Principle Of Horticulture PDF

Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Theory UNIT-I: Introduction Horticulture is a science, as well as, an art of production, utilization and improvement of h...

Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Theory UNIT-I: Introduction Horticulture is a science, as well as, an art of production, utilization and improvement of horticultural crops, such as fruits and vegetables, spices and condiments, ornamental, plantation, medicinal and aromatic plants. Horticultural crops require intense care in planting, carrying out intercultural operations, manipulation of growth, harvesting, packaging, marketing, storage and processing. Vegetable crops Are herbaceous plants grown for their edible parts. Vegetables can be roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, or seeds and are usually savory rather than sweet. Vegetable farming is the growing of vegetable crops primarily for use as human food. The term vegetable in its broadest sense refers to any kind of plant life or plant product. Olericulture Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food. Olericulture is the production of plants for use of the edible parts. Vegetable crops can be classified into nine major categories: Potherbs and greens – spinach and collards Salad crops – lettuce, celery Cole crops – cabbage and cauliflower Root crops (tubers) – potatoes, beets, carrots, radishes Bulb crops – onions, leeks Legumes – beans, peas Cucurbits – melons, squash, cucumber 1 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Solanaceous crops – tomatoes, peppers, potatoes Sweet corn Olericulture deals with the production, storage, processing and marketing of vegetables. It encompasses crop establishment, including cultivar selection, seedbed preparation and establishment of vegetable crops by seed and transplants. It also includes maintenance and care of vegetable crops as well commercial and non-traditional vegetable crop production including organic gardening and organic farming; sustainable agriculture and horticulture; hydroponics; and biotechnology. What are the differences between vegetables and fruits? Most people know that fruits and vegetables are good for you, but in terms of structure, taste, and nutrition, there are many distinctions between them. Fruits and vegetables are classified from both a botanical and culinary standpoint. Botanically, fruits and vegetables are classified depending on which part of the plant they come from. A fruit develops from the flower of a plant, while the other parts of the plant are categorized as vegetables. Fruits contain seeds, while vegetables can consist of roots, stems and leaves. From a culinary perspective, fruits and vegetables are classified based on taste. Fruits generally have a sweet or tart flavor and can be used in desserts, snacks or juices. Vegetables have a more mild or savory taste and are usually eaten as part of a side dish or main course. SUMMARY: Botanically, fruits contain seeds and come from the flower of a plant, while the rest of the plant is considered a vegetable. In cooking, fruits are considered to be sweet while vegetables are more savory. 2 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Fruits Often Mistaken for Vegetables You probably have a pretty good concept of which foods are considered fruits and which are considered vegetables, at least in culinary terms. However, there are several plants that are technically fruits, though they’re often classified as vegetables because of their taste. Tomatoes are the most well-known and controversial example of this. In 1893, the US Supreme Court actually ruled that tomatoes should be classified as vegetables rather than fruits under US customs regulations (1). Botanically speaking, tomatoes fit the definition of a fruit. However, they’re still commonly referred to as vegetables because of their flavor profile. Some other common examples of fruits that are mistaken for vegetables include: Winter squash Cucumbers Peppers Eggplants Pumpkins Pea pods Zucchini SUMMARY: There are many fruits that are often referred to as vegetables, including tomatoes, avocados and cucumbers. How Do Fruits and Vegetables Compare Nutritionally? Fruits and vegetables have a lot of similarities in terms of nutrition. 3 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Both are high in fiber as well as vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and plant compounds. Fruits and vegetables are also naturally low in sodium and fat (2Trusted Source). As you might expect given their sweet taste, fruits tend to have a higher amount of natural sugar and calories compared to most varieties of vegetables. One cup of apples, for example, contains 65 calories and 13 grams of sugar, while one cup of broccoli has just 31 calories and 2 grams of sugar (3, 4). Compared to vegetables, some types of fruits may also contain more fiber per gram. The fiber content per 100 grams for fruit ranges from 2–15 grams, while leafy vegetables supply 1.2–4 grams of fiber for the same weight (2Trusted Source). The water content is also highly variable. Leafy vegetables may be composed of 84–95% water, while fruits contain slightly less, with between 61–89% (2Trusted Source). There are some nutrient differences among different categories of fruits and vegetables, as well. Here are few nutrition highlights: Tubers: Rich in fiber, plus a good source of vitamin C, beta- carotene, potassium and B vitamins (5Trusted Source). Citrus fruits: High in vitamin C, beta-carotene, folate and antioxidants that could offer protection against degenerative disease (6Trusted Source). Cruciferous vegetables: Contain glucosinolates, a group of compounds that has been linked to the prevention of cancer (7Trusted Source, 8Trusted Source). 