified effect. THEME: a theme is the main lesson that is implied in a fictional writing. The theme of a story, is its controlling idea or its central insight. To derive the theme of a story, we must ask what its central purpose is or what view of life it supports or what insight 12  into life it reveals. To successfully write a critical review of a story, it is necessary to make sure of the theme. When this has been established, we then have to determine how the writer has succeeded in developing the theme by the type of narrative technique or literary devices he adopts. The way the writer goes about achieving the theme of his work is known as the “form”. There should be coherence between the theme and the form. The theme invariably determines the form and where there is deviation from this norm, the novel is regarded as being defective. Sometimes there is a mix-up between the theme and the subject matter but what has so far been said about the theme will clarify the confusion. To clear this confusion further, an illustration from “the mayor of Casterbridge” will render help. The subject matter of the work is the rise and fall of the protagonist, Michael Henchard, while the theme is what the novelist himself Thomas Hardy, says while quoting someone’s “character is fate”. PLOT This is the author’s selection and organization of incidents to achieve certain artistic and emotional purposes. A plot is not just the summary of the action in a novel, but the technique in which the story is told; the art of the author in arranging the event in time sequence. A story tells one the events as they happen but a plot is planned, events are fitted in where they are most effective. If an incident is removed in a story, you leave a gap but if an incident is omitted in a plot so many things will be left out and the entire narrative changes. A plot contains an element of mystery or suspense and this occurs through the suspension of the time sequence which comes up later in the story. EVALUATION OF A PLOT 13  The following questions and comments are very useful in evaluation of a plot. Does the plot keep us in suspense i.e. does it keep in anxious uncertainty about the characters, especially, those we are in sympathy with, or does the novelist give us the story? Does what happen violate the expectation we had? If it does, then there is surprise. A plot is more effective when it involves suspense and surprise. Is the unity of action in a plot? Is there any part of the story that is unnecessary? Is there any extraneous episode? If there is no unity, the plot is weak. For perfect unity, each of the events must contribute to the whole story. Are the actions so connected that the transposal or withdrawal of any will dislocate the whole? A series of episodes arranged in a sequence of chronological order does not make for an effective plot. If a piece of evidence exists to this effect, the author has not made effective use of his time sequence. SETTING: Setting refers to the environment in which a story is located. The time and social conditions in which the action of the narrative takes place also form part of the setting. In most stories, the setting plays an important role. In the “Mayor of Casterbridge” the setting acquires a personality of its own as is seen in the correspondence between the weather and the quality of the wheat sold to bakers which invariably affects the quality of bread sold to the populace. The weather also indirectly contributes to the downfall of Henchard. The setting in which an author presents his story is determined by the theme he is developing. CHARACTERIZATION 14  When we talk about characters in a work of fiction, we mean the human creations of the author's imagination who populate the fictional setting. The power to living characters is the novelist’s essential gift. Without character, there cannot be a story. Plot and character are inseparable for we cannot have a sequence of events without having those events operation around a character. THE ART OF CHARACTERIZATION An author may present his characters either directly or indirectly. In the direct presentation it tells straight by exposition and analysis what a character is like or has someone else in the tell what he is like. In the indirect presentation, the author shows the character in action; from what he thinks and does, one infers what he is like. To be convincing, characterization must observe three principles. The characters must be consistent in their behavior. They must not behave in one way on one occasion and in a different way on another unless there is a sufficient reason for the change. The characters must be motivated in what they do especially when there is any change in their behavior. The reason for their action should be understood immediately or at least by the end of the story. The characters must be plausible, that is, they must behave in a way that is believable. LANGUAGE Language is the most important element in literary works since no literary piece can existing without language. It is through language that an author expresses his theme, sets off his plot and delineates his characters. Language in literature can be literal or figurative. Through the use of figurative language, the author is able to foreground his imagery which helps to convey to 15  the reader the meaning of what the author is trying to communicate. The literary analyst should try to note the extent to which the author of the work being appreciated is able to use language effectively and convincingly. For instance: Those who have nothing but guns for the hungry and think of nothing but death and dying let them spend our earth’s fortune harvesting blood from the fields of war The last banquet shall be their children’s children blood (Kofi Anyidoho) A closer look into this excerpt will show the following: (a) Tone: the tone of the writer is that of “anger”. The writer is fed up with the leadership thus his angry words like “Those who have nothing but guns and hungry”. (b) Theme: The theme of the excerpt is “war” letter put the “evils of war”. (c) The last line is a malediction. And the excerpt is an example of a lyric poem. (d) The lines two and five have an example of alliteration “… death and dying” and “… children’s children” Prejudice Blind prejudice This naughty living hell called earth I averse my staying on you (a) Here, the poet’s feeling is that of “disgust” he/she is tired of living (b) Line three “… living hell” is an example of oxymoron (c) The last line is an example of apostrophe. Her arms across her breast She was more than words can say Barefooted come the beggar maid Before the king In robe and crown, the King step down 16  To meet and greet her on her way “It is no wonder” said the lords “She is more beautiful than the day” (a) Line 3 of the poem above describes the maid as “poor” (b) One of the themes of the poem is “poverty” (c) The poetic device used in line 5 is metonymy “in robe and crown” (d) The attitude of the king towards the maid is that of “humility” (e) We can deduce from the poem that the maid is “pretty” (f) The excerpt is an octave (an eight line poem) EXERCISE QUESTIONS 1) ‘I cannot blind myself to putrefying carcasses in the market place pulling giant vultures from the sky’ (Odia Ofeimun, ‘How can I sing?’) The tone of the line above is one of (a) Defiance (b) anger (c) mourning (d) anxiety 2) ‘The madman has entered our house with violence defiling our sacred grounds claiming the single truth of the universe bending down our high priests with iron’ (mazizi kunene, ‘progress’) The imagery of the lines above captures the idea of (a) coercion (b) religiosity (c) truth (d) persuasion 3) Cotto’s wife was a potter. Nessa remembered Sandra Davis telling her this. Not just a wife, not just a mother Nessa’s own mother had been, as all the women in her childhood were and were expected to be; cooks and floor scrubbers, fanatical 17  table polishers and chairback starchers, nest builders’ (Georgina Hammick, “Habits”) In the passage above, it can be inferred that Otto’s wife 1) Scrubbed floors and polished tables like the other women 2) Was a potter and was therefore speared other domestic job 3) Was a potter like Nessa’s mother (d) Was a potter in addition to being a wife and mother 4) The words “not just” and “mother” was repeated in the passage for (a humor (b) emphasis (c) fun (d) sarcasm. 5) The time you won your town the race We chaired you through the marketplace Man and boy stood cheering by And home we brought you shoulder-high Today, the road all runners come Shoulder high we bring you home And set you at your threshold down Townsman of a stiller town (A.E. Housman, ‘To an Athletedying young) What is the rhyme scheme of the poem. (a) AAbbccdd (b) Ababcdcd (c) AAbcbcdd (d) Ababccdd. 