Adolescent Development Notes PDF

Chapter 1Adolescent development and understanding the past, present, and planning for the future. Who is an adolescent? Early approx (11-14), middle (15-18), AND LATE ADOLESCENCE/EMERGING ADULTHOOD (19-22) Chronic age 11 or so to 20 or so Physical start of growth spurt to full adult size sexual: ap...

Chapter 1Adolescent development and understanding the past, present, and planning for the future. Who is an adolescent? Early approx (11-14), middle (15-18), AND LATE ADOLESCENCE/EMERGING ADULTHOOD (19-22) Chronic age 11 or so to 20 or so Physical start of growth spurt to full adult size sexual: appear of secondary sex characteristics to the ability to reproduce Familial: parents grant more freedom to achieve independence Psychosocial: beginning of the quest for identity to achieve a sense of identity Interpersonal: a shift in influence from family to peers to achievement of intimacy with peers Educational: finish elementary school to finish formal education Social: Begin to date enter work world to leave home, get a job and enter a steady relationship Developmental tasks are skills, attitudes, and social functions that people are expected to acquire or grow into at some point and are driven by physical and psychological development and society's demands. Transitions A period of growth and change that is set off when. It affects the physical, cognitive, emotional, sexual, and social realms. -normative; HAPPENS TO MOST AT SAME AGE- entering puberty, going on a first date, graduating from high school -Idiosyncratic: This happens to an individual at unpredictable times, such as a severe illness, moving to a new town, or a parent's divorce. Earlier, people have treated adolescents as distinct groups with their needs and characteristics across history and cultures. 20th century adolescentes: High school proportion attendance climbed dramatically in the 1900s “Baby boom” after the Second World War The huge teenage bulge in the 50s and 60s challenged the norms and began to challenge discrimination around gender, race and sexual orientation. Teens today: -changing family structures: divorce rates rose in 1960 and 1987, which increased the number of mothers working outside the home and in single-parent households. -The growing influence of peers: Due to solid contact thanks to electronics, adolescents are strongly influenced by peers with constant contact -mixed messages about adolescent sexuality: there are pro-sex messages from media, plus some adults who don’t want to discuss gender stereotypes are complicated. -adolescents in a global world:economic and social factors, environmental problems, population trends, wars, and diseases all have a significant impact on adolescent development. Adolescents in the pyramid population: Industrialized world 11% North America and East Asia 13% Latin America 17% Africa 23% Preindustrial societies Lots of babies and adults die young. As conditions improve, many babies survive, and people live longer, so the population even younger -as more children survive, people's birth rates fall, and the population increases. - there are challenges to both: a higher proportion of youth have a high social cost more food, housing and jobs, and more elders require extra care with end-of-life issues Necessities for survival and growth of adolescents Both basic life skills and skills needed to respond to globalization. Basics: An ongoing caring relationship with at least one adult. Acronym (SSPA) Social support systems (families, schools, community institutions, health care) Social competence and life skills that allow informed plans and choices about the future Preparation to become active, contributing members of their communities and nations. A belief in a promising future with real economic and social opportunities Globalization( economic, social and political challenges) (t-va) Technical and analytical skills needed to partake in a high-technology, knowledge-rich international economy The motivation for lifelong learning Values to live peacefully in a diverse society An ability to live with uncertainty and change Biological and evolutionary theories Stanley hall recapitulationism: the claim that psychological development under the control of genetic factors mirrors the stages of human history. In his view, babies recreate the psychology of the earliest humans while children/adolescents are like the ‘SAVAGES’. Storm and stress adolescence is necessarily a turbulent period Evolutionary explanations of adolescent behaviours and characteristics The role of reproductive fitness: some characteristics influenced by genes make it more likely that an individual will pass on their genes to offspring that survive; over time, the genes for the characteristic will tend to become more widespread in the population. Psychoanalytic theories Freud: - I believe the underlying reason is that we do everything to satisfy the basic drives we are born with. These include hunger, thirst and sexual urges. - Psychosexual stage. Sex drive changes its source and its target what it means is that with each of the first three stages oral, anal, phallic and latency stages- the source of the drive shifts from one region of the body to another, as does the kind of gratification the child seeks. - The physical and hormonal stages of puberty initiate the genital stage - Due to the reimage of childhood conflicts, adolescence is necessarily a turbulent period - Need for separation from the family Erikson: Significant contribution- he said Freud's [phsycho stages were accompanied by psychosocial stages. At each point in development, new aspects of the person interact with the social environment to create distinctive conflicts or “crises.” Primary adolescent task- the need to develop a sense of identity The stages go 0-1 Trust vs mistrust - need to trust others to meet their basic needs if the caregiver is unresponsive, the baby may come to mistrust others. 1-2Autonomy vs shame - toddlers learn to take care of themselves through potty training. Failure to achieve this may lead to feelings of shame and incompetence. 2-6 Initiative vs guilt- as children take on more activities that may be out of their capacity, they might come into conflict with their parents, leading to feelings of guilt 6-12 Industry vs inferiority- Mastering academic and social skills leads to self-assurance, but failure creates feelings of inferiority 12-20 Identity vs role confusion-adolescents must solve issues of personal social and occupational identity 20-40 intimacy vs isolation - priority is to form intimate relationships with friends and partners. Failure leads to a sense of loneliness and isolation. 40-65 generativity vs stagnation- adults face the task of being productive in their work and supporting their families—failure results in self-centred existence.