4 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Berries: Full of anthocyanins, anti-inflammatory compounds that have been studied for their ability to reduce oxidative stress and promote heart health (9Trusted Source). Leafy greens: A good source of carotenoids like lutein, which has been shown to reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke and cancer (10Trusted Source, 11Trusted Source). Including a good mix of fruits and vegetables in your diet can ensure you’re getting a diverse range of nutrients. SUMMARY: Fruit is higher in sugar and calories than vegetables, but both fruits and vegetables are rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. Specific types of fruits and vegetables provide different nutrients. Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables There is a good amount of research documenting the many benefits of fruit and vegetable intake on health. Several studies have found that eating more fruits and vegetables is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease (12Trusted Source, 13Trusted Source, 14Trusted Source). One study even found that eating more than three servings per day slashed the risk of heart disease by 70% (15Trusted Source). Because fruits and vegetables are low in calories but high in fiber, they could even help keep your weight under control. One study followed 133,000 people over a 24-year span. It showed that when people increased their intake of fruits and non-starchy vegetables, their weight tended to decrease (16Trusted Source). Increasing your fiber intake through fruits and vegetables may even reduce your risk of cancer. Multiple studies have found that higher fruit 5 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. and vegetable consumption is linked to a lower risk of colorectal cancer (17Trusted Source, 18Trusted Source). Finally, fruit and vegetable intake may benefit your blood sugar. The fiber from these foods slows the absorption of sugar, which can keep blood sugar levels steady. One study showed that an increase in fruit and vegetable intake can actually lead to a reduction in the development of diabetes (19Trusted Source). Note that these results applied to fruits and vegetables, but not fruit juice. Fruit juice provides a concentrated dose of the vitamins, minerals and sugars found in fruit, but without the fiber and the health benefits that come with it. SUMMARY: Eating enough fruits and vegetables can decrease your risk of heart disease and cancer while controlling your weight and blood sugar. Health Benefits of Vegetables Vegetable is a broad term that refers to the edible parts of plants, which are usually their leaves, roots, fruits, or seeds. Vegetables are a staple food across the world and are a fundamental part of modern agriculture. Since they’re low in calories but high in nutrients, most health experts recommend that you consume vegetables daily. There’s a scientific consensus that a balanced, rotating diet of different varieties of vegetables is one of the best ways to source nutrients from your food starting at a young age. Health Benefits Vegetables are full of essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that provide many important health benefits to your body. For instance, carrots are known for being very high in vitamin A, which plays an important role in eye health, as you grow older. 6 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Vegetables also offer many other health benefits like: Improved Digestive Health Vegetables are a good source of dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate that helps pass food through your digestive system. Studies show that fiber may also improve vitamin and mineral absorption in the body, which could potentially raise your daily energy levels. Lower Blood Pressure Many green leafy vegetables like kale, spinach, and chard contain potassium. Potassium helps your kidneys filter sodium out of your body more efficiently, which can reduce your blood pressure. Lower Risk of Heart Disease Green leafy vegetables also contain vitamin K, which is believed to prevent calcium from building up in your arteries. This can lower your risk of arterial damage and help prevent many heart health complications in the future. Diabetes Control Vegetables are particularly high in fiber, which is needed for optimal digestion. They have