UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics PDF 2021

UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics HUMSS Department ICI PROPERTY NOT FOR SALE Printed in 2021  Social and Political Stratification Le...

UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics HUMSS Department ICI PROPERTY NOT FOR SALE Printed in 2021  Social and Political Stratification Lesson 9 Lesson Overview Topics covered: I. Social Stratification: Concepts II. Systems of Stratification III. Social Stratification: Theories IV. Social Mobility V. Social Divisions a. Social Inequality and Poverty b. Gender Inequality c. Ethnicity and Race Issues d. Global Inequality Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: Examine the concept, characteristics and forms of stratification systems using sociological perspectives. Assessment: Mini Task 1 – Picture Analysis Social Stratification: Concepts Social Stratification refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based on categories determined by economics. It implies the division or classification of members of society into different strata , promoting the development of hierarchy among social groups. Social Stratification gives rise to inequality in the society. In larger traditional societies and in several countries today, the common bases of social stratification include wealth, property, access to material and cultural goods, and access to political power. Other identifiable bases of social stratification are race, gender, and religion. Social Exclusion Refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full involvement in the wider circles of society. People who are socially excluded due to poor housing, lack of employment, inferior schools, or limited transportation, may lack of opportunities for self-improvement. Figure 9.1 Homeless people in the Philippine capital Manila wait on the roadside for help amid a lockdown that force people inside their homes to avoid the spread of the coronavirus disease. Homeless people are among the most marginalized in society, and their situation deprives them of the most basic amenities such as adequate shelter, food, and security. Figure 9.1 shows the homeless population in the Philippines who are mostly the vulnerable and exploited groups in society and often have limited social, political, and economic opportunities. 1  Systems of Stratification Sociologists distinguish between two primary systems of stratification, namely the closed and open systems. Closed Systems Closed system imposed rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions among members who belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in the social hierarchy. This system is also resistant to change, particularly in the social roles of its members. For example, the caste system. Caste system are closed stratification systems because people are unable to change their social standing. Caste systems promote belief in fate, destiny, and the will of higher spiritual power rather than the promotion of individual freedom. People born into a caste society are socialized to accept their social standing. People are born into their social standing and will permanently remain in it throughout their lives. Caste system therefore promotes social inequality. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, Figure 9.2 The Hindu Caste System interests, or potential. Figure 9.2 shows the Hindu caste tradition. It is a caste system where people expected to work in their caste’s occupation and can only marry according to their caste. Reinforced by cultural values, accepting this social standing was considered a moral duty in India. Open Systems Stratification in an open system is based on achievement, allowing more flexibility in social roles, increased social mobility, and better interaction among social groups and classes. Class system, for example, is a stratification system based on how the ownership of resources and the individual’s occupation or profession (see Figure 9.3). Class systems base social status on achievement rather than Figure 9.3 Individual ownership of resources ascription and are thus more open in terms of social mobility. People, therefore, are free to move from one social class to another and achieve a higher status in life through education and employment. A social class is composed of people who share the same background and characteristics such as income, education, and occupation. Meritocracy is another system of stratification that is determined by personal effort and merit. Social standing and advancement in this system is determined by how well a person performs his/her social role. High levels of effort will result in advancement, while insufficient effort will lead to an individual losing his or her social status. Meritocracy remains an ideal and is only implemented in certain areas such as business and industry. Society, in general, still remains strongly influenced by other factors such as inheritance and pressure to conform. Social Stratification: Theories In the context of sociology, social stratification can be examined using three different theoretical perspectives namely functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. 2 Functionalism The functionalist perspective examines how different aspects of society contribute to ensuring its stability and continued function. Functionalism believes that each part or aspect of society serves an important purpose. They also believe that social stratification is based on the intrinsic value of social activities or roles. Davis – Moore Thesis Figure 9.4 Kingsley Davis (left) and Wilbert Moore (right) The Davis-Moore thesis was introduced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (see Figure 9.4) in 1945. It proposed that social role that has a greater functional purpose will result in greater reward, and that satisfaction represents the inherently unequal value of different types of work. In short, certain tasks in society are more valued than others, and the individuals who are able to perform highly valued work are rewarded with greater income, prestige, and power in society. Additionally, stratification is further defined by the fact that highly demanding jobs that require more skills to perform can only be performed by a few, select individuals. Thus, highly-skilled and greatly-rewarded workers, such as doctors and engineers, tend to be few. On the other hand, other less- demanding jobs such as office workers can be performed with minimal training and skills and are thus done by the majority in society. Melvin Tumin, 1953 Melvin Tumin proposed an alternative perspective on the significance of employment on social stratification. He criticized the