\ 65 plus ego integrity vs despair. In old age, the person looks back to a meaningful, productive life or one of unfulfilled promises and unrealized goals. Cognitive theories Piaget - There are four cognitive stages, and each represents a qualitatively different way of understanding. Sensorimotor 0-2 exploration through direct sensory and motor activities. Development of object permanence. Preoperational 2-6 use of symbols such as words and images, egocentrism Concrete operations 6-12 logical thoughts about concrete objects, development of conservation Formal operations 12plus abstract and hypothetical reasoning - Adolescents and formal operations: abstract and hypothetical reasoning - Information processing approaches: study the way information enters a person's cognitive system, gets processed and stored for future use - Metacognition: awareness of one’s thinking Skinner Operant conditioning: behaviour changed by its consequences, a behaviour that is followed by reinforcement. A behaviour that is not reinforced gradually becomes less probable, and one that is punished may be suppressed immediately. Bnadura Social cognitive theory: learning by observing what others do Importance of self-efficacy beliefs Social and anthropological theories -adolescents in social groups: circles that range from the immediate and extended family to neighbourhoods, subcultures, cultures and social classes - Anthropologists have long studied how adolescence is similar within or different from one culture to the next. - Benedict distinguished continuous societies in which children gradually and peacefully take on adult roles and discontinued societies in which we are abrupt and stressful transitions from adolescence to adulthood. Ecological and developmental theories Bronfenbrenner: ecological theory adolescents affected by nested levels of social groups and their relations Macrosystem- culture, social class, law Exosystem- media, extended family, family friends, social welfare systems, neighbourhoods Mesosystem- healthcare services, religious institutions, family peers, school Micorsystem- individual Lerner Developmental systems: Adolescents active role in their development -the importance of interacting developmental contexts: e.g. skin color is a genetic characteristic; how an adolescent reacts to being the target of discrimination will be influenced by the attitude of parents, peers, teachers and religious leaders as well as individual experiences and broader social factors. flashcards:​​https://revisely.com/flashcards/packs/dtx83 Summary Adolescence is a critical developmental stage spanning approximately ages 11 to 20, marked by physical, emotional, and social changes. It involves a quest for identity, shifting family dynamics, and increased peer influence. Various societal transitions shape adolescent experiences, from normative events like puberty to idiosyncratic challenges like family changes. Historical perspectives show evolving views on adolescence, highlighting the importance of supportive relationships and skills for navigating a globalized world. Highlights - 🌟 1. Defining Adolescence: Ranges from ages 11 to 20, encompassing physical and emotional growth. 2. Developmental Tasks: Key skills and attitudes expected during adolescence, shaped by society. 3. Normative vs. Idiosyncratic Transitions: Common experiences versus unique individual challenges. 4. Changing Family Structures: Increased single-parent households and working mothers since the 1960s. 5. Growing Peer Influence: Technology enhances peer connections, impacting adolescent choices. 6. Global Context: Economic and social factors affect adolescent development worldwide. 7. Survival Skills: Necessities include supportive relationships and skills for a complex future. Key Insights - 🔍 1. Physical and Emotional Changes: Adolescence is characterized by significant growth spurts and emotional turbulence, reflecting a natural transition into adulthood. This period is essential for developing a stable identity and navigating new social dynamics. 🌱 2. Societal Expectations: Developmental tasks represent societal demands for adolescents, highlighting the interplay between individual growth and social norms. These tasks prepare youth for future responsibilities and roles within their communities. 📈  3. Historical Context: Understanding how societal views of adolescence have changed over time reveals the complexities of adolescent identity development and the need for tailored support systems. This context informs current practices in education and parenting. 📚 4. Peer Dynamics: The shift from family to peer influence underscores the importance of social connections in shaping adolescent behavior and decision-making, particularly in a digitally connected world. 🤝 5. Globalization Challenges: Adolescents today face unique challenges due to globalization, requiring adaptability and new skills to thrive in an interconnected economy. This trend necessitates a focus on education and lifelong learning. 🌍 6. Necessity of Support Systems: Strong relationships with caring adults and social support networks are crucial for healthy adolescent development, providing the foundation for resilience and success. 🛡️ 7. Theoretical Perspectives: Biological and psychoanalytic theories shed light on adolescent behavior, emphasizing the role of genetics and early drives in shaping identity and social interactions. Understanding these theories can guide effective interventions. 🧠 Chapter 2 Pubererty and physical development Puberty: biological event wich produces the human transformation from child to adult. Hormones: chemical messages in the stream produced by glands they have set point that the hypothalamus will control if there less sends signal to produce more and if theres more sennds signal to cut off Endocrinal glands produce hormones that control growth. The pituitary masters endocrine glands by sending out hormones that change how they operate. Thyroid gland: metabolism, heart rate, fertility Adrenal glands: produce cortisol, aldosterone and adrenaline. Gonad glands; ovaries testicles major source of sex hormone called estrogens and androgens HPG FEEDBACK LOOP ( hypothalamus pituitary glands) controls production of androgens ans estogens the promote development of secondary sex charachterisics - The hypothalamus monitors levels of sex hormones - when the level is low hypothalamus singles the pituitary via releasing the gonadotropin-releasing hormone then the piturati produces more luteinizing and follicule stimulating hormone. - When the lh and fsh reach glands they increase production of sex hormone. - As goands produce more sex hormones and release into blood stream the hypothalamus monitors rising levels - When level reaches set point hypthalamus lwers production of gonadrpoin and the pituatiy stops producing lh and fsh wich make glands stop the sex hormones. Summary when hyptholamus starts making more GnRh ( due to less sensitivity towards sex hormones) in response the pituitary makes more LH and FSH when hormones reach glands the production of sex hormones ramps up The HPG axis fisrt start opening at birth most new borns having same sex hormones as an adult however the prodution soon declines and stays there until puberty. Andrenarche means the beginning of adrenal involvement. Between 6-9 the adrenal glands begin to mature and produce an androgen calles DHEA wishc makes pubic hair appear Biological girsl -puberty is set off when hormones LH na FSH increases causing the ovaries to start to produce more estogens and folicle development Sexual development during adolescence -breast in girls penis and scrotum in boys plus they start to poduce sperm Armpit hir, sebum is produce by glands wich cause acne, sweat glands become more active voice change because vocal cords get longer Menarche: a girls fisr period Secular trend:tendency for puberty to start at younger ages Environmental factors that affect puberty - Nutrition and general health : girls with more wigth get their period before, anorexia or a lot of phsycyial activity might make the period go away - Social and psychological factors like family stress and conflict Theories about impact of puberty Deviance hypothesis PERSKIN AND LIVSON: petersen and taylor the idea that being noticeably different than your peers causes anxiety it is more comfy to be on time than off time Stage termination hypothesis: girls that are rushed into teens are mor likely to have trouble witht he changes because they did not have enough time to finish earlier development and boys who go later into teens might feel like they did not get enough time and extend it to adult years Adult resemblance hypotheis : block and fausta says those who look more like adults will be treated more like adults How parents respond to puberty See parents as loving but conflict arises as they get