a low glycemic index, so your blood sugar won’t rise quickly after a meal. The American Diabetes Association recommends at least 3 to 5 servings per day of non-starchy vegetables like broccoli, carrots, or cauliflower. Nutrition Vegetables are a rich source of folate, a B vitamin that helps your body make new red blood cells. Folate is especially important for children’s health and may also reduce the risk of cancer and depression. Purposes and types of vegetable farming vegetable farming, Growing of vegetable crops, primarily for use as human food. Vegetable farming operations range from small patches of 7 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. crops, producing a few vegetables for family use or marketing, to the great highly organized and mechanized farms common in industrialized countries. The three main types of large-scale vegetable farming are based on production of vegetables for the fresh market; for canning, freezing, dehydration, and pickling; and to obtain seeds for planting. Fresh market vegetables can be produced out of their normal season of outdoor production under forcing structures such as greenhouses, cold frames, and hotbeds. Specifications for vegetables for canning and freezing usually include small size, high quality, and uniformity. For seed production, the crop is ready for harvest not when the edible portion of the plant reaches the stage of maturity, but instead it must be carried through further stages of growth, and production is often carried out under isolated conditions to ensure the purity of seed yield. Profitable vegetable farming requires attention to all production operations, including insect, disease, and weed control and efficient marketing. Types of vegetable farming include: 1. Open-Field Vegetable Farming: The most common type, where vegetables are grown in open fields. 2. Alley Cropping: Certain plants are planted in rows between the rows of another type. 3. Field Rotation: A practice of changing crops in a field to maintain soil health. 4. Hydroponics: Growing vegetables in nutrient-rich water without soil. 5. Aquaponics: Combining fish farming with vegetable cultivation. 6. Vegetables farmed include: peas, beans, lentils, tomatoes, eggplants, bell peppers, potatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, lettuce, onions, garlic, carrots, and sweet corn. 8 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Vegetable farming, growing of vegetable crops, primarily for use as human food. The term vegetable in its broadest sense refers to any kind of plant life or plant product; in the narrower sense, as used in this article, however, it refers to the fresh, edible portion of a herbaceous plant consumed in either raw or cooked form. The edible portion may be a root, such as rutabaga, beet, carrot, and sweet potato; a tuber or storage stem, such as potato and taro; the stem, as in asparagus and kohlrabi; a bud, such as brussels sprouts; a bulb, such as onion and garlic; a petiole or leafstalk, such as celery and rhubarb; a leaf, such as cabbage , lettuce , parsley, spinach, and chive; an immature flower, such as cauliflower , broccoli, and artichoke; a seed, such as pea and lima bean; the immature fruit, such as eggplant, cucumber, and sweet corn (maize); or the mature fruit, such as tomato and pepper. The popular distinction between vegetable and fruit is difficult to uphold. In general, those plants or plant parts that are usually consumed with the main course of a meal are popularly regarded as vegetables, while those mainly used as desserts are considered fruits. This distinction is applied in this article. Thus, cucumber and tomato, botanically fruits, since they are the portion of the plant containing seeds, are commonly regarded as vegetables. This article treats the principles and practices of vegetable farming. For a discussion of the processing of vegetables, see the article food preservation. For information on nutritive value, see nutrition: Human nutrition and diet. Types of vegetable production Vegetable production operations range from small patches of crops, producing a few vegetables for family use or marketing, to the great, highly organized and mechanized farms common in the most technologically advanced countries. 9 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. In technologically developed countries the three main types of vegetable farming are based on production of vegetables for the fresh market, for canning, freezing, dehydration, and pickling, and to obtain seeds for planting. Production for the fresh market This type of vegetable farming is normally divided into home gardening, market gardening, truck farming, and vegetable forcing. Home gardening provides vegetables exclusively for family use. About one-fourth of an acre (one-tenth of a hectare) of land is required to supply a family of six. The most suitable vegetables are those producing a large yield per unit of area. Bean, cabbage, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, parsley, pea, pepper, radish, spinach, and tomato are desirable