6) What is the mood of the villagers in this poem (a) joyous (b) sad (c) sarcastic (d) enjoyment 7) What technique did the poet used in these lines (a) first person (b) third person (c) combination of first and third person (d) omnipotent 8) What is the poet’s tone in these lines (a) happy (b) cautions c) anger (d) indifference 9) ‘Ocol rejects the old type He is in love with a modern woman He is in love with a beautiful woman Who speaks English? (Okot p’Bitek, ‘song of lawino’) 18  The writer of the lines above (a) ridicules Ocol’s value judgment (b) is critical of the modern woman (c) appraises people who speak English (d) shuns the old type of woman 10) ‘Since I am coming to that Holy roome, Where, with thy quire of saints for evermore I shall be made thy musique; as I come I tune the instrument here at the dore And what I must doe then, thinke here before’ In the stanza above, the poet recognizes that (a) God is his creator (b) he is a choir master (c) there is music in heaven (d) he is near his death 11) ‘In the arena They began to sing my song We could hear it faintly Passing through, the air’ (Okot p’Bitek, ‘song of lawino’) What is the figure of speech used in the passage above? (a) metaphor (b) irony (c) personification (d) simile 12) ‘History’s stammerer When will your memory master The vowels of your father’s name? (Niyi Osundare; ‘waiting laughter’) The literary device used in the excerpt above is (a) apostrophe (b) rhetorical question (c) pun (d) run-on-line 13) ‘And the promised pleasure Will never ever be found In the face of vanished treasure In the face of plundered pound Hidden beneath roots of greener grasses In a land far from the masses; The tone of the poem above is (a) pessimistic (b) optimistic (c) interrogative (d) persuasive 19  14) ‘My heart is a quiet drum Sometimes it flares like a perched thunder Cracking through a damask sky It lifts me in its fired spectacle’. (Cynthia James, ‘Drumology) The imagery in the excerpt above is largely (a) olfactory and visual (b) olfactory and tactile (c) tactile and auditory (d) auditory and visual 15) ‘If I cannot slaughter other tribesmen If I do no say my prayer in the morning If I turn my back on some of your advice…’ (Ismeal Heron, ‘pardon me’) The repetition in the lines above is a poetic device of (a) plagiarism (b) anophora (c) paralipsis (d) alliteration (16) ‘Though alien to this clime Its capacity for baging crime Befits a legendary scion of the soil The brief sack with bulging stomach’ The poem achieve its significant effect through the use of (a) quatrain and imagery (b) rhyme and simile (c) onomatopoeia and alliteration (d) alliteration and personification (17) ‘Emonemua: you it is who own me, and I speak By your permission. When I came home with My husband this morning, believing my Mother was ill and needed nursing, I little knew I was walking into a house of ruin? (J.P. Clark – Bekedere mo, ‘The Boat’) From the excerpt above, the speaker is (a) bereaved (b) homeless (c) recovering (d) a trained nursing. (18) “The white man of God is coming here for Easter! The white man of God is coming to Spend Easter with us!’ This was the talk everywhere In Nkar among the old and young, even among the 20  Pagans. We had been taught everything about him In advance. When he comes we should observe His beard and see if it was not forged like that Of Christ”. (Kenjo Jumban, “The white man of God” From the passage, the white man of God is treated with (a) awe (b) derision (c) suspicion (d) indifference (19) ‘Truly sir, all that is live by is with the awl: I Meddle with no trademan’s matters nor women’s Matters, but withal-Iam indeed, sir, a surgeon To old shoes. When they are in great danger, I recover Them? (William Shakespeare: “Julius Caesar”) The speaker in the excerpt above is a (a) trader (b) surgeon (c) meddler (d) cobbler (20) ‘O, let us have him, for his silver hairs Will purchase us a good opinion And buy men’s voices to commend our deeds. It shall be said his judgement rules our hands. Our youths and wildness shall not white appear, But all be buried in his gravity; (William Shakespeare: ‘Julius Caesar’) In the excerpt above, ‘his silver hairs’ refers to (a) a judicial wig (b) make up (c) old age (d) wealth (21) ‘Silver hairs’ is an example (a) synodeche (b) metonymy (c) metaphor (d) simile (22) ‘If the earth were mortal Where would the flower live? If you left the earth What would happen to beauty? The poet’s tone above can be described as (a) lamentative (b) satiric (c) imploring (d) adoring (23) ‘But the towering earth was tired of sitting 21  In one position. She moved, suddenly, and the houses crumbled, the mountains heaved horribly, and the work of million years was lost’ The subject matter of the passage is (a) flood (b) earthquake (c) demolition (d) storm. (24) ‘She even thinks that up in heaven Her class lies late and shores While poor black cherubs rise at seven To do celestial chores (countee cullen, ‘for a lady I know’) The tone of the poem above is (a) affectionate (b) indifferent (c) satiric (d) sympathetic (25) ‘An unlucky creation His mother, a street walker; His lying father, A champion at producing bastards’. (B.S. Tibenderana’, the Bastard The subject of the poem above is (a) a prostitute (b) the lying father (c) the son (d) the orphan Haiku Definition: Meaning, Origin, Format and Structures, Rules, Examples, Poems 22  LITERATURE The word literature is derived from the Latin form “Littera” (meaning written). It is from this that we have its adjective form “literate” which means ‘able to read and write’. In this sense, literature can be used to describe all printed materials which give instruction, information, etc. literature is “any work or writing that has an enduring value and of universal interest touching on themes such as religion, government, romance, politics, science, etc (Ugwu, 1997:1) it makes use of language, form, and imagination as special tools. It is the stylistic use of words to achieve various literary purposes. It is an art, the heart of which is the special, as against ordinary, use of language or words for aesthetic effect- This definition emphasizes the special use of language by literary scholars in order to create aesthetic or beauty; for the language used in literature writing is not the ordinary everyday kind of language- says Egudu (1976). As a field of study, literature is a form or an act of expression and thus it concerns itself with not just what is expression but the manner of its expression also. Thus, literature places emphasis on aesthetic or elegance of expression. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WRITTEN AND ORAL LITERATURE The begging of literature in all societies was basically oral where people chanted songs for instance, at community gatherings, social occasions or even at work. Oral literature is the vehicle of transmission of culture, beliefs, thoughts and custom of a given community from one generation to another- it is the way traditional people express themselves which is the foundation of their existence. Story telling is the medium of transmission in oral literature. Legends, myths, folktales, riddles and proverbs are some of the forms of oral literature. 23  With the development of writing came the preservation of literature in visible notational forms (written literature) written literature is the embodiment of literature in written from, either handwritten or printed The emergence of written literature in the word resulted from western education. It solely depends on writing skills as against speech, which characterizes the oral. FORMS OF ORAL LITERATURE There are different types of oral literature. Some of them are legends, myths, folktales, riddles, and proverbs-These are expressions, beliefs, stories, customs, and practices of a people. Legend: Tells us about the origin of a people. The heroes who have overcome many difficulties to see the country or town founded. The story of a legend is usually romantic and fascinating. It is the story of a saint's life. Myth: deals with past events relating to the creation of the great forces of nature. Life and death and the great forces of nature. It is an imaginary and indented story of gods or heroes that the society set aside as being sacred. E.g. The myth of Ogbanje. (Abiku), myths of ogum (god of thunder). A writer or poet on myth is known as ‘’mythopoet’’ while a maker of myths is a ‘’mythist’’ folklore: is a fixation story embodying beliefs, traditions, superstitions, notions, customs, prejudices, and observances by a people. It is composed of oral traditions transmitted by word of mouth. The story- teller as a creative writer paints a picture of a true-life situation and makes use of elements of dram). Folklore: is a fictitious story embodying beliefs, traditions, superstitions, notions, customs, and prejudices transmitted by a people. It is composed of oral traditions transmitted by word of mouth. The story- teller as a creative writer paints a picture of a true-life situation and makes use of elements of drama viz:- characterization and setting, language costumes, and spectacle 24  (side attractions. The visual effects of drama). Folklore includes folk songs/tales-any songs/tales among a people, traditionally