Life Span Development- Mod 2 PDF

UNIT II : ADOLESCENCE Peers Peers are people who are roughly the same age, social position, or ability level as you. They share similar experiences and perspectives. Positive relationships with peers in middle and late childhood have long-term benefits. Engaging in positive interactions, resolv...

UNIT II : ADOLESCENCE Peers Peers are people who are roughly the same age, social position, or ability level as you. They share similar experiences and perspectives. Positive relationships with peers in middle and late childhood have long-term benefits. Engaging in positive interactions, resolving conflicts in non-aggressive ways, and having quality friendships during this time can lead to more positive relationships in adolescence and adulthood. For example, being popular with peers and displaying low levels of aggression at a young age have been linked to higher occupational status later in life. Additionally, peer competence in middle and late childhood is associated with better relationships with coworkers in early adulthood. Developmental Ages As children progress through elementary school, their interaction with peers becomes more important, with the percentage of time spent interacting with peers increasing from about 10 per cent at 2 years of age to over 30 per cent in middle and late childhood. Additionally, the size of their peer group increases as they get older, and until around the age of 12, children tend to prefer same-sex peer groups. Peer Status Sociometric status describes how children are liked or disliked by their peers. It is assessed by asking children to rate their classmates or nominate who they like most and least. Developmentalism has identified five peer statuses: Popular Children are frequently nominated as best friends and are rarely disliked by their peers. Average Children receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from peers. Neglected Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers. Rejected Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers. Controversial Children are frequently nominated both as best friends and as being disliked. Social Cognition This case illustrates the significance of social cognition in children's interactions. One boy accidentally trips and spills another's drink. The second boy retaliates aggressively, leading to a perception of him as habitually inappropriate by classmates. Social Cognition: Children's thoughts about social situations are crucial, especially in middle and late childhood. They influence how children understand and navigate peer relationships. Kenneth Dodge's Model: Five Steps of Social Information Processing: 1. Decode social cues 2. Interpret these cues 3. Search for a response. 4. Select an optimal response. 5. Enact the response. Aggressive boys are more likely to perceive ambiguous actions as hostile and respond quickly, less efficiently, and less reflectively. Social Knowledge Children must understand social goals, how to initiate and maintain social bonds, and appropriate social scripts to get along with peers. Knowing how to interact positively, like complimenting peers, helps in making friends. These points highlight the complexity of social cognition and its impact on children's behaviour and peer relationships. Bullying In a national survey of over 15,000 6th- to 10th-grade students, almost one in three reported being bullied or involved in bullying. Bullying includes verbal or physical behaviour intended to harm someone less powerful. The most common type of bullying reported was belittling someone about their looks or speech. Bullying decreased from the fall of the sixth grade (20% bullied extensively) to the spring of the eighth grade (6% bullied extensively). Boys are more likely to be bullies than girls, but gender differences regarding victims of boys are less clear. Who is Most Likely to be Bullied: Boys and younger middle school students are the most likely to be bullied. Victims' Characteristics: More loneliness, difficulty making friends, anxiety, social withdrawal, and aggression. Characteristics of Bullies: Bullies tend to have low grades. Engage in risky behaviours. Social Contexts and Bullying School Environment: 70-80% of bullying incidents involve victims and bullies in the same classroom (Salmivalli & Peets, 2009). Peer Awareness: Classmates are often aware of and witness bullying. Peer Group Dynamics: Bullying is often used by bullies to gain higher status within the peer group. Acceptance of Bullies: Many bullies are not rejected by their peer group. They might be rejected only by those they pose a threat to (Veenstra et al., 2010). Bullies' Social Affiliations: Bullies often affiliate with each other and can maintain a position in the popular peer group (Wivliet et al., 2010). Key Points (Social Contexts and Bullying) Boys and younger middle school students are at higher risk of being bullied. Victims often struggle with loneliness, and making friends, and may exhibit anxious or aggressive behaviour. Bullies typically have poor academic performance and engage in risky behaviours. Bullying is heavily influenced by the social context, with bullies often seeking higher status within their peer group. Bullying