home garden crops. Market gardening produces assorted vegetables for a local market. The development of good roads and of motor trucks has rapidly extended available markets; the market gardener, no longer forced to confine his operations to his local market, often is able to specialize in the production of a few, rather than an assortment, of vegetables; a transformation that provides the basis for a distinction between market and truck gardening in the mid-20th century. Truck gardens produce specific vegetables in relatively large quantities for distant markets. In the method known as forcing, vegetables are produced out of their normal season of outdoor production under forcing structures that admit light and induce favorable environmental conditions for plant growth. Greenhouses, cold frames, and hotbeds are common structures used. Hydroponics, sometimes called soilless culture, allows the grower to practice automatic watering and fertilizing, thus reducing the cost of labour. To successfully compete with other fresh market producers, greenhouse vegetable growers must either produce crops 10 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. when the outdoor supply is limited or produce quality products commanding premium prices. Production for processing Processed vegetables include canned, frozen, dehydrated, and pickled products. The cost of production per unit area of land and per ton is usually less for processing crops than for the same crops grown for market because raw material appearance is not a major quality factor in processing. This difference allows lower land value, less hand labour, and lower handling cost. Although many kinds of vegetables can be processed, there are marked varietal differences within each species in adaptability to a given method. Specifications for vegetables for canning and freezing usually include small size, high quality, and uniformity. For many kinds of vegetables, a series of varieties having different dates of maturity is required to ensure a constant supply of raw material, thus enabling the factory to operate with an even flow of input over a long period. Acceptable processed vegetables should have a taste, odour, and appearance comparable with the fresh product, retain nutritive values, and have good storage stability. Vegetables raised for seed production This type of vegetable farming requires special skills and techniques. The crop is not ready for harvest when the edible portion of the plant reaches the stage of maturity; it must be carried through further stages of growth. Production under isolated conditions ensures the purity of seed yield. Special techniques are applied during the stage of flowering and seed development and also in harvesting and threshing the seeds. Production factors and techniques Profitable vegetable farming requires attention to all production operations, including insect, disease, and weed control and efficient marketing. The kind of vegetable grown is mainly determined 11 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. by consumer demands, which can be defined in terms of variety, size, tenderness, flavour, freshness, and type of pack. Effective management involves the adoption of techniques resulting in a steady flow of the desired amount of produce over the whole of the natural growing season of the crop. Many vegetables can be grown throughout the year in some climates, although yield per acre for a given kind of vegetable varies according to the growing season and region where the crop is produced. 12 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Session 1: Branches of Horticulture Horticulture is perhaps the most important branch of agriculture. It is further divided into four different branches. Pomology The term is derived from Latin words poma and logus. Poma means ‘fruit’ and logus means ‘study, knowledge or discourse’. It can be defined as a branch of horticulture, which deals with the scientific study of fruit crops. Olericulture The term is derived from Latin words olerus meaning ‘vegetables’ and cultura meaning ‘cultivation’. It can be defined as a branch of horticulture, which deals with the scientific study of vegetable crops. 13 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. Floriculture The term floriculture is derived from Latin words florus and cultura. Florus means ‘flower’ and cultura means ‘cultivation’. It can be defined as a branch of horticulture, which deals with the scientific study of flowering and ornamental crops. Landscaping is the art of beautifying a piece of land using garden designs, methods and plant material. Professionals who do landscaping are called ‘landscape architects. Post-harvest technology It is a branch of horticulture, which deals with the principles and practices of handling, packaging and processing of harvested crops to increase their storage life and availability. Vegetable crops are different from fruit crops. Some important differences between them are given in the next Table 14 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. S. No. Fruits Vegetables 1. Most fruit plants are perennials. Most vegetables are annuals. 