Lesson 2 Ethics in Data Gathering PDF

#2 Learning Objectives: 1. Define ethics 2. Enumerate the five general principles of Ethics in Data Ethical Conduct Gathering 3. Identify the different ethical dilemmas in the conduct of research ...

#2 Learning Objectives: 1. Define ethics 2. Enumerate the five general principles of Ethics in Data Ethical Conduct Gathering 3. Identify the different ethical dilemmas in the conduct of research  PRE-ASSESSMENT Ethics in data gathering 1. What is ethics? 2. Why ethics is important? 3. Consider one of the following ethical dilemmas that may face a researcher. Describe ways you might anticipate the problem and actively address I in your research proposal. A prisoner you are interviewing tells you about a potential breakout at the prison that night. What do you do? A researcher on your team copies sentences from another study and incorporates them into the final written report for your project. What do you do?  Ethics! “Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have the right to do and what is right to do.” ~Potter Steward Importance of Ethics The Importance of Ethics. Ethics is obviously an important construct of civilization, born out of a primal human need to understand the world or to make sense out of the world that humanity is in. Ethics answers the “whys” about giving standards, virtues, and rules by which we use to direct how we behave. Here are several reasons why we need to be good: 1. It is a requirement for life. It is our biological imperative as humans to survive and thrive, and ethics are part of the complicated structure of humanity that helps us determine the best way to act so that each of us may live a long, productive life. 2. It is a requirement for society. To be a member of society in good standing, one must follow the codes and laws that govern that culture. Ethics builds relationships, both individually and on a grand scale. Kindness matters, and it helps forge the underlying bonds that unite a society. 3. For religious purposes. Some people believe that being good is a requirement for their religious beliefs. They believe it is necessary for them to act ethically to reap the fruits of their religious beliefs, may it be going to heaven or making merit for karma. 4. For self-interest. Some believe that humans ultimately act out of self-service, they do things with their own interests in mind. They believe that if a person behaves morally, respectfully, and kindly to others, good thing will happen to them. 5. Humans are inherently good. This debatable claim could be a good enough reason why we need to be ethical—it is our nature to be good. People who do bad things just forget their inherent goodness which causes them to be immoral.  APA CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT This section consists of General Principles. General Principles, as opposed to Ethical Standards, are aspirational in nature. Their intent is to guide and inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. General Principles, in contrast to Ethical Standards, do not represent obligations and should not form the basis for imposing sanctions. Relying upon General Principles for either of these reasons distorts both their meaning and purpose. Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. In their professional actions, psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. When conflicts occur among psychologists' obligations or concerns, they attempt to resolve these conflicts in a responsible fashion that avoids or minimizes harm. Because psychologists' scientific and professional judgments and actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal, financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. Psychologists strive to be aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help those with whom they work. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work. Psychologists uphold professional standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles and obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for their behavior, and seek to manage conflicts of interest that could lead to exploitation or harm. Psychologists consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions to the extent needed to serve the best interests of those with whom they work. They are concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues' scientific and professional conduct. Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage.  Principle C: Integrity Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. In these activities psychologists do not steal, cheat or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their promises and to avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of such techniques. Principle D: Justice Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions to ensure that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices. Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making. Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status, and consider these factors when working with members of such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices ETHICAL ISSUES TO ANTICIPATE In addition to conceptualizing the writing process for a proposal, researchers need to anticipate the ethical issues that may arise during their studies (Berg, 2001; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011; Punch, 2005; Sieber, 1998). Research involves collecting data from people, about people (Punch, 2005). Researchers need to protect their research participants; develop a trust with them; promote the integrity of research; guard against misconduct and impropriety that might reflect on their organizations or institutions; and cope with new, challenging problems (Israel & Hay, 2006). Ethical questions are apparent today in such issues as personal disclosure, authenticity, and credibility of the research report; the role of researchers in cross-cultural contexts; and issues of personal privacy through forms of Internet data collection (Israel & Hay, 2006). Ethical issues in research command increased attention today. The ethical considerations that need to be anticipated are extensive, and they are reflected through the research process. These issues apply to qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research and to all stages of research. Proposal writers need to anticipate them and actively address them in their research plans. Accordingly, it is helpful to address them as they relate to different phases of inquiry.  Stages of Ethical Research to Consider 1. Prior the beginning of the study 2. Beginning of the study 3. Collecting of data 4. Analyzing data 5. Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data 1. Prior the beginning of the study Consider codes of ethics. Consult early in the development of your proposal the code of ethics for your professional association. In the literature, ethical issues arise in discussions about codes of professional conduct for researchers and in commentaries about ethical dilemmas and their potential solutions (Punch, 2005). v The American Psychological Association Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, Including 2010 Amendments (www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx) Apply to the institutional review board. Researchers need to have their research plans reviewed by an institutional review board (IRB) Obtain necessary permissions. Prior to the study, researchers need to obtain approval of individuals in authority (e.g., gatekeepers) to gain access to sites and to study participants. Select a site without vested interests. Selecting a site to study in which you have an interest in outcomes is not a good idea. It does not allow for the objectivity required for quantitative research or for the full expression of multiple perspectives that is needed by qualitative research. Negotiate authorship for publication. If you plan to publish your study (often the case for a dissertation project), an important issue to negotiate before beginning the study is the question of authorship for individuals who contribute to the study. 2. Beginning of the study Identify a beneficial research problem. During the identification of the research problem, it is important to identify a problem that will benefit individuals being studied, one that will be meaningful for others besides the researcher (Punch, 2005).  