incidents are usually known by peers, who may play a role in either supporting or rejecting the bullies. What are the outcomes of bullying? A recent study found that both bullies and their victims during adolescence are more likely to experience depression, engage in suicidal thoughts, and attempt suicide compared to those who are not involved in bullying (Brunstein Klomek & others, 2007). There has been a concerning connection between bullying and suicide. For example, in a recent case, an 8-year-old jumped out of a two-story building in Houston, while a 13-year-old hanged himself in Houston, and in Massachusetts, teenagers harassed a girl to the point that she took her own life (Meyers, 2010). Additionally, a recent meta-analysis of 33 studies showed that peer victimization had a small but significant link with lower academic achievement (Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2010). There is a growing interest in preventing and addressing bullying and victimization (Biggs & Vernberg, 2010; Guerra & Williams, 2010; Singh, Orpinas, & Horne, 2010). A recent research review yielded mixed results for school-based intervention (Vreeman & Carroll, 2007). One of the most successful bullying intervention programs has been designed by Dan Olweus. This program targets 6- to 15-year-olds to reduce opportunities and rewards for bullying. When properly implemented, the program reduces bullying by 30 to 70 per cent (Ericson, 2001; Olweus, 2003). Information on how to implement the program can be obtained from the Center for the Prevention of Violence at the University of Colorado: www.colorado.edu/espv/ blueprints. Key Points (Outcomes of bullying) Both bullies and victims are at higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviour. Bullying can lead to severe consequences, including suicide in extreme cases. Academic performance is negatively affected by peer victimization. Effective intervention programs, such as the Olweus program, can significantly reduce bullying when properly implemented. Friends Beginning in early adolescence, teenagers typically prefer to have a smaller number of friendships that are more intense and intimate. Children's friendships are typically characterized by similarity, including age, sex, race, attitudes toward school, educational aspirations, and achievement orientations. According to Willard Hartup, friends can serve as cognitive and emotional resources throughout childhood and into old age, fostering self-esteem and well-being. Children's friendships can serve six functions, including companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, and affection and intimacy. It's important to note that not all friendships are the same. Developmental advantages occur when children have socially skilled and supportive friends, but it is not beneficial to have coercive and conflict-ridden friendships. A longitudinal study emphasized the importance of friendship, showing that sixth-grade students without a friend engaged in less prosocial behaviour, had lower grades, and experienced more emotional distress than those with friends. Two years later, the students without a friend in the sixth grade were still more emotionally distressed. Cross-Cultural Comparisons In the past 30 years, there has been concern about the poor performance of American children in math and science. A comparison of 4th-grade math and science scores in 2007 showed that the U.S. math score was higher than 23 countries and lower than 8, while the science score was higher than 25 countries and lower than 4. The average 4th-grade math score improved slightly from 1995, but some Asian countries showed much greater improvement. However, the U.S. science score decreased by 3 points, while some countries saw dramatic increases. Harold Stevenson's research compared the academic performance of American students to those in selected Asian countries. The studies found that Asian students consistently outperformed American students, with the gap widening as students progressed through school. The research also revealed that Asian teachers spent more time teaching math, and Asian students had more days of school per year compared to their American counterparts. Asian schools dedicate more time to math instruction than American schools, and there are differences in expectations between Asian and American parents. Asian parents have higher expectations for their children's education and are more likely to believe that their children's math achievement is due to effort and training. They also help their children with math homework more than American parents. Carol Dweck (2006) discusses the importance of children's mindset, stating that individuals have either a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. Dweck (2006) suggested that mindsets shape people's optimism, goals, and achievement. She discussed the growth mindset of 2nd-grade teacher Marva Collins, who aimed to change fixed-mindset children into growth-mindset children. Dweck and her colleagues incorporated information about brain plasticity into their efforts to improve students' motivation. They found that teaching students about the growth mindset improved their math achievement. Additionally, Dweck