handed down from past from generations. While a ‘’folk- right’’ is a common law or right or a people. And a FOLKLORIST is he who studies folklore. PROVERBS: Methods used by old people to express themselves tactfully and concisely while giving warning moral lessons and advice. RIDDLES:-These are metaphorical expressions of the basic concerns and interest of a people. The content of riddles is usually vulgar and touches on sexual and obscene allusions through its rich imagery. Story-telling sessions often start with riddles as set induction. PARABLE:- A short story with its meaning placed side by side with the story. e.g. the parable of the sower, lost coin etc. FESTIVALS: These are traditional ceremonies celebrating the inception of certain norms, societal venations, portraying the cultures and traditions of a particular, group or society. These are rules and regulations guiding each festival. Elders play crucial roles here hence they are the custodians of the deity attached to each festival. E.g The new yam festivals of the Ikwerres, the Ekpe. Festival of the Ndokis, Odum festival of Okrikas etc. The religions and cultural lives of the people are brought to bear on festivals. Most playwrights consider it a heaven as it contains some dramatic elements and forms of entertainment. E.g whole Soyinka in “Kongi’s harvest” dramatist the struggle of leadership through the new yam festival as captured by Igbo traditions. 25  RITUAL:-is a religious practice performed to appease the gods- As the custodians of African norms, the violation attracts punishment. Worshippers look unto these gods for protection and would sacrifice by way of rituals to cleanse any sin committed by their people. INCANTATION:- This is a word or words used for purposes of enchantment which is the language of the gods. FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE (1) Literature serves as a means of education: Literature is not concerned with what is expressed alone but how it is expressed. It performs the important function of educating the people e.g. certain literary works serves as good sources of political education. Ngugi Wa Thiangu’s works such as petals of Blood and the River between are examples. (2) Literature is a source of entertainment: Literature provides its audience leisure and it is useful for enjoyment and relaxation whilst it makes them laugh, amused and provides unlimited fun. (3) A means of propagation of history, culture, and politics: Literature projects history, culture and politics of the people. It widens the scope of experience of its audience about different peoples and cultures of the world. (4) It serves as a means of informing society: Literature comments on society and in this connection, it points outs the bad aspects of the institutions of society to pave way for reformation: (5) Teaching of morality: 26  It is an essential function of literature in its didactic essence to impact moral lessons into the people. Folklores on moonlight tales in African society try to teach children morality so as to conform to society’s needs and to avoid the way of the deviants. (6) Improves audience’s use of language: Literature has served the tremendous purpose of improving the linguistic armoury of its audience. GENRES OF LITERATURE Literature as a field of study is divided into three branches. The three divisions are referred to as the ‘genres of literature’. They are drama, poetry and prose DRAMA: Drama refers to plays that are designed for the stage or theatre (i.e. plays to be acted on stage) it is the re-enactment of action by actors and actresses impersonating fictional or historical personages. Of all the genres of literature, drama is unique as it has the greatest mass appeal by providing a lasting a lasting vision. Naturally, people remember what they see longer than what they read. Whether didactic or propagandistic, drama is used to entertain the audience. It is used for mass mobilization towards a particular goal (like avoiding violence) or for public enlightenment (like making the public know the importance of environmental sanitation). Characteristics of Drama (1) It is written in acts and scenes. Acts are the equivalents of chapters in non-drama book and scenes represent episodes. (2) It makes use of dialogue (3) It is action-centred 27  (4) It makes use of dramatis personae (5) It is well appreciated when acted on stage (6) It takes place in a theatre, on a stage or platform Types of Drama COMEDY: A drama with a generally light atmosphere leading to happy ending. Example: Richard B. Sheridan’s THE RIVALS. TRAGEDY: A drama with a generally serious or tense atmosphere leading to an unhappy ending. E.g. Williams Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Tragi-comedy: A play which combines the salient features of comedy and tragedy, and tends towards a happy ending, usually with a great sense of relief after much anxiety. Example: Shakespeare’s the winter Tale. Farce: comedy of a lower kind in which believability is sacrificed for the main objective of exciting laughter. E.g. Zulu Sofola’s Wizard of law. Melodrama: Like the comic farce, melodrama is a place in which the believability is sacrificed for the sake of sensational action and producing the shock effect. When tragedy becomes unrealistic or unconvincing, it becomes melodramatic. In short, melodrama is, in effect tragic farce- Burlesque: This is a form of comedy characterized by ridiculous exaggeration. The essential quality which makes a burlesque is the discrepancy between subject matter and style. 28  PROSE Types of prose passages (a) Descriptive: A passage which provides a full description of persons, places, things or event. (b) Narrative: A passage which endeavours to tell a well defined story. (c) Expository: A passage concerned with exposition: explaining, interpreting and clarifying issues. In the process, more light is shed on the subject – matter. (d) Dramatic: A passage or play. (e) Argumentative: A passage mainly devoted to arguing out an issue, ideally looking at both sides of the argument and coming to such rational and logical conclusion. (f) Technical or scientific: A passage which is based on a specific technical or scientific subject and characterized by the use of language peculiar to that field of study such as engineering, medicine, astronomy, computer science etc. Features of Prose (a) The sentence: One good definition of a sentence is that of OHO Jespersen which runs thus: a sentence is a relatively complete and independent unit of communication – the completeness and independence being shown by its standing alone or its capability of standing alone. i.e. of being uttered by itself? A sentence can be seen as a basic unit of thought it contains a subject and a predicate. (b) The paragraph (c) The use of idioms and proverbs (d) The use of slaugs 29  (e) Narrative technique: The technique adopted by a literary artist in telling a story. The narrative technique is invariably part of the author’s literary style. There are a few varieties of this. Examples. (i) The use of the omniscient narrator (i.e. all- seeing and objective such as in Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles) (ii) The use of the first person narrator (i.e subjective and limited vision such as in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe) (iii) The use of the epistolary style (i.e. epistles or letters such as in mariama Ba’s so long A letter). (iv) Third person narrator: Here, the narrator describes the situation and characters. The author does not connect him/herself with another character. POETRY Poetry is defined as an imaginative work of art expressed in strong feelings and emotions. Usually, it contains rhymes and rhythm. It is also said to be the beautiful arrangement of words in lines. Forms of poetry include poems, songs, recitations, hymns and nursery rhymes. CHARACTERISTICS OF POETRY (1) High and condensed language (2) Apt diction. (3) It uses verses and stanzas (4) Deals with imagination and emotion (5) It is scientific (6) Has poetic lincense Lincnense (7) Uses words in both connotative and denotative sense. EXAMPLES OF POEMS (1) Some vanity (by Barigbon Nsereka) 30  (2) George Bush (by Obara Gomba) FIGURES OF SPEECH Figures of speech can be defined as forms of style in which words are used to express more than they mean ordinarily so as to make the idea (with which they are used) very emphatic and effective. FIGURES OF COMPARISON (a) Simile: This is a direct comparison between two things of different nature or class but with striking similarity in a particular aspect by the use of such words like “as” and “like”. E.g. (1) He is as wily a serpent (2) The students scarried abut the hostels like rabbits. (3) Onyema is as slippery as an eel. (b) Metaphor: This is a trope wherein we replace one thing with another thing. The difference lies in the fact that in simile, we say that one is “like” and “as” but in metaphor, we say that it is “exactly” that thing. (1) Mr. Aremu is a crafty old fox (2) Life is