older and need more autonomy And distancing hypothesis that states a much less intimate relationship between prent and achild and parent and teen Brain development during adolescence: Neurons loose as many as half of their synapses during adolescence wich leads to a faster more efficient cognitive system The right and left hempiishers of adolescents become more able to process information independently Myelinaition-nerve cells that have myleian sheets on their axons are more sensitive nad fire faster Evidence that the pleasure center in the lymbic system develops more quickly during adolescence then the impulse control system in preftonal cortex- could be linked to poor risk assessment How puberty affects mood Rapid and unpredictable hormonal changes makaes teens more emotional than children Summary Puberty is a biological transition from childhood to adulthood, driven by hormonal changes regulated by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Key hormones like estrogens and androgens promote the development of secondary sex characteristics. Various factors, including nutrition and social environment, influence the timing and experience of puberty. Adolescents face emotional shifts due to rapid hormonal changes, impacting their mood and behavior. Highlights - 📅 1. Hormonal Regulation: Puberty is controlled by hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. 2. Sexual Development: Girls develop breasts; boys develop genitalia and start producing sperm. 3. Menarche: The onset of menstruation marks a significant milestone for girls. 4. Environmental Impact: Nutrition and health can affect the timing of puberty. 5. Mood Changes: Hormonal fluctuations lead to increased emotional responses in teens. 6. Parental Relationships: Adolescents seek autonomy, causing potential conflicts with parents.  7. Brain Development: Neural changes during adolescence enhance cognitive processing but may impair impulse control. Key Insights - 🔍 1. Hormonal Feedback Loop: The HPG axis, involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads, intricately regulates hormone levels, influencing growth and sexual maturation. Understanding this feedback loop can help in recognizing puberty-related changes. 2. Sexual Characteristics: The development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty is significant for identity formation. For instance, breast development in girls and genital growth in boys serve as crucial markers of maturity. 3. Menarche Significance: The first menstrual period (menarche) is not just a biological milestone but also a cultural and psychological event. It can impact a girl’s self-esteem and body image. 4. Influence of Environment: Factors like nutrition and stress play a pivotal role in determining the onset of puberty. Addressing these issues early on can promote healthier developmental trajectories. 5. Emotional Variability: The rapid hormonal changes during puberty contribute to heightened emotional responses. Recognizing this can facilitate better support systems for adolescents navigating these changes. 6. Parental Dynamics: The quest for independence in adolescents often leads to conflicts with parents. Understanding this dynamic can help foster healthier relationships during this transitional phase. 7. Cognitive Development: The brain undergoes significant changes during puberty, affecting decision-making and risk assessment. Awareness of these changes can guide parents and educators in supporting teens’ cognitive growth effectively. Cognitive development Jean piaget theory of cognitive stages -every child goes though same stages in the same order-universal stages -active interaction between childs cognitive level and environment -children thinking not only what they know but how they think about what they know In piaget stages, adolescents are the formal operations wich means -cnetral change from concrete to formal operation teens can now perform mental operations on ideas and propositions, not just tangible objects. Expresses a logical relationship between two or more objects like if it rains then the grass is wet Transitivity understanding the relationship among elements in a series if a is taller than b and b taller than c who is taller a or c? Hypodeductive reasoning involves going from a general hypothesis to a particular conclusion or deduction. Ex its either liza or lalo if its lalo he must not have an alibi or it must be false or he might be innocent and then its liza. Inductive- From particular to general Teens are able to take a step back from reality and think about more abstract terms like what if i would have been born in a different family, adolescents are ablet o question the present by measuring abstract concepts such as fairness, justiceand human rights and see where it falls short Adaptation involves assimilation and accommodation Assimilation-using current understanding on new information Accommodation- changing concepts in response to new information Teen egocentrism Egocentrism: failure to make a distinction between one’s points of view and someone else's. To be able to perceive someone else's point of view, Piaget says first we need decentration, which means putting our own views aside and the other is we must try to imagine how the other is things. Piaget said that because teens are in the formal operation stage it's easier for them to think about their own thinking an extend it to other problems and situations this can lead to a mood of self-consciousness and self-absorption Erik Elkind was the one who came up with the imaginary audience which refers to being really critical and noting everything someone does like “I would never live down that dorky remark” and personal fable which means you feel extremely unique and it can lead to dangerous behaviour because you might feel like consequences do not apply to you So then why do teens engage in more risky behaviour? Because they choose excitement over consequences and risky friends that influence choices, they believe that risky behaviour is always part of teen years, sleep depravation. What are the positives about being a teen? Well the learning and flexibility in problem solving, teen engaging in a risk-taking taks tried more options, did better if they were in company of other teens Piaget ideas still are helpful however research discovered that younger children are more competent than he thought and older ones less, scientists have found that the formal operation stage is much less universal than the earlier stage more teens and even adults may never attain the cognitive skills of that stage and even if they are capable they won't use it. Lev’s cognitive development approach he believed that cog development is influenced by social interactions and cultural factors, the social knowledge of the most skilled participant gets passed along. The zone of proximal development is the region that lies between the region of the best you can do on your own and the best you can do if a more skilled adult guided you and the scaffolding refers to the way that those who are more expert adapt their current knowledge to the level of their learner. Canadian Rob merged Piaget stages with information processing saying that the stages in piaget charted are the result of changes in capacity and processing efficiency being able to think about more things and about more kinds of things. Executive control structures are mental representations of the goal or outcome and of different approaches and strategies that might works, thats why teen are better at problem-solving because they can think of more options and outcomes and because some children might have had to deal with easier or herder tasks they may differ in how mature their executive control structures are Why can teens solve problems better then? Because they have more selective attention which