Lecture 4 2023 Media Psychology PDF

15/08/2023 Macquarie copyright statement PSYU/X3399 Psychological Science: Putting Theory Into Practice This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macqua...

15/08/2023 Macquarie copyright statement PSYU/X3399 Psychological Science: Putting Theory Into Practice This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. LECTURE 4: MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY Wayne Warburton 1 2 Social Psychology The General Aggression Model • Aggression elicited by the situation rather than the personality • Social cognition • Schemas, scripts, knowledge structures • Automaticity, priming • Learned social behaviours • Triggers and cues • Models from this sub-discipline usually start with a person-situation interaction • The General Aggression Model is a good example 3 • Craig Anderson and Brad Bushman have put together a model that incorporates a range of theories, approaches and research findings into a General Aggression Model (GAM). • In this theory, an episode of aggression firstly depends on the nature of the situation (the aspects of the situation that can trigger aggression) and what the person brings to it (the beliefs, personality factors, memories etc. that increase their readiness to aggress in that situation). 4 The General Aggression Model Craig Anderson, Brad Bushman • Whether or not someone responds to a situation with aggression depends firstly on the nature of the thoughts, feelings and physiological responses thata are aroused, This material is provided to you as and then on how much that person thinks Macquarie through University theirstudent responsefor your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 5to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 6 1 15/08/2023 Person Variables Situation Variables Increase or decrease the readiness to aggress Provide the stimulus for aggressive responses Cognitions Accessible Affects Arousal Scripts, beliefs, attitudes, biases Negative feelings: anger, hostility, fear, shame Physiological (pulse,BP) stress,anxiety Immediate Appraisal Reappraisal Enough time and cognitive capacity for controlled response? Instrumental response Yes Resources Yes No Is the automatic response bot h important and undesirable ? • All of these approaches overlap • Social psychology, the dominant aggression research discipline, uses methods and ideas from almost all other sub-disciplines • Integrated models try to incorporate as many approaches as possible • Complete model simply not possible Thoughtful Action Cont rolled evaluation Automatic, spontaneous A final word No Impulsive Action Aggressive Response Reactive response Figure 1: A schematic of the General Aggression Model. This version was synthesised from the models and descriptions presented by Anderson & Bushman, 2002, and Anderson & Dill, 2000. arousal can affect the impulse of response 7 8 From aggression to aggression in the media How much? • Now we extend our knowledge about what the Common Sense Media Poll: Average recreational media use per day. (i.e., not including school and homework) • • psychology sub-disciplines say about aggression and use it to go deeper How can we use psychology findings to develop a holistic approach to one well-researched aggression phenomena – media violence effects? Why are media effects important? Saturation for one. • Age Media Type 8-12 Media overall 8-12 Screen time Average time per day (h:m) 2015 2019 2021 5:55 4:36 High income Low income 13-18 13-18 Media overall Screen time 8:56 6:40 High income Low income 9 4:44 3:59 5:49 5:33 4:21 7:32 7:22 6:49 8:32 8:39 7:16 9:19 10 Statistics: How much? Psychology research • Huston 1992 estimated by the age of 18 US Three streams of psychology research Is there an effect? If so, what are the psychological mechanisms? Remediation children have witnessed 200,000 acts of violence and 8,000 murders on TV alone This material is provided to you as a estimate up to 40,000 murders (e.g., Macquarie• Later University student for your Crenshaw & Mordock, 2005; Gullotta et al., 2005) individual research and study purposes only. • Does take into account video games and You cannot sharenotthis material publicly other media. online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 11 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • • • 12 2 15/08/2023 Are researchers evenly split on media violence effects? Is there really an effect? Effects of violent media on kids and adults: Does violent media really have an effect? Nearly 60 years of research Over 1,000 papers on media violence Mostly about television and movies until the last 2 decades Is there some sort of consensus? • • • • • 13 Arnold Schwarzenegger and Edmund Brown v. Video Software Dealers Association and Entertainment Software Association • US Supreme Court: Fines selling VVGs to minors • 2 Amicus Curiae (friend of the court) briefs • Gruel brief – 13 authors, 102 signees (all scholars) Millett brief – 82 signees - scholars, medical scientists, industry representatives, owners, agents • Deana Pollard Sacks et al (2011) compared track records of the authors/signees for the 2 briefs • 14 Relative research records of signees The Gruel Statement • Anderson, Bartholow, Berkowitz, Brockmeyer, Bushman, Dill, Donnerstein, Gentile, Huesmann, Krahe, Moller, Sakamoto & Warburton (2010) Gruel authors Gruel signees vs Millett vs Millett signees signees Media-effects articles in top tier journals Peer-reviewed articles of original research on violence or aggression Articles on violence or aggression 1 brief = agree on media violence effects other brief = disagree 338:1 48:1 28:1 14:1 18:1 8:1 15 • “Both the American