a tortuous journey (3) His love is a red rose FIGURES OF CONTRAST (a) Paradox: This is an apparently preposterous statement which sounds absurd and self-contradictory. But on a closer look is seen to contain a truth which reconciles apposites. Most profound truths are couched in paradox. Examples: (1) Success rendered otonye poorer (2) A short cut is often the longest way round 31  (3) Fools talk wisely (4) I must be cruel in order to be kind (5) The child is the father of the man (6) Attack is the best form of defense (b) Oxymoron: Here, two opposing words are placed together to create a sharp contrast with the effect of creating surprise and shock and arousing of interest of the reader. It is usually not a full sentence like an irony, innuendo, antithesis, paradox but is in most cases, a phrase that contains two or more words. E.g. (1) Wisest fool, loving hate, (2) Israel is honestly dishonest. Bitter sweet, painful laughter, open secret. Loving hate and bitter sweetness kept them afloat. (c) Antithesis: This is a figure where a word or idea in the same statement. The idea is contrasted for emphasis. The essence of placing the statement in its opposite is to ensure a balanced view and to intensify or heighten the contrast. This figure of speech is idiomatic Suo motu (in itself) e.g. (1) united we stand, divided we fall. (2) Poverty is the fruit of all goodness: money is the root of all evils (3) Many are called but few are chosen (4) to err is human, to forgive is divine (5) more haste, less speed (60 the educated look down on the uneducated who look to the educate (7) Everybody thought it would be fairly easy: nobody thought it would be agonizingly difficult. (d) Epigram: This is a short witty statement often expressed antithetically. It may be aphoristic, satiric, or even complimentary e.g. (1) Up went the parasol; down came the umbrella 32  (2) The sunset of old age reflects on the sun rise of adolescence (3) Some foolish fathers begets wise children (e) Irony: This happens when somebody/writer says one thing but means something quite different, he is said to be ironical. Irony speaks words of praise when, in truth, it is blaming. In other words, we say the opposite of what we mean but speak in such a way that our real meaning is understood. E.g. (1) The best way to avoid being punished by my teacher is to disobey him. (2) King Udo is a generous man, he can even take from a street bagger. (3) What a paradisiacal country! (whereas, you mean living hell). We have three types of irony. They are verbal irony, situation irony and dramatic irony. (i) Verbal irony: This implies some form of discrepancy between what the speaker/writer says and what he means. Thus, this involve the expression of one’s mind with a direct opposite word(s) e.g. Udoka is a virgin, having slept with fifty boys in the village. (ii) Dramatic Irony: This is a type of irony where a speech is written or made so as to be understood in one way by a certain character while the audience or another character understands it to have some secret and special meaning. Put in another way, this involves a discrepancy between what the speaker says and what the author means. (iii) Irony of situation: In this, there is discrepancy between what one anticipates and what actually comes to pass. 33  When a man sees a beautiful girl and tries to excuse her only to notice that she is his elder sister. (f) Chiasmus: This is contrast effected by parallelism in reverse order. It is very effective in speech e.g.: (1) Many do not live to eat but eat to live. (2) When the going gets tough, the tough get going (3) As God’s hands is in everything, leave everything in God’s hand. (g) Parallelism: This is a parallel structure or a balanced construction is achieved as certain words are repeated in balance parts leading to a conclusion. (1) The masses that suffer in silence dwell in darkness; those that defy suffering may have darkness thrust at them; in the end, darkness becomes the heritage of both the masses and the masters with darkened hearts. (2) Without Him our dreams would be dashed; Without Him there would be no wholeness Without him life would be mere futility (h) Sarcasm: This is a bitter or caustic comment which is calculated to wound the feelings of a person. Infact, it is an openly expressed digust. It is also an open irony but the remark or comment is made in scorn or contempt. It is always the opposite of what is said e.g. (1) They are the holy men-who will enter heaven alive. (2) When Glass tone saw the strumpet (prostitute) approaching, he turned to the audience and announced to the hearing of the harlot. “stand up and keep clam, a virgin is coming” (3) “Yes, you are the voice of the people” 34  (i) Innuendo: This is a clever way of passing unpleasant comment. It belongs to the same class with sarcasm and irony. Here, the speaker select his words in such a manner that the listener understands the underlying meaning, yet, the speaker will not offend or insult the person he is address. In other words, the ideas that the speaker is conveying in plain but it could be implied or suggested from his statement e.g. (1) Judas is considerably very honest, especially with matters unconnected with money (2) “We got from your letter that you require some comments about Mr. Nkpajasi’s behaviour. He had been in our service for some years and quite a reliable and hard working man. Why we dismissed him was not unconnected with a little fraud that nearly rocked our establishment here. We assure you of his honesty if you finally employ him” (j) Bathos: This literary figure seeks to present a declining impression from something impressive to a ridiculous one. E.g. “it is better to live in hell than to die in heaven” Figures of sound Onomatopoeia: A word that is used to suggest its meaning through its sound is onomatopoeic. It is the formation of word or the use of words whose sounds help to suggest the meaning. When the words are used, it is possible to know the meaning or sense of a word from the way it sounds. This figure of speech is also called voices or echoic verse because it is imitating certain things whose voice echo the meaning when you listen to them. E.g. crunched, Jabbering, Battering, Boom, Cuckoo, Tick Tack etc. Alliteration: This is the repetition of the first in a succession of consonant words at the beginning of words in a sentence. The 35  effect created by alliteration is melodious, musical and rhythmic. E.g. (1) Mike the merchant, will market his merchandise by march. (2) Bruncing baby boy (3) The BBC bomb blast was broadcast live Assonance: This is also called to each other are repeated to effect euphony or fluency. E.g. The five lie beside the live wire in the mire shit on sheet of foul aloud The bat is back in bad basket. CONSONANCE: This is the repetition of similar consonant sounds before and after different vowels e.g. (1) the black bloke (2) Don’t let the pets to bite you (‘t’ consonates) PUN: This is the act of playing on words. The word may echo a sound which is suggestive of two different words. E.g. (1) “Ism to ism for ism is isms Of isms and isms on absolute Ism” – Soyinka – Kongos Harvest (2) Better late than to be late (3) While I was jogging in the evening, I saw Mr Obure jugging his bottle of dry gin. (The first “jog” suggests running slowly and the second “jug suggests drinking heavily)_. Rhythm: This is the precise flow of metrical movement between sound and events. It most essentially Synchronizes with sound and through a good rhythmic pattern, a song-like effect is usually achieved. It could be pronounce in poetry and music and even in other works of art. E.g. “Tick-tock- tick-tock” of a clock is a perfect example of rhythm. 