Davis-Moore thesis and said that it was unable to consider situations where individuals of little talent or skill are able to access better opportunities or occupy higher positions in society. Tumin sees social stratification as being defined by the lack of opportunities for the less-privilege sectors of society. Social stratification then becomes a hindrance that prevents qualified people from occupying significant social roles. Conflict Theory Conflict theory takes a critical view of social stratification and considers society as benefiting only a small segment. Conflict theories believe that stratification perpetuates inequality, and they draw many of their ideas from the works of Karl Marx. Marx believed that social stratification is influenced by economic forces, and that relationships in society are defined by the factors of production. He Figure 9.5 Karl Marx considered society as being divided between two groups: a) Bourgeois (Capitalists). They own the factors of production such as resources, land, and businesses. They belong to the upper classes of society and gained wealth due to the profits from their businesses. b) Proletariat (Workers). They are the workers that provide the manual labor needed to produce goods. They belong to the lower classes, lack power and influence, and experiences great hardships. Marx believed that the inequality prevalent in societies causes workers to experience alienation brought about by social stratification led to class conflict. 3 Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism refrains from looking into larger structural factors that define social stratification and contribute to inequality and poverty. Instead, it examines stratification from a microlevel perspective and attempts to explain how people’s social standing affects their everyday interactions. Social stratification, for symbolic interactionists, often lead people to interact with others within their own social class – people who have the same background, interests, and way of life. Social stratification, therefore, is a system that groups people together. Theory of Conspicuous Consumption Symbolic interactionists also observe that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. The theory of conspicuous consumption refers to buying certain products to make a social statement about status. For example, housing, clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in food, music, or accessories, and personal style such as illustrated in Figure 9.6. Carrying pricey but environment-friendly items or driving a luxury car could indicate a person’s social standing. Figure 9.6 People’s appearance can indicate their social status Social Mobility Social mobility is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions within a social stratification system. It also refers to how individuals progress from a lower to higher social class, or even how individuals lose their status and occupy a much lower social position in society. A major factor that influences mobility is economic status, particularly the accumulation of wealth. Two Main Types of Social Mobility Upward Mobility. Refers to an upward movement in social class. Examples of upward mobility in society are people who have gained wealth and individuals who rose to fame or power like politicians and celebrities. Other means by which individuals experience upward social mobility is through education, employment, or marriage. Downward Mobility. Refers to the lowering of an individual’s social class. This may be brought about by economic setbacks, unemployment, illness, and dropping out of school. When considering how people from different generations experience social mobility, the phenomenon can be classified as either intragenerational or intergenerational mobility. Intragenerational mobility focuses on the experience of people who belong to the same generation. Figure 9.7 illustrates about what our families can provide for us, whether or not they can support our education or help us in our careers via their own networks. It’s also about what wealth and assets they might leave to us, and to what extent that wealth boosts our chances Figure 9.7 Intragenerational mobility is all about whether or in the long-run. not we can move into a different economic situation from the family we're born into. 4  Intragenerational mobility also considers the changes in a person’s social standing throughout his or her lifetime. A factory worker who takes time to attend night classes and earn a degree may find himself/herself eventually employed in a different and much more rewarding profession, leading to a better life in future. Intergenerational mobility refers to the changes in social standing experienced by individuals belonging to different generations. An example of this may be a successful businessman who was raised by lower-income parents, or a powerful politician who traces his or her roots to generations of poor immigrants. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term social changes. Figure 9.8 illustrates intergenerational mobility. For example, Millie's parents started as Figure 9.8 Intergenerational mobility refers to any change in immigrants, then the next generation (Millie) the social position of family members that takes place from one generation to the next. progressed into first generation college student and writer, and the following generation (Millie's children) progress further into world-famous authors. All these changes within the generations of Millie's family line show intergenerational mobility. Structural Mobility is due to large-scale changes in society which can result in the improvement or decline of the conditions and status of a large group of people. The Industrial age, for instance, resulted in a massive upward mobility that benefited many countries and improved the lives of people across social classes and groups. Economic crises such as recession and the loss of jobs, however, can bring about economic decline resulting in the downward social mobility of large groups of people. Social Divisions Social Inequality and Poverty Societies are usually characterized by divisions. Social divisions reflect an unequal distribution of status, wealth, and power within society and result in individuals and groups occupying different positions of influence and power. Social inequality may be expressed differently from society to society but is often seen in distinctions in class, gender, religion, ethnicity, and age. Theories Social class and stratification are important concepts in understanding social inequality. Social classes are derived from the inequalities brought about by the possession and control of resources, as well as