Psychological Association (APA, 2005*) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 2009) have issued formal statements stating that scientific research on violent video games clearly shows that such games are causally related to later aggressive behavior in children and adolescents.” *APA 2015 statement echoes their earlier statement 16 The Gruel Statement The Gruel Statement The effects are both immediate and long term. Violent video games have measurable and statistically significant effects on both males and females. Theoretically important effects of violent video games have been confirmed by many empirical studies. The effects have been replicated by researchers in different settings and in numerous countries. The psychological processes underlying such effects are well understood and include: imitation, observational learning, priming of cognitive, emotional and behavioral scripts, physiological arousal, and emotional desensitization. Extensive research has been conducted over many years using all three major types of research designs (experimental, and longitudinal). This materialcross-sectional, is provided to you as a Numerous original empirical research Macquarie University student for youron children studies have been conducted and adolescents. Overall, the research individual research and study purposes only. data conclude that exposure to violent You cannot share this material publicly video games causes an increase in the online without likelihood permission. of aggressive Macquarie behavior. University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 17 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 18 3 15/08/2023 ISRA Media Violence Effects Commission Findings The Gruel Statement Krahé, B., Berkowitz, L., Brockmeyer, J. H., Bushman, B. J., Coyne, S. M., Dill, K. E., Donnerstein, E., Gentile, D. A., Huesmann, L. R., Kirsch, S. J., Möller, I., & Warburton, W. A. (2012). Report of the Media Violence Commission. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 335-341. These are general processes that underlie all types of social behavior, not just aggression and violence; they have been confirmed by countless studies outside of the media violence domain. In addition to causing an increase in the likelihood of aggressive behavior, violent video games have also been found to increase aggressive thinking, aggressive feelings, physiological desensitization to violence, and to decrease pro-social behavior.” (Anderson, Bartholow, Berkowitz, Brockmeyer, Bushman, Dill, Donnerstein, Gentile, Huesmann, Krahe, Moller, Sakamoto & Warburton, 2010) 19 http://www.israsociety.com/news.html#MVReport 20 Well researched effects of violent media • Both short term and long term effects • Increases in aggressive thoughts, Other effects of violent media • Subtle long-term changes to thinking: • Hostile attributional bias • Increase in normative beliefs approving feelings and behaviour • More fearful aggression • Overestimate likelihood of being a victim • Age dependent • Emotional desensitisation to violence • Less concerned about others’ suffering • Tolerate increasing levels of violence in the • Aggressive problem solving scripts for behaviour • Decreased empathy • Decreased prosocial behaviour world around them 21 22 Anderson Warburton et al 2017 7 nation study (PSPB) HOWEVER: A risk factor approach • Violent and fairly aggressive behaviour always has multiple contributing risk factors • These may include personality traits, type of This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 23 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. family and peer environment, access to weapons, mental health issues etc. • These can be balanced by protective factors – caring community, warm parenting, peers etc. • No one factor is necessary or sufficient to cause violence BUT Media violence exposure is one risk we can change • 24 4 15/08/2023 Anderson Warburton et al 2017 7 nation study Size of the Effect Risk factors for aggression: Smoking & Lung Cancer Media violence & aggression 28% 1. Peer delinquency Condom use & sexually transmitted HIV Secondhand smoke & lung cancer 2. Media violence 3. Peer victimisation 4. Neighbourhood crime 5. Gender (being male) 6. Abusive parenting Lead exposure & children’s IQ scores Nicotine patch & smoking cessation Calcium intake & bone mass Homework & school achievement Asbestos exposure & laryngeal cancer Self-exam & extent of breast cancer -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Correlation Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2001). Media violence and the American Public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist. 25 26 Size of the Effect Size of the Effect Smoking & Lung Cancer Smoking & Lung Cancer Media violence & aggression Media violence & aggression Condom use & sexually transmitted HIV Condom use & sexually transmitted HIV Secondhand smoke & lung cancer Secondhand smoke & lung cancer Lead exposure & children’s IQ scores Lead exposure & children’s IQ scores Nicotine patch & smoking cessation Nicotine patch & smoking cessation Calcium intake & bone mass Calcium intake & bone mass Homework & school achievement Homework & school achievement Asbestos exposure & laryngeal cancer Asbestos exposure & laryngeal cancer Self-exam & extent of breast cancer -0.2 Self-exam & extent of breast cancer -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.2 0.4 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Correlation Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2001). Media violence and the American Public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist. 27 Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2001). Media violence and the American Public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist. 28 Size of the Effect Size of the Effect Smoking & Lung Cancer Smoking & Lung Cancer Media violence & aggression Video game violence & aggression Condom use & sexually transmitted HIV Condom use & sexually transmitted HIV Secondhand smoke & lung cancer Secondhand smoke & lung cancer Lead exposure & children’s IQ scores Lead exposure & children’s IQ scores Nicotine patch & smoking cessation Nicotine patch & smoking cessation This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 Correlation University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 29 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Calcium intake & bone mass Calcium intake & bone mass Homework & school achievement Homework & school achievement Asbestos exposure & laryngeal cancer Asbestos exposure & laryngeal cancer Self-exam & extent of breast cancer effect size is not too small Self-exam & extent of breast cancer -0.2 0.3 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2001). Media violence and the American Public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist. Adapted from Bushman & Anderson (2001) Media violence and the American Public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, with video game violence figure from largest to date meta-analysis, Anderson et al 2010, Psychological Bulletin. Effect sizes for violent media and aggression range from ~.10 to ~.40. 30 5 15/08/2023 Research Stream 2: Underlying psychological/neuro processes a) Biology and brain Several imaging teams examining this John Murray et al provided these interesting findings at Children and Media conference this March (these are his slides) See also Murray et al, 2006. • • Ed Donnerstein, 2011 These effects seem to be common for all media. Several theories as to why. • There is no debate on whether there is an effect - as it is clear it does affect people 31 32 33 34 Processing and Reactions to TV Violence Processing and Reactions to TV Violence Observations of TV Violence Encoding of Aggressive Scripts Observations of TV Violence Greater Interest in TV Violence Frustration and Situational Readiness to Aggress This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly Aggressive Reactions to online without permission. Macquarie Interpersonal Conflict University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 35 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Rehearsal of Scripts by Imitative Behavior and Fantasy Decreased Popularity Increased Accessibility of Aggressive Scripts Encoding of Aggressive Scripts Rehearsal of Scripts by Imitative Behavior and Fantasy Greater Interest in TV Violence Little known about how the Frustration and brain Situational processes violent Readiness to Aggress imagery… Decreased Popularity Lowered Academic Achievement Increased Accessibility of Aggressive Scripts Greater Identification with TV Characters Lowered Academic Can we investigate Achievement experimentally? Greater Identification with TV Characters Aggressive Reactions to Interpersonal Conflict Adapted from Rowell Huesmann (2000) 36 6 15/08/2023 fMRI Data Acquisition Setup Brain-mapping Study at the University of Texas ▪ Funded by the Mind Science Foundation ▪ Performed at the UT Health Science Center in San Antonio, Texas ◦ Pilot fMRI study of 8 children ages 8 to 12 ◦ Compared activations of violent and non-violent TV fMRI Projector Mirror 37 38 Three Video Clips Tested Brainmapping Data – Aggregated Slices ▪ Mapping shows (Violent Activations – Non-violent Activations) Subjects shown two 3minute clips of three different types of video: Violent, Non-Violent, and Fixation National Geographic animal doco, not Bambi 39 40 Findings: Impulse control This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 41 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • Reduced involvement of prefrontal cortex • Consistently replicated • This suggests that when experiencing • violent media, the part of the brain that thinks through consequences and inhibits aggressive impulses is ‘turned down’ See Wang et al 2009; Hummer et al, 2010 42 7 15/08/2023 Limbic system dont have control over it • Activation of limbic system, starting with • • • amygdala Increase in emotional responses Activation of the ‘old’ parts of brain that respond to threat and prepare us for action, such as fight or flight •(do not separate real from virtual’) Responses may be more automatic, less thought through 43 Memory storage • Activation in posterior cingulate • According to Murray, images of violence seem to be stored in this part of the brain • Pattern is similar to that found for the storage of trauma memories in PTSD patients • Such memories are easily recalled and may intrude on thoughts. 44 Summary of Brainmapping Data by Area Left Hemisphere Emotion processing Right Hemisphere • Significantly more activation in right hemisphere of brain • Significant emotional processing of seen screen violence emotions • especially negative emotions (these include Limbic Temporal Frontal anger, jealousy, sadness etc.) Parietal Occipital Normalized Volume Activated Pixels (cm 3) 45 46 Other findings: Desensitisation Brain imaging findings overall • Many studies now. Gentile et al (2016) fMRI and EEG/MEG studies consistently show that while engaging with violent media there is: Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex Reduction in key executive functions including attention to tasks Reduction in inhibitory control More activity in centres that produce unconsidered action such as fight or flight Desensitisation to the suffering of others • Tested habitual players of violent versus • • • • non-violent games This material is provided to you as increase a • Nonviolent gamers had an in Macquarie University student for your emotional response regions when playing the violentand game (same finding asonly. Murray) individual research study purposes gamers demonstrated a different You cannot• Violent share this material publicly pattern: An active suppression of these online without Macquarie samepermission. regions. University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 47 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • 48 8 15/08/2023 Other Brainmapping Studies Other Brainmapping Studies • Matthews and colleagues (Indiana Medical School) • Short Term Exposure to a Violent Video Game • Grafman et al (National Institutes of Health) • Lower Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortex Density Associated Induces Changes in Frontolimbic Circuitry in Adolescents. (2009) Brain Imaging and Behavior. Wang, Mathews, et al. • Media Violence Exposure and Frontal Lobe Activation Measured by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Aggressive and Nonaggressive Adolescents. (2005) Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. Matthews, Kronenberger, et al. 49 • • With More Frequent Exposure to Television and Movie Violence in Male Adolescents. (2009) Journal of Adolescent Health. Strenziok, Grafman, et al. Fronto-Parietal Regulation of Media Violence Exposure in Adolescents: A Multi-Method Study. (2010/prepub) Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Strenziok, Grafman, et al. Developmental Effects of Aggressive Behavior in Male Adolescents Assessed With Structural and Functional Brain Imaging, (2011) Strenziok, Grafman, et al. 50 Repeated violent game playing Learning, rehearsal and reinforcement of aggression-related knowledge structures b) Psychological acquisition • Associative Learning; Pairing of • • Aggressive beliefs & attitudes aggressive behaviour with multiple cues Aggression rewarded and not punished Imitation Aggressive perceptual schemata Aggressive expectation schemata Aggressive behaviour scripts Aggressive desensitization Increase in aggressive personality • Mirror neurons • Identify with and copy aggressive characters, esp. if attractive, heroic, rewarded, high status etc. • More aggression-related concepts and Person variables Situation variables e.g., aggressive personality e.g., current social situation, peers scripts for behaviour in neural network. • Desensitisation 51 Processes as described in General Aggression Model 52 c) Psychological remediation Reduction of aggression in locked facility after MTV removal (Waite et al) Waite et al., 1992 Maximum security forensic hospital. Measured aggression in 222 patients for 33 (not guiltytobyyou insanity, This materialweeks is provided as acivil patients with severe behavioural problems, inmates Macquarie University student for your with personality disintegration) Removedand MTVstudy purposes only. individual research Measured aggression after 22 weeks You cannot share this material publicly Significant reduction in aggression (see next slide) online without permission. Macquarie Type of aggression Verbal aggression Against objects Against others Against self • • • • • University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 53 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. can lead to changes in personality % Reduction 32.4 51.7 47.5 5.5 •Anecdotal evidence from Australia 54 9 15/08/2023 Media and the whole person Media and the whole person • Violent media use may be clinically important, • Changes to neural networks via learning – especially regarding aggressive behaviour and screen-based addictions (Gaming Disorder, IGD) • Most theories revolve around cognitive networks • Effects are relevant to children. Young brains are developing quickly, and children have less life experience for context, so changes to neural networks in response to media are important Violent media seems to activate emotion centres and bypass behavioural inhibition mechanisms such as those in frontal lobe • Patterns of brain activation may be indicative of associative, instrumental, imitative internal psychological processes • Visual dominance in perception • Does media effect some types of people more? Jury still out on personality factors. • Learn about relationships and conflict resolution • 55 from media as well as other sources • A social phenomenon; something we talk about, identify with. 56 Media and the whole person Media and the whole person • The whole person: You are what you eat. • Look at the readings, think through how the subdisciplines in psychology give a series of perspectives on aggressive behaviour. • Think about how each contributes a small part to understanding aggression in the whole person • Xx was aggressive. What may have contributed? • What about a parent grappling with decisions about media for their children? How does a child work out how to integrate media use in their own life? What factors and issues are important? • How would you advise a parent as a practitioner? • A healthy media diet • Moderation, self-awareness, good decision making are as important for media as for other aspects of personal development. 57 58 For more information and a summary of research findings.to you as a This material is provided for student for your MacquarieWritten University parents and individual research and study purposes only. professionals who You cannotwork share material publicly withthis children online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence 59 to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 10