36  Rhyme: This is the exact correspondence in sound or word endings, usually at the end of poetry forming part of a stanza pattern. It could be double rhyme, half rhyme or internal rhyme. In effect, rhyme is a poetic device in which the poet repeat the final sound of words at the end of lines of a poem. E.g. Twinkle, Twinkle, little star How I wonder what you are Up above the world so high Like a diamond in the sky In the above poem, the rhyme scheme is AA, BB. When it is internal rhyme, the word or sound corresponds with the syllable at the end of a line, with one contained within the line, usually at the middle. E.g. We bring love to our wealthy king. As well, a double rhyme corresponds with two final syllables e.g. Ladies and gents, you are here assembled To hear why earth and heaven tremble Because of the black and sinister arts Of an Irish writer in foreign parts Half Rhyme: This is the rhyme with similar consonants but different vowels. E.g.: grained – groaned Alternate Rhyme: These are lines of poetry that rhyme alternately. e.g. “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour -A This hour – A England hath need of thee; she is a fen – B” Masculine Rhyme: This is a rhyme of one stressed syllable. E.g. are: match, catch, way, lay etc. Feminine Rhyme: This is a two syllable rhyme e.g.: silver – quiver housing – rousing 37  OTHER FIGURES OF SPEECH Hyperbole: this figure of speech embodies an exaggeration for emphasis. E.g. She was dying to visit her boy friend We have not really seen for ages His house is as old as the hills. LITOSES OR MEIOSIS: This contain a deliberate understatement for emphasis. A positive statement is made is made in a negative form. E.g. your speech was not bad (meaning very good) Uche is no fool- (meaning quite intelligent) My input is by no means unimportant (quite important). CLIMAX: This figure of speech consists in an effective arrangement of idea to create an effect. It starts with the least important and ends with the most important e.g. She turned; she stared; she was struck. Iberibe drove to the house; forced the door open; assaulted the girl and set the house ablaze. In the scene of the accident, we saw some daring rats, the damaged car, few injured passengers and some dead bodies. ANTI-CLIMAX: This is the opposite of climax. It starts with the most important and ends with the least important. It is sometimes intended to achieve a humorous effect. E.g. at the scene of the accident we saw some dead bodies, few injured passengers, the damaged car and some daring rats. Ike raised his machete, screamed at the top of his voice, swore by his ancestors and heaved a deep sign at the scene of the plane crash, he saw mutilated bodies, a pool of blood, squashed pieces of luggage and cockroaches. 38  SYNECDOCHE: A figure of speech in which the part stands for the whole, and the whole stand for the part. You may be surprise to hear that she has no roof over her head (house) Odoemenam Asked for hands- (workers). Meet the brains of the class. (the cleverest person) Metonymy: In this figure of speech, the name of something or attribute is called by something closely associated with it: Uche loves the stage- Theatrical profession. Members of the bar are here- lawyers Members of the bench are coming- judges The two brothers vied for the crown- (monarchy) PERSONIFICATION: In this figure of speech, inanimate objects are given human quality: The ship set sail on her homeward journey that fateful morning. The cloud is pregnant The wind whispered to me APOSTROPHE: Using this style, the writer addresses an abstract quality, a thing, a dead or absent person, a place or an idea directly: O! Venerable ancestors where are you? O! urenma, why must you go now? Truth, Justice and peace descend on us-at this hour. EUPHEMISM: In this figure of speech, pleasant expressions are used to described unpleasant subjects: We have confirmed that Harry is a love-child- (Bastard) Ure kicked the bucket (died) Hariet passed on yesterday (died) 39  Rev. Akawor is a senior citizen (elderly) Comfort station (toilet) SYLLEPSIS: In this figure two construction are brought together by the use of a common verb or preposition: He wore a smile and a coat as he stepped out. Kate looked at the cat closely with suspicion and a pair of glasses. Sometimes he takes tea, sometimes counsel. ANTONOMASIA: Here we use a proper name in place of a general class or idea for which it is a representative. This means that the one and the other share certain qualities making them comparable to each other. Thus, places or events or persons are identified with famous or notorious names whose good or bad qualities have become symbols. For example, Wole Sonyinka is often called William Shakespeare of our time. This is due to his literary prowess which is only comparable to that of Shakespeare. e.g. (2) Babangida is called the ‘Maradona’ of Nigeria’s politics. This is because maradona’s dribbling skill could easily pass for the political cumingness of Babaginda. Akawor is Israel in Rivers state. What it mean is that Akawor is as favourable to only Israel who received a lot of favour from God. Ogbanje is the Judas of our time. She has betraying finnese only comparable to that of Judas. SYMBOLISM: This is the idea of using symbols to convey messages. When a symbol is used in literature, the purposes is to give it a meaning which goes beyond the physical representation merely. Thus, whenever we see drawings of the crescent and the moon strategically placed in its hollow centre, we know the 40  reference is to Islam while the sight of a cross quickly brings back to memory, the religion, Christianity. PATHETIC FALLACY: In this figure of speech, Here, it could be a commiseration with human beings in a state of grief or nature celebrating with human beings in a state of happiness. It is used to heighten the effect of a particular event: “The interment of Awolowo was a mystery The rainbow gloomily sliced across the sky The friendly sun refused to shine on earth It was like the world was coming to amend As followers proceeded towards the mausoleum. The above short poem is an example of pathetic fallacy. It attributes to nature the qualities of sorrow which is only achievable by human beings as if the sun and the rainbow were sympathizing with Nigerians at the burial of Chief Awolowo. HENDIADYS: This is a rhetorical figure in which a sole or single idea is represented by two words connected by a conjunction: This book is a good medicine and panacea for curing my defects in literature. Your suggestion is a balm and a solution to the problem. “Olu took his hat and his leave” EULOGY: This figure of speech contains or gives high praise. It is used to extol somebody’s qualities. This is called “PANAGYRISM”: Chinua Achebe is a man of great erudition, infact, he is my idol. Ine’s decency makes her the most outstanding lady in the city. Mirian’s smiles shine like the twilight. PROLEPSIS: This is an anachronistic statement in which an event that had not taken place is treated as having taken place. It is a 41  sort of anticipation in which events anticipated are taken as if they had already passed. A student anticipating the result of his/her WASC examinations may boastful say to his mates: “This is C.B Fairlamb, the man with “A1” in English language and seven other distinctions” He has not even seen the result, the examination may have just be written. Or you may listen to the characteristics boastfulness of boxers or wrestlers before the match itself is even staged. “Mike Tyson challenges me. He is a finished business already”. The boxer here is merely looking forward to a successful bout against heavyweight boxer called Mike Tyson. REPETITION: This is a rhetorical device reiterating a word or phrase to secure emphasis. E.g. “Twinkle, Twinkle little star” “Rain, Rain go away” “Out, out brief candle” RHETORICAL QUESTION: This is an art of effective speech or writing. Thus, rhetorical question is a literary device in which a question is made to suggest its own answer without demanding a direct reply from the reader or listener. E.g.: (i) Which human being can stand the wrath of God? (ii) Where in the world will you find a place like home? (iii) When gold 42  GENERAL LITERARY TERMS Literary terms are technical devices used both in prose, Drama and poetry by an author, novelist, playwright, poet etc. When appreciating works of art in order to communicate their thoughts and feelings to the readers, so as to enhance the readers’ understanding of the theme and form of piece of writing. There is a need for you to know them. Read on! Dialogue: Conversation between two or more characters Aside: A speech made by a particular actor to another which is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. Soliloquy: A speech through which a character speaks his thoughts without addressing any listener. The character talks to himself. Conflict: Disagreement between the two opposing forces in a literary work. Monologue: Long and uninterrupted speech by one person to an audience. Setting: This is the place (venue) where the action in a play is supposed to occur. Theme: This is the meaning or the message of a literary work. It is the subject matter of the work. Cast: These are the people that take part in a drama production. This is also called dramatis personae. 43  Dress Rehearsal: This is the rehearsal before a production where technical equipment (like lights and sound) is tested to go with the play. Satire: This is a type of play, novel or poem which shows the ills of the society and the foolishness of man, in a light hearted way, with the aim of correcting them. (e.g. “Animal Farm” and “Nineteen Eighty Four” By Orwell George. Exposition: In a play, this means the untangling of the plot. Rehearsal: Constant practice and acting of a given role. Characterization: This shows how the roles to be played by the characters are revealed. Suspense: This is a state of uncertainty of the expected result of a conflict. Surprise: If what happens in a literary work violates our expectation in a play, surprise is achieved. Mime: This is the use of facial expression and gestures by actors on stage to communicate with the audience. Dramatis Personae: These are the characters in a play. Slapstick: This is a comedy which involves much physical action, tricks and clowning. Resolution: This is the situation when conflicts are settled in a story. 