access to opportunities for education and employment. Table 9.1 Different Perspectives on Social Class and Stratification Karl Marx class as an essential characteristic based on the economic structure of society Max Weber Defined stratification through the concept of status – “the esteem or social honor given to certain individuals or groups. He also focused on the concept of “market position,” which refers to the ability of individuals or groups to engage in economic activities. Their success in economic transactions is determined by personal power, knowledge, skills, and the scarcity of resources Warmer, Class is influenced by cultural factors such as lifestyle and consumption patterns. Meeker, and Lifestyle choices have increasingly defined individual identities and are a growing Eels basis for social prestige apart from occupation and wealth 5  The concept of class is evident in many industrialized societies, which are generally divided into: a) Upper Class – is usually composed of the rich, well born, powerful, or a combination of these. They usually wield the greatest political power. b) Middle Class – refers to a group of people who fall socioeconomically between the lower and upper classes. c) Lower or Working Class – refers to those employed in low-paying wage jobs with very little economic security. They are sometimes called blue-collar workers. d) Underclass – this term is utilized to refer to the segment of society that is not only affected by poverty but is also subject to social exclusion. Income, affluence, and poverty are also important factors that define social inequality. Those belonging to the upper class in society have larger and steadily increasing incomes compared to the lower classes, who have low incomes. The distribution of wealth and income remains highly unequal in many societies, and recent development such as globalization have contributed to the growing gap between the rich and the poor (see Table 9.2). Table 9.2 Poverty Incidence Among the Basic Sectors (%): 2015 and 2018 In the Philippines, statistical data show that around 19.8 percent of Filipinos are poor (World Bank, 2020). The British charitable organization Oxfam International, in a report released in 2014, states that seven out of ten people live in countries which experienced an increase in poverty over the past three decades. Additionally, poverty and declining incomes were most pronounced in certain groups such as ethnic minorities, women, and the uneducated. Table 9.3 Types of Poverty Absolute Poverty refers to the lack of basic resources like food, clean water, safe housing, and access to health care needed to maintain a quality lifestyle Relative Poverty applied to those who may be able to obtain basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living compared to the rest of society Subjective Poverty defined by how an individual evaluates his or her actual income against his or her expectations and perceptions 6 Gender Inequality Figure 9.9 Seeking to address gender inequality. Gender inequality is another important aspect of social inequality. Gender refers to the culturally-imposed characteristics that define masculinity and femininity. Gender is different from sex, which refers to biological and anatomical differences that distinguish males from females. Sex is an unchanging aspect of a person’s identity while gender, being a social construct, is a fluid concept that changes depending on the mores, norms, and values espoused by a particular society. Gender role refer to specific tasks and behaviors expected of a person by virtue of his or her sex. Gender identity refers to how a person identifies himself or herself as belonging to a particular gender. Within societies, gender defines stratification and new studies have brought to light how it also defines social hierarchy and impose certain divisions and limitations on certain groups. Women Women, in particular, are most vulnerable to gender inequality given that majority of societies adopt a patriarchal system of social organization. Patriarchy refers to the socially sanctioned and systematic domination of males over females, and this is expressed in various aspects of society. For example, men are the traditionally recognized head of the family and when couples are married, the woman usually takes on the family name of her husband. Though a number of recent social changes have gradually led to greater gender Figure 9.10 Patriarchy equality, patriarchy still prevails in many societies. In political arena, women have made some inroads toward greater political participation. Since the end of the Second World War, women have been elected to more political positions and have wielded greater responsibilities in government. However, critics contend that despite these gains, women still continue to function within a framework dominated by men, and most women who hold influential positions in politics and business often conform to standards that are more male-oriented. Socialization Socialization also contributes to gender inequality. For instance, the manner in which schools are organized often engender and sustain gender inequalities. Boys and girls are usually prescribed uniforms that cannot be worn by the other sex, textbooks portray genders in a manner consistent with accepted social conventions, and even teachers treat genders differently. A more disturbing aspect of gender inequality is the tendency to result in violence, particularly violence directed against women. Examples of these include sexual harassment, rape or sexual assault, and spousal abuse. Theories Liberal Feminism Liberal feminists explain gender inequality in terms of social and cultural attitudes. They believe that sexism and discrimination can be countered by political, social, and economic reforms like giving equal access to both men and women. 