means they can focus on one stimulus without being distracted by the others and also because their ability to attend to more than one thing improves the ability to control how attention is allocated Working memory has two jobs the first one is to keep awareness and process that or other information and the part that keeps information active is short-term memory. How do they measure intelligence with IQ scores within the same age group who performs better than 100 and less than hundred. Fluid intelligence refers to the speed/processing of the working memory and the other one is crystallized intelligence wich refers to accumulated knowledge and judgement as a result of education and experience. Fluid peaks during teens and crystalized improves during adult years. There are also other views of intelligence strenberg theory states that there are three main grouping abilities first practical intelligence which refers to responding to problems and being able to adapt creative intelligence refers to generating new solutions that allow people to either have well-automated procedures or combine new insights and relevant info to solve them and finally analytic intelligence which refers to being strategic define problem retrieve relevant info and solve the problem. Children believe knowledge is objective the truth is out there and authorities know and if they don’t, they can observe. For teen knowledge is relative there may be many versions of the truth in early adulthood one develops rationalism while there may be many versions of the truth there are meaningful ways to evaluate different points of view and choose among them. Why is critical thinking important? \while teens have resources they will need to be critical thinkers, the process ins not automatic. What happens in their lives in and out of the classroom will either help or hinder Flashcard: https://www.revisely.com/flashcards/packs/g1fbo Summary Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines universal stages every child goes through, emphasizing the interaction between cognitive levels and the environment. During adolescence, individuals progress to formal operations, allowing abstract thinking and logical reasoning. Key concepts include egocentrism, adaptation, and the influence of social interactions. While Piaget’s ideas remain influential, later research suggests cognitive development varies more than he proposed. Lev Vygotsky’s approach highlights social factors, and modern views consider improvements in executive control and working memory during adolescence. Highlights - 🧠 1. Universal Stages: All children progress through Piaget’s cognitive stages in the same order. 2. Abstract Thinking: Adolescents transition to formal operations, enabling logical reasoning about abstract ideas. 3. Egocentrism: Teens often struggle to see others’ perspectives, leading to self-absorption. 4. Risky Behavior: Teens may engage in risky actions, influenced by peers and a sense of invulnerability. 5. Cognitive Flexibility: Adolescents exhibit improved problem-solving skills through exploration and social interaction. 6. Scaffolding: Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of social interactions in cognitive development. 7. Executive Control: Enhanced attention and working memory contribute to better problem-solving in teens. Key Insights - 🔍 1. Cognitive Stages: Piaget’s stages highlight the structured nature of cognitive growth, but the theory’s universality is questioned, suggesting variability in cognitive maturity among children. 🏗️  2. Formal Operations: The shift to formal operations marks a critical transition where adolescents can think abstractly, enhancing their ability to reason and understand complex relationships. This stage is essential for higher-order thinking. 📊 3. Impact of Egocentrism: Teen egocentrism leads to heightened self-awareness and social anxiety, as they often believe they are the focus of others’ attention, contributing to stress and self-criticism. 🌟 4. Risk-Taking Behavior: Adolescents are more prone to risky behaviors due to a combination of thrill-seeking tendencies and peer influence, which can lead to both growth and negative outcomes. 🚦 5. Social Influences on Cognition: Vygotsky’s principles, including the zone of proximal development, stress the importance of social interactions in learning, highlighting that cognitive growth is often a collaborative process. 🤝 6. Evolving Perspectives on Intelligence: Modern research suggests that cognitive abilities can vary widely among adolescents, with some not reaching formal operational thinking, challenging traditional views of cognitive development. 📚 7. Working Memory and Problem Solving: The development of selective attention and working memory enables teens to process information more effectively, enhancing their problem-solving capabilities and overall cognitive performance. 💡 CHAPTER 8 gender Socialization/Gender and Language Social scientists today tend to use the word sex to indicate being biologically male or female (exception: intersex: mixed male and female genitalia or reproductive organs) Gender: characteristics that may be the result of developmental and social experience. Sex difference: usually implies something rooted in biology, specifically the chromosomes. Gender differences: suggests that mainly cultural and social factors are involved. For instance, the fact that more men than women are bald is a sex difference, the result of the action of a sex-linked recessive gene. The fact that in our society (like many others) girls and women generally wear their hair longer than boys and men is a gender difference, based on cultural expectations and ideas about what is proper and attractive in men and women.  Every culture has a great many ideas about how males or females are supposed to look, act, think, and feel. Shared cultural expectations about gender is called a gender role and they can change across eras. Gender typing: The process by which children take on expected gender roles. Is it - Biology? Socialization? Cognition? Sex Hormones Prenatal testosterone levels are much higher for male than for female fetuses. Within each sex, the levels of testosterone can vary a good deal from one fetus to another. These levels can be measured during pregnancy, both in the mother’s blood and in the amniotic fluid, as part of regular prenatal medical care. A variety of research studies have shown higher prenatal testosterone in both boys and girls has been linked to more stereotypical masculine activities and sexual attractions. Another source of evidence about the effects of prenatal hormones is studies of children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). This is a genetic condition that causes the adrenal gland to overproduce androgens, or male sex hormones, beginning well before birth. Boys with CAH seem relatively unaffected, but for girls, CAH causes the genitals to develop in a masculine direction. Most often, both the appearance of the genitals and the hormone imbalance itself are altered soon after birth, but other effects apparently remain. Linkages to more male stereotypical interests, higher spatial abilities, and these girls report more dissatisfaction with being women and less sexual interest in men than do those not affected by CAH. Biology? Parental Twins studies - method of estimating the relative influence of genetics and environment on different traits and behaviours. This technique has been used to look at young children whose gender behaviour is atypical; that is, twin boys who are regarded as very feminine and twin girls who are regarded as very masculine. Complex findings: One such study found that genetic factors accounted for a large part of the variability in the children’s gender behaviour. However, other studies that looked at atypical gender behaviour in twins found that both genetic and environmental factors made significant contributions and that environmental factors were more important than genetic background. Biological influences on gender do not mysteriously stop working at the moment of birth, of course. The hormonal changes of puberty, and the many physical and psychological changes that follow, have an enormous impact on gender roles and gender differences. For example, the release of adrenocortical hormones early in adolescence has been linked to the emergence of a child’s first romantic interest in another person. The result of this new interest is often an intensification of gender-typed behaviour. Girls start to worry about their looks and figures, and boys begin studying their biceps. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Socialization and Gender Children and adolescents, from their very earliest days, are affected by a broad network of gendered social influences. Biology is impactful, but most of the attitudes, roles, and constraints that define gender are entrenched by social institutions and practices. Parents, teachers, siblings, and peers serve as models of gender-linked attitudes and behaviours. Provide both direct and indirect praise and criticism for behaviour that is considered gender appropriate or gender inappropriate. Sources of social information, such as books, television shows, music videos, other media, and even children’s books are saturated with vivid examples of gender standards and values. The socialization of gender roles begins even before birth, when expectant parents decorate the baby’s room. Socioemotional Coaching: The ways parents handle babies, the amount of time they spend talking to them, the activities they encourage—all are affected by whether the baby is a girl or a boy. Parents tend to make more supportive comments to daughters than to sons and issue fewer orders to sons than to daughters, encouraging closeness in girls but independence in boys. By age 3, children spend more time playing with others of the same sex and favour traditionally gender-typed toys, games, and activities. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory In this model, personal factors, such as thoughts, desires, and feelings, interact with learned behaviour patterns and social influences to produce tendencies to act in particular ways. Adolescents observe what others do in a situation and what the consequences are, and then use this information to help them decide on ways of acting that seem likely to bring them closer to their goals. For instance, during the first days of starting at a new school, a teen will probably pay close attention to how others of their gender dress, talk, and act, and then try to model those behaviours as a step toward fitting in. We do not simply copy what we see others doing, however. As a result of their own experiences, individuals develop a personal set of gender-role standards that sometimes override the influence of the immediate situation. Imagine a girl who has been brought up to believe that getting your clothes dirty is unladylike. What does she do when the children she’s playing with decide to roll down a grassy or dusty slope? She may refuse to join them. She may even feel proud that she has behaved properly by keeping her clothes clean, though she may also wish she could be part of the fun. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Another important element in the social cognitive account of gender is self-efficacy, the belief that one has the resources to carry out some behaviour or achieve some goal. For example, a teenage boy may believe that playing football is a sign of masculinity, but whether he tries out for the team, or even joins a game with other boys in the neighbourhood, will depend largely on whether he thinks he can do so successfully. In this way, self-efficacy beliefs shape people’s development by channeling the sorts of activities and social environments they choose. Loading… Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Lawrence Kohlberg and Gender Identity As part of his effort to bring the insights of Piaget’s work to bear on social and personality development, Kohlberg (1966) proposed a cognitive developmental theory of gender. Era is important here… His starting point was the apparently simple question: How do children at different stages of development think about gender? While even 3-year-olds can correctly label themselves as boys or girls, only later do they understand that gender is often stable over time—that boys grow up to be men and girls, to be women. Gender consistency, the realization that gender is consistent or invariant—that a boy who dresses like a girl and plays girls’ games is still a boy—comes later still.  These understandings are linked to other aspects of cognitive development, such as the achievement of conservation. For example, once children understand that the volume of water remains the same regardless of which glass it is poured into, they also understand that a boy or a girl remains that gender regardless of outward appearances. For Kohlberg, self-labelling, gender stability, and gender consistency—are essential elements for a coherent gender identity. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender Schema Theory (Bem, 1981; Martin & Halverson, 1981, 1987). This approach puts particular stress on the ways children, adolescents, and adults gather and process information about gender. A first step in understanding the world is to construct categories or schemas. These are mental structures (like a mental blueprint) that allow the child to group objects in the world as being similar to one another and different from other objects. It turns out that one of the earliest and most basic distinctions children make is between male and female. Just as adults, on hearing that someone has had a baby, usually ask “Boy or girl?” children who are shown a new toy want to know if it is a girl toy or a boy toy. Almost anything can be the object of this gendering process. Pink is for girls, blue is for boys; baseball is for boys, softball is for girls; dogs are for boys, cats are for girls; the sun is male, and the moon is female. Children start noticing and attending to gender cues at an amazingly early age. By their first birthday, babies are able not only to distinguish between male and female faces, but also to link each type of face with a corresponding voice. Children pay more attention to information about their own gender and remember it better. Unfamiliar objects study (Bradbard, Martin, Endsley, & Halverson, 1986) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Similarities And Differences Both Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory and gender schema theory propose that children who have achieved a stable gender identity are intrinsically motivated to learn and practice the skills, activities, and attitudes that “go with” their gender. However, some important differences between the two approaches. –Kohlberg, identification with one’s gender role and the intrinsic motivation to conform to it develop once the child achieves a full understanding of gender constancy, at around age 6 or 7. –Gender schema theorists see this process as beginning with the earliest emergence of gender identity, during the preschool years or even toddlerhood. By age 5 or 6, rigid either/or stereotyping reaches a peak, followed by a phase of more flexible ideas about gender. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› New Understandings…… A number of more recent researchers have suggested that gender identity may consist of several different components (Egan & Perry, 2001; Perry & Pauletti, 2011; Yunger, Carver, & Perry, 2004): Knowing that one belongs to a particular gender; Feeling like or unlike others of one’s gender;  Being content or satisfied with one’s gender; Feeling under pressure from others to conform to the stereotype of one’s gender; Believing that one’s own gender is better than the other one. These facets of gender identity may develop at different ages and have different implications and can be influenced by racial and cultural differences. Essentially all children over the age of 2 or 3 know whether they are boys or girls, and most tend to think their own gender is better than the other one. If a teenage boy or girl who knows perfectly well he/she is a boy/girl and thinks their gender is best may still believe that he/she is not as good at doing boy/girl things as others. A belief that one is not measuring up leads to low self-esteem. Pressures to conform to traditional gender stereotypes can = withdrawn, depression. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Integrating Varying Approaches All of us are at the same time biological, social, and psychological beings. Any attempt to explain gender roles would have to take this obvious fact into account. Over the years, the different approaches we just looked at have evolved in the direction of acknowledging and incorporating insights and research findings from other approaches into their own analyses. Social cognitive approach stresses the importance of models, rewards, and punishments in shaping gendered behaviours, but also gives emphasis to such cognitive factors as expectations, self-regulation, and feelings of self-efficacy. Researchers in the cognitive developmental and gender schema traditions point out that the content of children’s gender roles—the particular attitudes and activities they see as appropriate to those of their gender—is passed along by parents, peers, the media, and other agents of socialization. While biological theorists agree that genetic heritage, hormones, and other biological factors establish a firm foundation for gender roles, many would add that what is built on that foundation is strongly influenced by both culture and individual psy Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Integrating Varying Approaches: Developmental Systems Are these different ways of looking at gender development moving toward a single overarching, integrated conception? Developmental systems theory (Lerner, 2002; Lerner & Castellino, 2002): In this view, a person’s individual characteristics—physical, intellectual, emotional, and so on—act on and are acted on by the contexts in which the person is embedded. These contexts include the family, peer group, community, and broader culture. The person is an active participant in these interactions, bringing their own history, gender-linked characteristics, abilities, expectations, and goals to them. To understand developmental trajectories, we need to consider how the interconnected and evolving aspects of the adolescent relate to the various and chang ing features of the adolescent’s environment. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#›  Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Integrating Varying Approaches: Example A young adolescent boy who is slimmer built and bright. Both body type and intelligence are affected by biological factors as well as by early experience. Boy will learn that currently in our culture an important aspect of the traditional masculine gender role is athletic prowess. He will also realize that he is less endowed in that department than most of his male peers. What does he do with this understanding and what impact does it have on his further development? The answer to these questions will largely depend on his other characteristics, as well as the features of the social environment he finds himself in. He may feel inferior to other boys and become withdrawn and depressed. He may embark on a body-building program and even start abusing steroids in an attempt to compensate for his constitutional makeup. He may develop an interest in a sport for which his slim build is an advantage. He may notice that scientific and technical skills are also part of the traditional masculine gender role, work on developing those skills, and start hanging with a crowd that values academic success and looks down on jocks. If the mismatch between his personality and his school is extreme, and if he feels support from family and friends, he may actively work to transfer to a school that provides a more congenial setting for someone like him. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender Intensification in Adolescence Gender intensification hypothesis: The physical changes of puberty alert parents, teachers, peers, and the world at large that a child is beginning the transition to adulthood. This gives new urgency to acting more like an adult, and especially acting like an adult of one’s own gender. Parents start to worry when, or if, their child will “grow out of” interests and activities they see as inappropriate, such as a boy who prefers dol Gender Dysphoria versus Transgendered If a child is displaying a desire to be of the opposite gender or is uncomfortable with their own gender, and this is not related to a physical condition such as CAH, some psychologists feel that this represents a disorder, although this is quite controversial. Gender is a social construct, and many people think that children or teens who feel this way are simply transgendered. Many children engage in cross-gender behaviour, and some may even meet the various criteria for gender dysphoria, but only a few will continue to feel the same way at adolescence or express a desire to have sexual reassignment surgery. What might cause a child to feel that their genitalia does not match how they feel inside as a person? No clear idea why some children are unhappy with their biologically based gender. Several theories have been proposed, ranging from the biological to the psychodynamic. Researchers have found a higher concordance rate for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twins, suggesting a genetic component. Researchers have found anomalies in the androgen receptors of male-to-female transgendered persons.  Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender Support in Adolescence Treatments include psychological therapy to support the teen and their parents, which sometimes progresses to puberty-suppressing medications or the use of hormones. Treatments must also consider that these teens often have higher rates of depression and behaviour problems, in part due to the stress of their situation, from victimization by their peers, or other factors. 2016 Toronto- and Netherlands-based study found that many teens with gender dysphoria had higher levels of depression and behavioural problems, and this was particularly true for the Toronto youth, where acceptance of gender-variant behaviour is lower than in Amsterdam. On June 19, 2017, the Governor General signed Bill C-16 into law, amending the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code = legislation that may help teens who are struggling with their feelings about their gender to feel more included in society and perhaps protect them from some forms of discrimination that contribute to the stress they experience. In addition, more frequent and positive representations of transgendered youth on television or streaming shows. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender Support in Adolescence Individuals may choose sexual reassignment surgery, so that their outward appearance matches their inward reality. Concerns have been raised, however, about allowing youth to begin transitioning before puberty. Moving toward a congruence between outward appearance and inward feelings of gender identity can help youth. Many youth do not ultimately seek sexual reassignment surgery, and by the end of puberty no longer feel that they are transgendered, makes it difficult for parents, teens, and medical staff to determine a clear course of action. Parents and teens are often not on the same learning trajectory. Research in British Columbia indicated that youth had been researching options and support well before disclosing their gender identity to their parents, and also did not always have parental support when seeking out medical care. The researchers point out that as society becomes more tolerant toward gender variance, the process of seeking support should become easier for teens. More important research needed Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#›  Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and Achievement In most respects, males and females are much more alike than they are different according to varied cognitive research Both men and women scored better in countries with better economic development and more gender equality indicating that cultural variables played a key role. So although the genders may be similar, and gender may not be the only factor in any difference found, it is more the differences that people tend to notice and consider significant—and gender is assumed to be the cause of those differences. Currently, the genders also differ in status in North American society, so emphasizing any differences helps to support the current hierarchy. Stereotypes: Boys like math, girls like English: Children pick up this stereotype early and hang on to it through adolescence and into adulthood & reflected in employment Yet, this stereotype about verbal skills in women does not translate into the majority of news anchors, diplomats, or lawyers being women, even though these powerful roles are also very dependent on verbal skills. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and Achievement In most respects, males and females are much more alike than they are different according to varied cognitive research (e.g., a representative sample of healthy American children from birth to young adulthood found very few gender differences on cognitive tasks; Waber et al., 2007). Both men and women scored better in some studies in countries with better economic development and more gender equality indicating that cultural variables played a key role. So although the genders may be similar, and gender may not be the only factor in any difference found, it is more the differences that people tend to notice and consider significant—and gender is assumed to be the cause of those differences. Currently, the genders also differ in status in North American society, so emphasizing any differences helps to support the current hierarchy. Stereotypes: Boys like math, girls like English: Children pick up this stereotype early and hang on to it through adolescence and into adulthood & reflected in employment Yet, this stereotype about verbal skills in women does not translate into the majority of news anchors, diplomats, or lawyers being women, even though these powerful roles are also very dependent on verbal skills. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and Achievement – oops! Many scholars have argued that it is also structured and conducted in ways that are unfair to either males or females. There has been concern that boys are given an advantage in school. For example, teachers interact more with boys and give them more instruction and help, while girls sit quietly and wait their turn. By adolescence, girls show less confidence in their ability to succeed on school tasks than boys, even when their actual performance does not differ especially in certain subjects.  It may be too late to change that lack of confidence, even if teachers in high school are not as likely to interact differently with boys and girls. In terms of traditional gender roles, schools are much better fit for girls than for boys. Most elementary school teachers are women - deprives boys of same-gender academic role models and the classroom as a “feminized” setting. Boys are more likely than girls to be put in remedial programs, be the target of disciplinary actions, and end up as underachievers. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender, Math, and Science Boys somewhat better on mental rotation tasks at adolescence by adolescents but disparity to this finding in type of task and cultures. Childhood experiences also have an important role. For example, children who play more with three-dimensional toys, such as Lego blocks, do better on tests of spatial ability, whether they are boys or girls. Videogames and men and women improve the same amount when learning basic spatial skills. Gender differences in math performance small more so in adolescents; however, increasingly, international math and science scores equalizing including in Canada. As gender equality increases and gender roles become more flexible, it is likely that the few gender differences in achievement that are found may eventually disappear entirely. Even adolescents whose personal experiences might have led them to know better seem to be affected by this gender stereotype. Girls who have shown high ability and interest in science during high school often shift into nonscientific paths when they reach university. Learned helplessness (expectancies), competitiveness (women thrive less), stereotype threats (anxiety from negative stereotypes). Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and Self-Esteem: Not just school achievemen Gender, Emotion, and Mood Studies of babies and young children, find few or no important gender differences in emotions. Differences in emotionality emerge during childhood and adolescence as a result of the different experiences girls and boys have with parents and peers. Girls not only display their vulnerable emotions more often than boys do, but also expect to get more positive responses from others than boys do. Depression levels equal during childhood - with puberty, twice as many girls depressed. Girls more aware of own emotions in part due to parental encouragement - rumination: brooding about problems, negative emotions Boys are more likely to try to push away their negative feelings and distract themselves with activities which may be linked to problematic emotion skills later on in life for boys. Relationship problems major cause of depression - emotional distress of a breakup is bad enough, but it is amplified for girls by the way it can cause them to doubt whether they are attractive, popular, and able to gain the qualities and skills the peer culture requires of them. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#›  Gender and Aggression Physical aggression, like antisocial behaviour in general, is more common among males than among females. This gender difference begins to show up as early as age 3 and continues through childhood and adolescence. Few consistently aggressive boys or girls For most, aggressiveness declines across adolescence Relational aggression: harming another’s social relationships Girls proportionally use more relational than physical aggression Boys use both physical and relational aggression. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and Personal Relationships Boys—larger, less intimate groups of friends Girls—relationship goals friendship, support, involvement Girls—more conversation, more self-disclosure Equal levels of conflict with peers, but girls are more likely to experience other kinds of friendship stress, such as being dropped or betrayed by a friend Girls more likely than boys to talk about their problems and look for support from other close friends – helpful, but can take the form of co-rumination, in which friends dwell on and hash over their problems and the thoughts and feelings set off by the problems. Linked to depression, which, as we saw a little earlier, becomes much more common in girls than in boys during adolescence. Homophobia: fear of attraction to own sex may place particular pressures on some boys to maintain distance in relationships Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Ethnicity, Culture, and Gender Gender roles widely different across cultures and ethnicities Treatment of boys and girls extremely different in some countries Consider FGM: Female genital mutilation is defined as the removal of all or part of the female genitalia for nonmedical reasons, a practice that is inflicted on an estimated 100–140 million women every year often with severe physical and/or emotional aftereffects. The practice is prevalent in 30 African countries, as well as a few Middle Eastern and Asian countries. In traditional cultures, men are seen as more important than women, and it is considered appropriate for men to dominate and control women. In modern cultures, women and men are said to be equal in their rights, educational and occupational opportunities, and social position. Canada falls between traditional, modern Mainstream culture exposure weakens traditional gender values Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#›  Families and Gender Development Mothers talk to children more, more supportive Fathers ask questions, offer information, directions Parents encourage gender-typed interests, activities Siblings as models, teachers, sources of praise/criticism Older siblings influence gender roles of younger siblings Those with other-sex older siblings less stereotyped Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Peers and Gender Development Gender segregation in childhood – usually boys and girls in their own groups Boys generally more competition, rough and tumble pay; girls more intimacy - usually smaller in number, tend to talk and act reciprocally and in group harmony With adolescence, for many teens, gender-typed attributes and behaviours take on added importance as ways to impress and attract those of the other gender with more “feminine” girls and more “masculine” boys often being the most attractive. On the whole, adolescents who feel more gender typical and more able to succeed at gender-typical activities have higher self-esteem, while those who feel under greater pressure to conform to typical gender roles have bigger adjustment problems. Boys judge gender nonconformity more harshly than do girls, and nonconforming boys are judged much more harshly than nonconforming girls. This does not necessarily mean that teens must adopt stereotyped gender identities to be socially accepted and psychologically healthy. Those gender nonconformists who are looked down on and excluded by their peers can have a rough time of it, but those who are not excluded for their nonconformity do not suffer for it. Finding a supportive peer group helpful. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Gender and the Media The amount of exposure adolescents have to mass media, and the freedom they have to decide what they expose themselves to, are something quite new in human history. Teens spend a lot of time in front of screens with an average of 8 hours a day, not including school work. Media give information about gender roles Media depictions rely on traditional stereotypes - for example women are underrepresented, especially in positions of power, leadership, or decision making. Women unrealistically young, beautiful, thin, compliant – less so for some ethnocultural groups – e.g., Black, North American women and girls; Indigenous However, black women and girls in North America who identify more closely with the majority culture also show more distorted body images (Abrams & Stormer, 2002; Oney, Cole, & Sellers, 2011; Regis, 2011).  Internationally as well, with exposure to Western media predicting higher levels of body dissatisfaction, especially among well-off individuals (Swami et al., 2010). Music video viewing and gender-stereotyped attitudes – research showing more positive images of all body types and strong female representations can lead to more positive, and less sexist attitudes. Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada, Inc. 8 - ‹#› Where Are Gender Roles Going? Psychological androgyny: both masculine, feminine attitudes Androgynous individuals may be better off than those stuck in a rigid gender type because they are more flexible in their social responses and more responsive to the demands of a situation: can be independent and assertive when that is called for, and nurturing and sympathetic when that is appropriate. Androgyny may be more advantageous for girls Adolescent girls can take up rock climbing and run for class president, but adolescent boys are still expected to hide any feelings of weakness, sadness, fear, or tenderness = boys affected by trend of hypermasculinity Cultures differ in accepting range of gender roles` Summary The text discusses the differences between sex and gender, emphasizing that sex refers to biological attributes while gender encompasses social and cultural roles. It explores the influence of prenatal hormones, socialization processes, and the impact of societal expectations on gender behavior. Factors such as parental guidance, media representation, and peer interactions shape children’s understanding of gender roles from a young age. Highlights - 📚 1. Sex vs. Gender: Sex refers to biological differences; gender is shaped by social experiences. 2. Cultural Expectations: Gender roles are culturally defined and can change over time. 3. Prenatal Influences: Higher prenatal testosterone levels impact gender-typical behaviors in children. 4. Socialization: Parents and peers actively shape children’s gender roles through reinforcement. 5. Media Impact: Children’s media is filled with gender standards that influence perceptions. 6. Gender Typing: Children adopt expected gender roles early in life, influenced by their environment. 7. Puberty Changes: Hormonal changes during puberty intensify gender-typed behaviors. Key Insights - 🔍 1. Biological vs. Social Factors: The interplay of biology and socialization defines gender roles. While sex differences are biological, gender distinctions often arise from cultural norms and practices. 🔄 2. Impact of Prenatal Hormones: Prenatal exposure to testosterone shapes interests and behaviors, indicating that biological factors play a significant role even before birth. This suggests that understanding gender behavior requires a holistic view encompassing both biology and social influences. 🧬 3. Role of Socialization: Social influences from parents, teachers, and peers are crucial in shaping gender roles. Children receive direct feedback on their behaviors, reinforcing cultural norms and expectations. This reinforces the idea that gender roles are not innate but learned. 👨‍🏫 4. Cultural Variability: Gender roles and expectations can vary significantly across cultures and eras, highlighting the fluidity of gender constructs and the potential for change over time. This variability calls for a critical examination of gender norms in different cultural contexts. 🌍 5. Media Representation: The pervasive representation of gender standards in media plays a significant role in shaping societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity. This can influence aspirations and self-image in children, making media literacy essential. 📺 6. Influence of Puberty: The onset of puberty introduces significant hormonal changes that can intensify gender-typed behaviors, suggesting that gender identity continues to evolve throughout development and is not fixed. 📈 7. Diverse Experiences of Gender: The experiences of individuals with conditions like congenital adrenal hyperplasia illustrate the complexity of gender identity and behavior, revealing that both biology and environment contribute to how individuals navigate their gender roles. 🌈