44  Flashback: This is a method used by novelists, playwright to bring into focus events that have taken place in the past and their relationship with the present. It is the art of recalling or remembrance. Foreshadowing: This is the method used by writers to have a sign or know what will happen in future. They foresee what will happen. It is just like prophecy. In the gods are not to blame, it was foreshadowed that Odewale will kill his father and marry his mother if not killed at infancy. And it happened. Plot: This is the structure or arrangement of the sequence of events in a story into an organic whole. Diction: This is the choice of words in a literary work. Point of view: This is the position from which the writer tells his story. Static character: This is a character who does not change in personality from the beginning to the end of the story. Round Character: This is a character that grows and changes according to situations in novel and drama. Mood: This is the state of mind of the author as well as the reader. It is the prevailing atmosphere or the feeling of the writer when composing his work. We have sober mood etc. Tone: This is the way the writer’s thoughts and feelings are conveyed. We have harsh tone, sober tone etc. 45  Linea Plot: This is the running of a plot from start to finish without diversion or digression. Story with a straight beginning, middle and end. Romance: Adventure and love story. Major Characters: Characters that play important roles in a story. Medial characters: Characters that neither play major nor minor roles. Their roles are short lived in the story. Imagery: In Poetry, Imagery as a term includes not only painting mental pictures but also sounds and other sense impressions. Structure/Form: the structure or form of a poem refers to the conscious division and arrangement of the lines of poetry. These divisions are called stanzas. Protagonist: This is the character who takes the leading role in play or novel and is in the forefront of the action. He or she is invariably the hero or heroine of the work. Antagonist: The word is derived from a Greek original which means ‘contender’ or ‘rival’. Thus the antagonist is in effect the opponent of the protagonist against whose interest he is always working. Director: This is the theatre artist that directs the speech, movement and actions of the actors and actresses in the interpretation of the different characters in the play. 46  Playwright: This is the dramatist or writer of drama whose art is normally subject to the physical conditions of the stage before the creative process can be regarded as complete. (1) Interlude: This is a presentation in the interval of a dramatic performance. (2) Epic is a heroic story which includes myth. (3) Farce: This is a dramatic piece marked by comic and exaggerated actions. It is unrealistic (4) Harangue: This is a long story narrating a series of complicated events. (5) Limerick: This is a light verse which consists of five lines that are dactylic. It also has formal and elaborate style and humour. (6) Leich: This is a short narrative or lyrical poem intended to be sung (7) Metalepsis: This is a figurative device in which a statement is made and then withdrawn. (8) Burlesque: This is a literary work which imitates another in a distorted form. (9) Fictional Character: This is a character that heavily relies on cultural types for his manner of speech, his personality and other distinguishing characteristics. (10) Monometer: This is a single foot used in John milton’s sonnets. (11) Zeugma: This is a figurative device in which a verb refers to two parts of an expression. (12) Chanson: This is a term denoting a poem of varied metrical forms. (13) Catharsis: This is the part of a play when climax approaches. It is also knows as purgation of emotion by the audience. (14) Black Theatre: This is a drama concerned with actors of black origin. 47  (15) Lament: This is a form of poetry that is an example of a monologue. (16) Epanalepsis: This is a final stanza of a poem that is shorter than the preceding one. (17) Pathos: This is a quality in a literary work which evokes tenderness, pity or sorrow. (18) It is also an anti-social action taken by the tragic hero which results in a catastrophe (19) Location: This is the physical setting within which the action of a narrative takes place. (20) Fantasy: This is a work which takes place in a non-existent world or which concerns as incredible character. (21) Travelogue: This is a record of the writer’s experiences during a journey. (22) Comic Relief: This is a humorous scene, incident or speech in the course of a serious fiction or drama. (23) Invocation: This is an address to a metaphysical source of inspiration by a poet. (24) The wings: These are the sides of a stage. (25) Aesthetics: In literature, this deals with creation of beauty. (26) Cast: This has to do with or includes all the characters/actors. (27) Aristotelian tragic Hero: This is a noble character with hubris. (28) Tone: This is a careful choice of words dictated by a particular mood or event. (29) Digression: This is the insertion of material unrelated or distantly related to the specific subject under discussion- in a given work. (30) Wit: This is a short, carefully phrased expression meant to elicit amusement and surprise. 48  (31) Opera: This is a dramatic composition or musical play in which many or all the words are sung. (32) Conceit: This is a poetic device that forcefully brings together two seemingly unrelated ideas or concepts. (33) For a play to be successful on stage it must not lack action (34) The setting in pastoral poems is usually idyllic (35) Copy right: This is the exclusive right given to authors to protect their work from unlawful production. (36) Parody: This is the deliberate imitation of a literary style with the intention to ridicule. (37) Periphrases: This, in poetic diction is marked by circumlocution. Periphrases in poetic diction is marked by circumlocution. (38) Melodrama: This is a theatrical performance in which the serious, is treated in a satirical way. (39) The rhyme scheme typical of the English sonnet is ABAB CDCD CDE CDE (40) The author of a novel sustains readers’ interest through the use of suspense (41) Theatre-in-the-Round: This is employed to achieve close rapport between players and spectators. (42) In its classic form, the short story is distinguished by its compact plot (43) Narrators mind style: This is the writing convention in which the events in a narrative are scrambled as they come to the writer’s mind without any attempt to arrange them in orderly sequence. (44) Literati: This is a body of imaginative men and women of letters. (45) A Terza Rima: This is poem written to celebrate one’s wedding. (46) An iambic metrical foot consists of an unstressed syllable following a stressed syllable. 49  (47) Empathy is achieved when the audience vicariously participates in the stage experience. (48) Exposition: This is the overall design of a drama to which all other components relate. (49) Picaresque protagonist: The protagonist of a picaresque novel embarks on a journey. It focuses on the adventures of a rogue who does not change much in the course of the story. (50) Hubris tragic flaw: This is an irredeemable reversal of the heroes fortune in a tragedy. It is also the overwhelming pride that destroys the tragic hero (51) Avant –garde: This is a system of plot development which creates the future through anticipation and the past through memory. (52) Flat Character: In a literary work, a flat character always embodies a quality. It does not develop nor experience change in a work art. (53) Novel: This is an extended narrative which is realistic. It is the presentation of prose narrative, the story of which is very long with a lot of digressions and characters. This arrangement may contain thirty thousand words or more. (54) Audience participation: This is a technique in which both the stage and the auditorium are involved in a play production. (55) Panegyric poem: A panegyric poem is composed to praise (56) A primary ballad is associated with the rural folk (57) Trilogy: This is the sequence of three plays written by their same author. (58) Leif motif: This is the term given to a type of incident or device which recurs frequently in literature. (59) Mock-heroic-poetry: This elevates trivial subject matter by using the style of the classical epic. (60) Lineation: This is the arrangement of lines in verse form. 50  (61) Couplet: This refers to two successive lines of rhyming verse. (62) Climax: In drama, the term climax is used for the pint of highest tension. (63) Foil: This in drama is also known as antagonist. It is the character that opposes the protagonist. (64) Persona: This refers to the image a character presents. Denouement: This is the resolution of the conflicts and issues in a literary work. Appreciation: Critical assessment of any literary work Epitaph: This is an inscription on a tomb or grave-stone to commemorate a person’s death. Poetic Justice: This is a deserved punishment for a character. Comic Relief: This is a brief period of laughter or amusement in tragic play to alleviate tension. Attitude: This is the way a writer thinks or feels about his work. Novella/Novellette: This is a presentation of prose narrative, the story of which is not very long but contains a few digressions and characters. A novella contains between five thousand and fifteen thousand words. Short Story: This is a presentation of prose narrative the story of which is very short and contains no digressions but few characters. A short story may contain between five hundred and five thousand words. 