created a computer-based workshop, "Brainology," aimed at teaching students that their intelligence can change. The program was well-received by students who endorsed its value. Key Points (Cross-Cultural Comparisons) In the last 30 years, American students have shown poor performance in math and science compared to their Asian counterparts. Asian students consistently outperform American students in academic performance, with the gap widening as students progress through school. Research suggests that apart from differences in teaching methods, Asian parents have higher expectations for their children's education, and Asian students spend more time on math instruction. Carol Dweck's research emphasizes the importance of mindset, suggesting that teaching students about the growth mindset can improve their math achievement. Adolescent Problems 1. Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency refers to illegal behaviour exhibited by adolescents, ranging from minor offences like littering to serious crimes like murder. The number of delinquency cases in the United States rose significantly from 1960 to 1996 but has slightly decreased since then. It's important to note that the statistics only include adolescents who have been arrested and assigned to delinquency caseloads and not those who were not assigned or apprehended. Males are more likely to engage in delinquent behaviour than females, but the percentage of female delinquency cases has been increasing. Furthermore, delinquency rates are particularly high among minority and lower-socioeconomic-status youth, who may face quicker judgment compared to their White, middle- class counterparts due to their limited influence in the legal system. Antisocial behaviour is categorized as early-onset (before age 11) or late-onset (after 11), with early-onset behaviour linked to more adverse developmental outcomes, including a higher likelihood to persist into emerging adulthood and increased mental health and relationship issues. Causes of Delinquency Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Delinquency: Lower socioeconomic status (SES) peer groups often adopt antisocial norms that conflict with societal values. In these environments, qualities like toughness and masculinity are highly esteemed and often linked to delinquent behaviour. Adolescents in high-crime areas may be exposed to criminal role models, normalizing and perpetuating criminal activity. Community factors such as poverty, unemployment, lack of quality education, and absence of organized activities can further promote delinquency by isolating individuals from middle-class norms. Family Influence: The way parents raise their children can significantly impact the likelihood of delinquent behaviour. Parents of delinquent children often find it challenging to discourage negative behaviour and encourage positive conduct. Furthermore, inadequate parental supervision is closely associated with increased delinquency rates. Family settings marked by conflict and inconsistent discipline can also contribute to delinquent behaviour, and harsh discipline during childhood can predict continued criminal behaviour in adulthood. Parenting Interventions: While rare, some studies have shown that effective parenting interventions can reduce delinquency. For example, research by Marion Forgatch demonstrated that divorced mothers who received extensive parenting training observed lower delinquency rates in their sons. These findings highlight the potential impact of structured parenting programs on mitigating delinquent behaviour. Sibling Influence: Siblings can have a significant influence on each other's behaviour, including the potential to promote or deter delinquent actions. Peer Influence: The presence of delinquent peers substantially increases the risk of an individual becoming delinquent. Peer influence is a strong factor in the development and perpetuation of criminal behaviour. School Connectedness: A strong sense of connectedness to school can act as a buffer against the negative effects of poor family relations and inadequate self-control, thereby reducing conduct problems. School connectedness provides supportive environments that help mitigate the risks associated with adverse family conditions and personal behavioural issues. Key Points: Delinquency is influenced by socioeconomic factors, family environment, and peer relationships. Lower-SES environments often have characteristics that promote delinquency. Effective parental monitoring and positive parenting strategies are crucial in preventing delinquency. Sibling and peer influences are significant risk factors. School connectedness plays a protective role against delinquency. 