2. Fruit plants are generally woody Vegetable plants are, in nature. generally, herbaceous and succulents. 3. They are commercially They are commercially propagated asexually. propagated sexually (by seed). 4. Fruit plants require special Vegetables are seasonal and cultural practices, i.e., training, only staking and pruning are pruning, etc. required in some crops. 5. Fruits are mostly consumed Most vegetables require fresh after ripening. cooking for consumption. Classification of vegetable crops If the growing of each vegetable is dealt with in detail, it will lead to too much repetition. It is, therefore, desirable to classify vegetable crops into certain groups as per their similarities. This will also help in studying them easily. Based on the nature of plant (stem) (a) Herbaceous and succulents: Leafy vegetables (b) Shrubs: Brinjal, chilli, tomato, etc. (c) Trees: Drumstick, jackfruit, etc. (d) Vines: Cucurbits, etc. Based on the life span (from seed-to-seed) (a) Annuals: The life span of annual plants or annuals is a season or a year, e.g., brinjal, chilli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucurbits, tomato, leafy vegetables, etc. (b) Biennials: The life span of biennials is of two seasons or two years, e.g. onion, radish, carrot, etc. 15 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. (c) Perennials: The life span of perennial plants is more than two years, e.g., drumstick (moringa), asparagus, pointed gourd, etc. Based on the method of commercial propagation (a) Sexually propagated (by seed): Brinjal, chilli, cauliflower, cabbage, cucurbits, tomato, leafy vegetables, etc. (b) Asexually propagated (vegetative parts): Asparagus, potato, sweet potato, onion, garlic, taro, etc. Cuttings: Asparagus Bulbs: Onion, garlic Rhizomes: Colocasia, ginger Tubers: Potato, sweet potato Based on the method of planting (a) Directly sown plants: Okra, leafy vegetables, carrot, radish, peas and beans (b) Transplanting: Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, potato, sweet potato, cassava, pointed gourd, etc. 16 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. (c) Crops grown from underground parts Root vegetables: Radish, carrot, turnip, beetroot Rhizome: Colocasia, ginger Bulb: Onion, garlic Tuber: Potato, sweet potato, cassava and yam Based on intercultural practices (a) Solanaceous crops: Tomato, brinjal, chilli, bell pepper, potato (b) Cole crops: Cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol, broccoli and Brussels sprouts (c) Leafy vegetables: Spinach, lettuce (d) Pods or capsules: Pea, cowpea, cluster bean, okra (e) Cucurbits: Gourds, melons, cucumber, pumpkin (f) Root crops: Carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot Based on climatic requirements (a) Temperate vegetables: Radish, potato, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol, broccoli, etc. (b) Tropical and subtropical vegetables: Watermelon, musk melon, cucumber, tomato, brinjal, chilli, etc. Based on the season of growth In Egypt, seasonal or annual vegetables can be classified according to their season of growth. Season of growth is the period in which the climatic conditions are favourable for the growth and production of a crop. (a) Cool season vegetables: These may also be called cool or winter season crops as these vegetables require low temperature for growth. The season tentatively starts from 7 October and lasts till 6 February. 17 Principle of Horticulture Dr/ M. A. Taha Hort. Dept. The sowing of seeds may be undertaken from mid-September to late October. Vegetables, like peas, radish, carrot, cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, leafy vegetables, etc., are (b) Summer or warm season vegetables: The season tentatively starts from 7 February and lasts till 6 June. The sowing of seeds may be undertaken from mid-January to late February. These crops require hot and dry climatic conditions for better growth and maximum production. Cluster bean, musk melon, cucumber, watermelon, etc., are summer season vegetables. Based on plant part used as vegetable (a) Stem and leaves: Cabbage, lettuce, spinach, coriander, etc. (b) Flowers: Broccoli (head ‘flower buds’), cauliflower (curd ‘pre- floral stage’), etc. (c) Fruits: There are various stages where the fruits of vegetable crops can be harvested for consumption, such as Ripened fruits: Watermelon, musk melon, tomato, etc. Immature and tender fruits: Cucumber, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, okra, brinjal, green chilli, cowpea, French beans, etc. (d) Seeds: Peas, etc. (e) Underground parts of plant Taproot: Tapering root growing vertically downward, e.g., carrot, radish, etc. Bulb: A fleshy leaved storage organ in some vegetables sending adventitious roots downward and leaves upward, e.g., onion, garlic, etc. Tuber: Thick, short and rounded underground stem with modified nodes and buds, e.g., potato, sweet potato, etc. Rhizome: Underground root-like stem having roots and shoots, e.g., colocasia, ginger, etc. 18