51  Thriller: A type of fiction with a story that is meant to excite the reader but does not contain any cultural heritage. Prologue: A short story at the beginning of a main story which serves as an introduction to the main work. It sets forth the subject of the work. Epilogue: A short story at the end of a main story which serves as the concluding part of the main work. Future events not presented in the main story are narrated here. Sound Effect: This is the produced by the use of alliteration, assonance, consonance, repletion and rhythm. Producer: In stage drama, this refers to the person or organization that brings the performance about and also provides the funds for its realization. Climax: Originally derived from a Greek word for ‘ladder’, the climax of a play is the moment of greatest tension when the conflict attains its peak, and is now fully ripe to be resolved. In sons and Daughters, Lawyer Bonu’s wooing of maanan right in her fathers bed sitting room represents the climax of the play. Catharsis: The original Greek word from which it was derived means ‘purging’. Thus, catharsis is the effect of purgation of emotion which a great tragedy is meant to produce in the reader or audience. It is the process of cleansing unwanted emotions. Chorus: This is originally a band of signers and dancers in the drama of ancient Greek who acted as a link between the play and the audience, commenting on the unfolding stage action. However, the modern chorus does not have to sing or dance; rather, it acts 52  in unison and proceeds to shed further light on the dramatic action. Shakespeare makes use of the chorus in Romeo and Juliet. Prompter: During a performance, the prompter is the person who stays out of sight to remind (i.e. prompt) an actor or actress of lines which escape his or her to ensure the continuity of action. Role Play: the playing of a specific role in a dramatic activity without fully transforming into character. This is different from acting which involves a total transformation of character. In role play, the personality of the performer does not fully dissolve into the role being played. In De-Graft’s sons and Daughters, lawyer Bonu’s wife is in the play, but never transformed into a character. Audition: This is the process by which actors and actresses are chosen for specific roles in a performance. This partly involves the reading of lines from the play to the hearing of the director. The physical features of the actor/actress are also taken into consideration before the final casting is done. Stooging: These are characters in shot but without business or lines. Doing nothing but stand around. Synopsis: A brief outline of a story. Stanza: This is the division in the formal pattern of a poem. It is a group of lines or verse based on thought form or forming a definite pattern. Its plural is (stanzoes) in Shakespearian language. It could be two, three or more lines. The arrangements of stanzas are as follows: A one-line stanza is known as a mono meter A two –line stanza is known as a couplet A three-line stanza is known as a quatrain 53  A five-line stanza is known as a quintet A six-line stanza is known as a sextet A seven-line stanza is known as a septet An eight-line stanza is known as an octave. Enjambment: This is also known as “run-on-lines”. It occurs when the ideas in a line of verse move from one line to join the line that follows it. That is, the sense expression is not complete until the next line. There is no definite pause at of such lines. Atimes, a dash is added at the end of one line. e.g. When the world rises In the early hours Both animate and inanimate objects Give glory to the Lord Syllable: This means a unit of pronunciation forming a word or a part of word you may notice that at times when you utter a word in your mouth, there is a gap, which in some cases you close before you take up another digit of the word- e.g. ca-pi-ta-li-sm (four syllables) Na-ti-na-li-ty (five syllables) Metre: This resembles rhythm. If your voice goes down or up at regular intervals in the pronouncia of any word, as though you have balanced your breath, then you have a metre. In other words, it is the arrangement of words to produce a number of beats in each line of a poem. E.g. I may, go, mo’re, sl’eep no. Denotation/connotation: While denotation means the precise and primary meaning of a word as defined in the dictionary, connotation indicates the references and associations which a word has collected in the course of usage in addition to its denotation, that is, it is the additional “flavours” which a word 54  carries. Thus, one can say “the connotation of this word suggests …” For examples, “megard” is a connotation of the word- “my- guard” and “skinny” is a connotation of the word “slim”. Humour: This is the feature of events presented in ways likely to induce laughter by various ways. Humour could be witty, satirical. For instance, in Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar” Cata provoked a laughter by his statement. Thus, Who will go with me? I will proclaim my name about the field I am the son of marcus cato, ho! Rhetoric: This is the art of using words persuasively in speech and writing. It involves the whole art of using language so as to persuade others. In short, it is a theory an$ practice of eloquence. Mark Anthony made use of this literary expression to turn the table against the conspirators in Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar” Imagery Continues: Also, imagery is the appeal to the senses through words. The major senses that imagery appeals are: (i) Sight - the visual sense (ii) Hearing - the aural sense (iii) Smell - the olfactory sense (iv) Taste - the gustatory sense (v) Touch - the tactile sense (vi) Heat - the thermal sense (vii) Motion - the kinaesthetic sense Allegory: This is an extended metaphor in which objects, persons and actions in a narrative, either in prose or verse, are equated 55  with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. It brings a vivid representation of events, characters, setting and ideas through images in which they can, on deeper reflection, be perceived. 8 A quintessence (i.e. perfect example) of allegory in a prose work is George Orwell’s Animal farm which represents the societal ills of perversion of communism by the Russian leaders after the October 1917 revolution. You can see the character representation of Stalin in Napoleon and Tyotsky in Snowball. Compare the animal revolt through which Mr. Jones is expelled from the manor farm with the over throw of Czar. To Orwell was expressing similar opinion in yet another prose Nineteen eighty four. Dilemma: This is a situation whereby a person is faced with two dangerous situations between which he has to choose. One is as undesirable as the other. This is a situation in myth, called a situation of Scylla and charbdis i.e. between a raging inferno and a deep blue sea. A character in such a condition is said to be in a dilemma. Fable: This is a short story (tale), told to teach moral lesson. It is often told with animal representation of human beings. It is quite common in folktales whereby we come across the cunning expertise of tortoise. Definitely, everybody knows that no animal can talk but such characters are meant to represent human characters. Ways of Determining a Character A character means a participant in any work of art. The character in one way or the other participates and therefore, contributes to the development of the plot. A character can be determined by: 56  (a) What he says or do (b) What other characters say about him/her (c) His/her actions and inaction (d) Through revelation in the course of reading the text. Allusion: This is a reference to something outside the immediate scope of what is being presented. It may be reference to characters events in history, mythology and works of literature. TYPES OF ALLUSIONS (a) Biblical Allusion: This refers to a brief mentioning of a Bible story in a work of art. Example is the Biblical story of the prodigal son, Judas, etc. (b) Literary Allusion: This is an allusion that is taken from literature book. Example: “My love, swear you will take a cup of it And take a long sleep for me in the yard That we may sleep a twain in a joyous grave” The above