Disclose purpose of the study. In developing the purpose statement or the central intent and questions for a study, proposal developers need to convey the purpose of the study that will be described to the participants (Sarantakos, 2005). Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms. When collecting consent for a study, the researcher should not force participants to sign the informed consent form. Participation in a study should be seen as voluntary, and the researcher should explain in the instructions for the consent form that participants can decide not to participate in the study. Respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures. The researcher needs to anticipate any cultural, religious, gender, or other differences in the participants and sites that need to be respected. 3. Collecting the Data Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible. Researchers need to respect research sites so that they are left undisturbed after a research study. This requires that inquirers, especially in qualitative studies involving prolonged observation or interviewing at a site, be cognizant of their impact and minimize their disruption of the physical setting Make sure that all participants receive the benefits. In experimental studies, investigators need to collect data so that all participants, not only an experimental group, benefit from the treatments. Avoid deceiving participants. Participants need to know that they are actively participating in a research study. To counteract this problem, provide instructions that remind the participants about the purpose of the study. Respect potential power imbalances. Interviewing in qualitative research is increasingly being seen as a moral inquiry (Kvale, 2007). It could equally be seen as such for quantitative and mixed methods research. Avoid exploitation of participants. There needs to be some reciprocity back to the participants for their involvement in your study. This might be a small reward for participating, sharing the final research report, or involving them as collaborators. Avoid collecting harmful information. Researchers also need to anticipate the possibility of harmful, intimate information being disclosed during the data collection process. It is difficult to anticipate and try to plan for the impact of this information during or after an interview (Patton, 2002). 4. Analyzing the Data Avoid going native. It is easy to support and embrace the perspectives of participants in a study. In qualitative studies, this means “taking sides” and only discussing the results that place the participants in a favorable light. In quantitative research, it means disregarding data that proves or disproves personal hypotheses that the researcher may hold. Avoid disclosing only positive results. In research, it is academically dishonest to withhold important results or to cast the results in a favorable light to the participants’ or researchers’ inclinations. Respect the privacy of participants. How will the study protect the anonymity of individuals, roles, and incidents in the project? For example, in survey research, investigators disassociate names from responses during the coding and recording process.  5. Reporting, Sharing and Storing Data Falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, or conclusions. In the interpretation of data, researchers need to provide an accurate account of the information. This accuracy may require debriefing between the researcher and participants in quantitative research (Berg, 2001). It may include, in qualitative research, using one or more of the strategies to check the accuracy of the data with participants or across different data sources, through strategies of validation. Do not plagiarize. Copying extensive material from others is an ethical issue. Researchers should give credit for the work of others and quotations marks should indicate the exact words claimed from others. The key idea is to not present the work of another as your own (APA, 2010). Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants. One issue to anticipate about confidentiality is that some participants may not want to have their identity remain confidential. By permitting this, the researcher allows the participants to retain ownership of their voices and exert their independence in making decisions. Communicate in clear straightforward, appropriate language. Discuss how the research will not use language or words that are biased against persons because of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age. Review the three guidelines for biased language in the APA Publication Manual (APA, 2010). Present unbiased language at an appropriate level of specificity (e.g., rather than say, “The client’s behavior was typically male,” state, “The client’s behavior was_______ [specify]”). Share data with others. It is important to release the details of the research with the study design so that readers can determine for themselves the credibility of the study (Neuman, 2009). Keep raw data and other materials (e.g., details of procedures, instruments). Data, once analyzed, need to be kept for a reasonable period of time (e.g., Sieber, 1998, recommends 5 to 10 years; the APA, 5 years). After this period, investigators should discard the data so that it does not fall into the hands of other researchers who might misappropriate it. Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications. Also, researchers should not engage in duplicate or redundant publication in which authors publish papers that present exactly the same data, discussions, and conclusions and do not offer new material. Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and a lack of conflict of interest. Some academic campuses now require authors to file statements indicating that they do not have a conflict of interest in publishing the research. Understand who owns the data. The question of who owns the data once it is collected and analyzed also can be an issue that splits research teams and divides individuals against each other. A proposal might mention this issue of ownership and discuss how it will be resolved, such as through the development of a clear understanding between the researcher, the participants, and possibly the faculty advisers (Punch, 2005). What’s on your mind? Ethical Dilemmas!  SUMMARY A researcher must consider ethical issues in conduct of the research. Researcher must follow the code of ethical standards provided by APA Researcher must consider the rights of the participants KEY TERMS Ethics Informed consent Plagiarism Code of ethical conduct Professional integrity Confidentiality Deception  SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS/VIDEO Thompson, A. R., & Russo, K. (2011). Ethical Dilemmas for Clinical Psychologists in Conducting Qualitative Research. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 9(1), 32–46. doi:10.1080/14780887.2012.630636 VIDEO https://youtu.be/Qh02DGRbsE4  ANSWER KEY Paradigm and Philosophy of Data Gathering 1. What is ethics? Ethics is the discipline that examines the moral standards of an individual or a society. A person engages in ethics when he or she reflects on whether certain moral standards are acceptable or reasonable. 2. Why ethics is important? Research ethics are important for a number of reasons. They promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge. They support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect and fairness.... They support important social and moral values, such as the principle of doing no harm to others. 3. Enumerate the five ethical principles in research? Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility Principle C: Integrity Principle D: Justice Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity 4. Consider one of the following ethical dilemmas that may face a researcher. Describe ways you might anticipate the problem and actively address I in your research proposal. A prisoner you are interviewing tells you about a potential breakout at the prison that night. What do you do? A researcher on your team copies sentences from another study and incorporates them into the final written report for your project. What do you do? 13  Reference: Creswell, John W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. 14