Lecture Notes Indigenous Peoples Of Philippines PDF

**INDIGENOUS** \- originating or occurring naturally in a particular place, native. Indigenous peoples of the Philippines are ethnolinguistic groups or subgroups that maintain partial isolation or independence throughout the colonial era, and have retained much of their traditional pre-colonial cu...

**INDIGENOUS** \- originating or occurring naturally in a particular place, native. Indigenous peoples of the Philippines are ethnolinguistic groups or subgroups that maintain partial isolation or independence throughout the colonial era, and have retained much of their traditional pre-colonial culture and practices The Philippines has 110 ethnolinguistic groups comprising the Philippines\' Indigenous peoples; as of 2010, these groups numbered at around 14-17 million persons **REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8371** AN ACT TO RECOGNIZE, PROTECT AND PROMOTE THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS CULTURAL COMMUNITIES/INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, CREATING A NATIONAL COMMISSION ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, ESTABLISHING IMPLEMENTING MECHANISMS, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES **REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8371** INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RIGHTS ACT OF 1997 AN ACT TO RECOGNIZE, PROTECT AND PROMOTE THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS CULTURAL COMMUNITIES/INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, CREATING A NATIONAL COMMISSION ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, ESTABLISHING IMPLEMENTING MECHANISMS, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES **BASIC RIGHTS UNDER RA 8371** - - - - - - - - Indigenous peoples in Norther Luzon are found mostly in the Cordillera Administrative Region, where various Igorot groups such as Bontos, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankanaey,Tingulan,Karao, and Kalanguya exist. Other Indigenous groups living in the Cordillera\'s adjacent regions are the Gaddang of → Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela: llongot of Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Aurora; Isinay. primarilyof NuevaVizcaya: Aeta of Zambales , Tarlac, Pampanga, Bataan, Nueva Eclia; and the Ivatan of Batanes Upland and lowland Indigenous groups are concentrated on western Visayas, although there are several upland groups such as the Mangyan living in Mindoro. Palawan, the larges\'t province in the Philippines, is ho me to several indigenous ethnolinguistic groups namely. the Kagayanen, Tagbanwa, Palawano, Taaw\'t Bato, Molbog, and Batak tribes. They live in remote villages in the mountains and coastal areas. Among the most important Indigenous groups in Mindanao are collectively called the Lumad. These include the Manobo; the Talaandig. Higaonon and Bukidnon people of Bukidnon: the Bagobo, Mandaya, Mansaka, Tagakaule of the Davao Region who inhabit the mountains bordering Davao Gulf: the Kalagan peoplé who live in lowland areas and seashores of Davao del Norte, Compostela Valley, Davao Oriental and some seashores in Davao del Sur, the Subanon of upland areas in Zamboanga; the Mamanwa in the Agusan-Surigao border region; and the Blaan, Teduray and Tboli of the region of Cotabato **What are the indigenous craft in the Philippines** **Philippines Indigenous Art FormsExplored** - - - - - - - - **INDIGENOUS MATERIALS** - - - - - - - **What is the Most Popular Craft in the Philippines**? - - - - - - - «Leathertraft. Leathercraftis a popular craft in the Filippines, with many artisans creating leather goods such as bags, wallets, and shoes. 1. a. \- Bontoc is a municipality located in the Mountain Province of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) in northern Luzon, Philippines. It serves as the provincial capital of Mountain Province. \- The Bontoc people are one of the many indigenous groups that make up the Igorot tribe, which is a collective term for the indigenous peoples of the Cordillera region. The Igorots, including the Bontoc, have a rich cultural heritage, with traditions like rice terracing and elaborate rituals that revolve around agriculture and community. \- Bontoc is situated in a mountainous area, characterized by the famous Banaue Rice Terraces and lush green landscapes. It is a part of the central Cordilleras and is known for its relatively cooler climate compared to the lowlands. The Bontoc people have traditionally engaged in agriculture, weaving, and pottery, with a society structured around kinship and community practices. b. \- The