2. Depression Depressive disorder (also known as depression) is a common mental disorder. It involves a depressed mood or loss of pleasure or interest in activities for long periods. Depression is different from regular mood changes and feelings about everyday life. Prevalence: ◦ Rates: 15-20% of adolescents experience a major depressive disorder at some point (Graber & Sontag, 2009). Gender Differences: ◦ Higher Rates in Females: By age 15, adolescent females have a depression rate twice that of males. ◦ Reasons for Gender Difference: ▪ Rumination: Females tend to ruminate and amplify their depressed mood. ▪ Self-Image: Females have more negative self-images, particularly regarding body image. ▪ Discrimination: Females face more discrimination compared to males. ▪ Puberty Timing: Puberty occurs earlier for girls, leading to more changes and life experiences during middle school years, which can increase depression (Nolen- Hoeksema, 2010; Hammen, 2009). Family Factors: Depressed Parent: Increases risk of adolescent depression. Emotionally Unavailable Parents: Associated with higher depression risk. Marital Conflict: High levels of conflict contribute to adolescent depression. Financial Problems: Economic stress in the family is a risk factor (Graber & Sontag, 2009; Liem, Cavell, & Lustig, 2010; Waller & Rose, 2010). Peer Relationships: ◦ Poor Peer Relationships: Lack of close friendships, less contact with friends, and peer rejection increase depression risk (Kistner et al., 2006).  ◦ Romantic Relationship Problems: Can trigger depressive symptoms, especially in girls (Starr & Davila, 2009). ◦ Friendship Quality: ▪ Nondepressed Friends: Associated with lower depression levels. ▪ Depressed Friends: Increase the risk of depression (Brendgen et al., 2010). ▪ Co-rumination: Girls who excessively discuss problems with friends have higher levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). ▪ Worry and Anxiety: Initial worry and oversensitivity in girls predict increased depressive symptoms (Chaplin, Gillham, & Seligman, 2009). Treatment of Adolescent Depression: ◦ Combination Therapy: Depressed adolescents recover faster with a combination of antidepressants and cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) than with either treatment alone (The TADS Team, 2007). ◦ Safety Concerns: ▪ Antidepressants: Prozac and similar drugs slightly increase the risk of suicidal behaviour in adolescents. ▪ Study Findings: 15% of adolescents on Prozac alone had suicidal thoughts or attempts, compared to 6% with CBT alone, and 8% with Prozac plus CBT (Masi, Liboni, & Brovedani, 2010). Key Points: Depression is relatively common in adolescence, affecting up to 20% of this age group. Adolescent females are significantly more likely to experience depression than males by age 15. Factors contributing to higher depression rates in females include rumination, negative self-image, discrimination, and earlier onset of puberty. Family and peer factors significantly influence the risk of adolescent depression. Positive peer relationships and quality friendships can mitigate depression risk, but co-rumination can increase it. A combination of antidepressants and cognitive behaviour therapy is the most effective treatment for adolescent depression, though there are safety concerns with antidepressants. 3. Suicide Prevalence: Increase with Age: Rare in childhood, escalates in adolescence, and further increases in emerging adulthood (Park et al., 2006). Leading Cause of Death: Third-leading cause of death for 10- to 19-year-olds in the U.S. (National Center for Health Statistics, 2008; Piruccello, 2010). Attempts and Contemplations: In 2005, 17% of U.S. high school students seriously considered or attempted suicide. 2.3% reported attempts resulting in medical treatment. Females are more likely to attempt suicide, while males are more likely to succeed due to using more lethal methods. Distal Factors: Family History: Long-standing family instability, lack of affection, high control, and pressure for achievement (Wan & Leung, 2010). Peer Influence: Social Group Influence: Prior suicide attempts by peers increase the likelihood of an adolescent attempting suicide (de Leo & Heller, 2008). Supportive Friendships: Lack of supportive friendships and peer victimization linked to suicidal thoughts and attempts (Klomek et al., 2008). Cultural Contexts: Ethnic Differences: High rates among American Indian/Alaska Native adolescents; lowest among African American and non-Latino White males (Cho & Haslam, 2010). Alcohol Abuse: A major risk factor among AI/AN adolescents. Cultural Discontinuity: Stress from reconciling traditional and modern societal expectations linked to suicide attempts in young Latinas (Zayas et al., 2010). Genetic Factors: Family History: A closer genetic relationship to someone who committed suicide increases risk (Kapornai & Vetro, 2008). Psychological Profile: Depressive Symptoms: Often present in suicidal adolescents (Woolgar & Tranah, 2010). Associated Factors: Depression, hopelessness, suicide ideation, family and friends' suicidal behaviour, and use of alcohol while sad or depressed (Bethell & Rhoades, 2008; Nrugham, Holen, & Sund, 2010; Schilling et al., 2009; Thompson, Kuruwita, & Foster, 2009). Key Points: Adolescent suicide is a significant issue, with a notable increase during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Family instability, peer influence, and cultural contexts are critical risk factors. Depression is the most frequently cited factor associated with adolescent suicide. Gender differences exist in the methods and success rates of suicide attempts. Genetic predisposition and the psychological state of hopelessness contribute to suicide risk.