quoted words are literary allusion to Romeo and Juliet’s love in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (c) Classical Allusion: This refers to stories and characters in ancient books written by the Romans and Greeks. E.g. “Renowned Suitors, and her sunny locks Hang on her temples like a golden fleece … and many Jasons come in quest of hr” The above statement by Bassaria alludes to a classical story of Jason, a Greek hero who won back a kingdom which was his right by obtaining a golden fleece belong to the king of Colchis. “Oshiomhole stealing from the rich and give to the poor” This was a caption in a newspaper in 2009. Robbin hood is the legendary thief that stole from the rich to better the living 57  conditions of the poor. So, that caption is an allusion to Robbin hood. (d) Historical Allusion: This is an allusion drawn from history. E.g. “coming and going these several seasons Do stay out on the baobab tree” The quotation above is a historical allusion to “Abiku”. It is a common knowledge in Yoruba and Ibo tribes that ‘spirit’ children are born only to die young and return to be born again repeatedly by the same mother. Grace Osifo’s ‘Dizzy Angel’ and Soyinka’s Poem ‘Abiku’ are perfect examples. Romance: This is a story written either in verse or prose about wild and improbable adventures. The story could also be about nature. Verse: This is a metrical composition of a song or lines of poetry. TYPES OF VERSE (a) Blank Verse: This is a type of verse that has no terminal rhymes at the end of a line of poetry. It usually has lines of five stressed and five unstressed syllables that give a metre known as an iambic pentameter. (b) Free Verse: This is a composition which has no metre at all. Majority of modern poets prefer using it so as to write or say freely their thoughts without being hindered by a particular rhyme scheme. (c) Couplet: This is a form of verse where every two successive lines are equal in length. The syllable of a couplet can either be octo-syllabic (eight syllables) or decasyllabic (ten syllables). 58  Rhyme Scheme: This is a pattern generally produced at the end of lines of poetry when a poet uses rhyme. E.g. As virtuous men pass mildly away - A And whisper to their souls to go - B Whilst some of their sad friends do say - A ‘The breathe goes now’, and some say no - B (A valediction: forbidding mourning – John Donne) The rhyme scheme is of this poem is ABAB. Rhyme, Royal: This is stanza of seven iambic pentameters rhyming AB, AB, BCC. Lineation: This is the arrangement of poems in lines. Anthology: This is a collection of passages of poetry. Example is When the Bleeding Heart Breaks by Fidelis Okoro Novelist: This refers to a writer of a novel. Style: This is the method employed by a writer to present his views. Episode: This is the division of events in a novel. Prose: this term applies to all forms of written or spoken expression which do not have a regular rhythmic pattern. It is most often meant to designate a conscious, cultivated writing not merely bringing together of vocabularies, a list of ideas’ or a catalogue of objects, prose can either be fiction or a non-fiction. Fiction: This is the term used for narrative writing drawn from the imagination of the author rather from history or fact. 59  The terms is mostly frequently associated with novels and stories, though drama and narrative poetry are also forms of fiction. Fables, parables, Fairytales and Folklore contains fictional elements. The chief function of fiction is to entertain; but it often serves also to instruct to edify, to persuade, to arouse or even to incite. It is one of the major devices by which human beings communicate their visions of nature of reality in concrete terms. To sum up, fiction is any unreal story which deals with invented people and events and this is because writers of such works in their imagination closely imitate or copy life with or without imitation. Examples of fiction are novel, novella/novelette, epistolary Novel: This is used to describe a novel in which the narrative is carried forward by letters written by one or more of the characters. E.g. So long A Letter, by Mariama Ba. Emotive Prose: the motive of an emotive prose is to produce emotional effect on the reader. The writer objective is to make the reader experience pity, awe, sorrow, fear, likeness, joy, love, and so on. E.g. examples of emotive prose are sermons, comedy, oratory, satire, pathos etc. Scientific Prose: This is also an example of a fiction. We have discussed it earlier on. Non-Fiction: This is the opposite of fiction. It deals with the true experiences and happenings. Non-fiction means prose writings that deal with facts. Examples of non-fiction are: Autobiography: This is the story of a person’s life as written by that person. Examples of autobiography are: 60  (a) My early Life by Obafemi Awolowa (b) Zambia Shall Be Free by Kenneth Kaunda (c) My Odyssey by Nnamdi Azikiwe. Biography: This is a written account of a person’s life written by another person. For instance, if Mr. Love wrote a book about Mrs. Hate’s life, such a book by Mr. Love is a biography. Examples of biography are: (a) Life and Death of Lenin By Robert Paine (b) The Prince of the Niger by Chidi Amuta (c) Life and Times of Akobayee By Nsereka Barigbon. Point of view: This is the relation in which the narrator stands to the story. To determine the point of view of a story, we ask the following questions: Who tells the story? How much is he allowed to know? To what extent is he allowed to look inside his characters and report their thoughts and feelings? KINDS OF POINT OF VIEW Though Many: Variations and combinations are possible, the basic point of views are: Epistolary Narrative Method: This is a letter writing method. When a book takes the form of a series of long letters, such a book will be said to be in epistolary mode. Paul’s epistle to Ephisians, So long A letter etc. Autobiographical Method: This method tells story in the first person: “I” and “we”. The narrator is the person who has experienced or witnessed the event he narrates. E.g. Camera Leya’s The African child 61  Flashback Narrative Method: This is the device that is used to reveal to the readers past event which might have happened before the prevailing narration. It is a sudden return to an earlier time by the writer in order to provide readers with as many details as possible. An example is Abubakar Gimba’s Witnesses to Tears Stream of consciousness- Narrative method: This is the method that is used to explore and reveal the inner flow of thought of the characters. Assorted Narrative Method: This is an overall employment of all or some of the methods earlier mentioned and yet to mention. The modern writers use any of these methods at different stages of their narration any time they deem fit. The Omniscient point of view: In this point of view, the story is told by the author sing the third person; his knowledge and prerogatives are unlimited. He is free to go where he wishes, to look inside the minds and hearts of his characters at will and tell us what they are thinking and feeling. He can interpret their behaviour and comment if he wishes, on the significance of the story he is telling. He knows all and can tell us as much or as little as he pleases. His comments and judgements are regarded as authoritative. That is why some commentators call it “eye of God narrative method” The mayor of caster bridge is a good example of this kind of point of view. The Limited Omniscient point of view: In this point of view, the author also tells the story in the third person “he /she” and “They” but he tells it from the view point of one character in the story. The author, as it were, places himself at the shoulders of his character and looks at the events of the story through the 62  eyes and mind of this character. The author tells us what this character sees, thinks, and hears. He knows everything about this character (more than the character knows himself) but he shows no knowledge of what other characters are thinking or feeling or doing except for what his chosen character knows or can infer. The chosen character may be either a major or a minor character or an observer. First Person point of view: Here, the author disappears into one of the characters who tells the story in the first person. This character may be the protagonist or any other character and it will make a considerable difference whether the protagonist tells his own story or someone else tells it. The first-person narrator uses the first person singular and plural “I” and “We” throughout the narration. The Objective point of view: Here, the author disappears into a kind of “video roving camera”. The camera can go anywhere but can record only what is seen or heard. It cannot comment, interpret or enter a character’s mind. With this point of view (sometimes called the dramatic point of view), the reader is placed in the position of a spectator at a play. He sees what the characters do and hears w