7  Radical Feminism Radical feminists argue that men are responsible for the exploitation of women through patriarchy. From this perspective, nothing short of a “sexual revolution” could transform society and end gender inequality. Black Feminism Black feminism identifies factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to gender, as essential for understanding the oppression experienced by non-white women. In recent decades, another dimension of gender inequality has become prominent. Gays and lesbians, for example, have been the object of discrimination and have become more active in seeking equality. In some societies, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) movements are seeking legally-mandated protection from discrimination in employment, education, and social benefits. Ethnicity and Race Issues Concepts Ethnicity is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population, cultural group, or territorial area. The term is complex because it has both racial and cultural overtones. It is a form of cultural identity, although it operates at a deeper and more emotional level. Race refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry. It refers to physical or genetic differences among humankind that distinguish one group of people from another such as skin and hair color, physique, and facial features. The prevalence of cultural stereotypes regarding certain “races” often influences political action, such as the introduction of discriminatory policies and practices such as segregation. Racism refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. Displacement and scapegoating are psychological mechanisms associated with prejudice and discrimination. In displacement, feelings of hostility become directed against objects that are not the real origin of these anxieties; those at the receiving end become scapegoats. Prejudice involves holding “stereotypes” or preconceived views that are often based on faulty generalizations about members of a race or particular ethnic or other groups. Prejudice also manifests as close-mindedness or an inflexible way of thinking regarding certain ideas and beliefs in society. Discrimination, meanwhile, refers to actions or behavior of members of a dominant social group that negatively impacts other members of society that do not belong to the dominant group. Gender and class also influence racial inequality. For example, United States women of color face more difficulties in society. Surveys indicate that about half of African American and Latino women are the primary earners for their families, and that these families often live in poverty. Figure 9.11 lndigenous Peoples’ Struggles in the Philippines 8  The Philippines, which is comprised of many ethnolinguistic groups, ethnicity can be a source of conflict. An example of this fact is the indigenous groups like Lumads, experience great difficulty in accessing resources, and availing of education, employment, and health services (see Figure 9.11). These groups also suffer from other stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes from fellow Filipinos. Indigenous people have been repeatedly subjected to displacement, although there are now laws that are supposed to protect their rights. Global Inequality Concepts Global stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis, highlighting patterns of social inequality and resulting in people having vastly different lifestyles and opportunities both within and among the nations of the world. Figure 9.12 illustrates global stratification. Countries can be classified and differentiated according to their per-person gross national product (GNP) or the per capita gross domestic product (GDP), which is a country’s average national wealth per person. Wealth continued to be highly concentrated in a few Gulf States and countries in Europe and North America. Poverty meanwhile remained extensive in South Asia and Africa. Many African countries can be found at the bottom of the International Monetary Fund ranking. Figure 9.12 Global Inequality While inequality exists within all countries, people in high-income countries generally enjoy a far higher standard of living that their counterparts in low-income countries. They are more likely to have more food and are less likely to suffer from starvation and malnutrition, more likely to live longer, more likely to raise large families. Children in low income countries are less likely to die from malnutrition or childhood diseases. Theories Modernization theory claims that cultural and institutional barriers to development explain poverty in low-income countries. This theory believes that poverty can be eliminated by overcoming or adjusting cultural values like negative attitudes regarding work, limiting government intervention in economic affairs, and encouraging high rates of savings and investment. On the other hand, modernization theory has been criticized as mainly ethnocentric as well as implicitly labeling low-income economies as backward. Dependency theory claims that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor countries by wealthy ones, thereby creating a cycle of dependence. For dependency theorists, low-income countries are trapped in a cycle of structural and economic dependency on high-income countries. This relationship does not benefit the poorer nations, since they are not given the chance to be economically independent and attain development on their own. 9  World-system theory focuses on the relationship among the core, peripheral, and semiperipheral countries in the global economy. This theory also focuses on long-term trends in the global economy and global commodity chains that erase national borders. core: Describes dominant capitalist countries which exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw materials peripheral: Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry. semi-peripheral: Countries that share characteristics of both core and periphery countries. Figure 9.13 World System Theory State-centered theory emphasizes the role of governments in fostering economic development. These theories draw on the experiences of the newly-industrialized countries in East Asia like Hongkong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. The stratification of nations, in absolute terms, indeed highlights the growing inequality worldwide. Accordingly, almost half of the world’s wealth is now owned by just one percent (1%) of the total population. The wealth of the one percent richest people in the world amounts to US$ 110 trillion, which is 65 times the total wealth of the bottom half of the world’s population. According to Oxfan, this wealth concentration will lead to “opportunity capture,” which means that the lowest tax rates, the best education, the best healthcare, and political representation are claimed by the children of the rich. This will perpetuate the cycle of inequality and lead to a growing rift between the rich and poor. 10 References Abel,Jennifer. Bourgeois,15July2014,www.consumeraffairs.com/news/richpeopledontshopatrichpeoplestores071514.html. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. Allen,Ron. Inequality,19Nov.2015,img.haikudeck.com/mg/3DF4A6CB67264570A5874785DC6B9F37.jp. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. Arugay,A., Atienza,M., Franco,J., Quilala,D.,&Rico,R.(2016). Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics for Senior High School. Quezon City: C&E Publishing Inc. pp. 17; 73-77. Buchholz, Katharina. 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