Bontoc tribe is part of the larger Igorot ethnolinguistic group that inhabits the mountainous region of the Cordilleras in northern Luzon, Philippines. The Bontoc people trace their origins to the ancient indigenous inhabitants of the Cordillera Mountains, and their history is deeply intertwined with the environment and agricultural practices that have sustained them for centuries. c. \- The Bontoc people, like other indigenous groups in the Cordillera region of the Philippines, exhibit distinct physical features shaped by their environment and genetic heritage. Some of the common physical features of the Bontoc tribe include: 1\. Stature **-** The Bontoc people are genera hilly of medium height, though slightly shorter compared to Western averages. This is typical of many indigenous groups in the region. \- Their sturdy build is often a result of their agricultural lifestyle, which involves working in the rice terraces and mountainous terrain. 2\. Complexion \- The Bontoc people have a brown skin tone (kayumanggi), typical of many Southeast Asian and Austronesian groups. This skin tone is well-suited to the tropical environment of the Philippines, particularly the highland sun exposure. 3\. Facial Features \- Their facial features often include a broad, rounded face, with high cheekbones, a characteristic found in many indigenous peoples of the Philippines. \- The Bontoc have almond-shaped, deep-set eyes, which are slightly slanted, a feature common among Austronesian and other Asian populations. \- Their noses tend to be flat to moderately broad, with low bridges. 4\. Hair \- The Bontoc people typically have straight or slightly wavy, black hair. It is often thick and coarse, which is a common feature among many indigenous and Southeast Asian groups. \- Traditionally, men and women wore their hair long, though men would sometimes cut their hair shorter during times of headhunting or in certain ceremonies. 5\. Body Strength \- As agriculturalists living in a rugged, mountainous region, the Bontoc people developed strong physiques. The labor-intensive work of farming, especially constructing and maintaining rice terraces, contributes to their physical strength and endurance. 6\. Clothing and Adornment \- Traditional Bontoc attire highlights their physical features. Men typically wore a \"wanes\" (loincloth), while women wore \"lufid\" (wrap-around skirts), leaving much of the upper body exposed, displaying their toned, muscular physiques. \- Tattooing was an important cultural practice among the Bontoc, with tattoos symbolizing status, achievements, and bravery, particularly among men. These tattoos would often adorn their arms, chest, and back, enhancing their appearance and indicating their warrior status. d. \- The culture and beliefs of the Bontoc tribe are deeply rooted in their connection to nature, community, and tradition. As one of the indigenous groups of the Cordillera region in northern Luzon, Philippines, the Bontoc people have maintained many of their ancient customs and beliefs, even with the influence of colonization and modernization. Here's an overview of their key cultural practices and belief systems: 1\. Religion and Spiritual Beliefs: Animism and Ancestral Worship: The traditional religion of the Bontoc people is animistic, with a strong belief in the existence of spirits in nature (such as in trees, rivers, mountains) and the reverence of ancestors. These spirits, or \"anitos,\" are believed to have the power to influence their daily lives, health, and the success of their crops. Sacrifices and Rituals: Rituals, or \"cañaos,\" are an essential part of Bontoc life, usually performed to honor deities and ancestral spirits or to ensure good harvests and the well-being of the community. These rituals often involve the sacrifice of chickens or pigs, accompanied by feasts and dancing. A \"mangngao,\" a traditional 2\. Agriculture and Rice Terracing: Rice Terracing: The Bontoc, like other Cordillera groups, are known for their agricultural skills, especially in rice farming. They construct rice terraces, which are carefully built into the mountainsides. These terraces, while most famously associated with the Ifugao, are also prevalent in Bontoc society and demonstrate their ingenuity in adapting to a challenging environment. Agricultural Festivals: Many of the tribe's rituals and festivals revolve around agriculture, particularly the rice planting and harvesting seasons. They offer sacrifices and perform rituals to ensure fertility, abundant crops, and to thank the gods for a good harvest., would often lead these ceremonies. 3\. Headhunting Tradition: Legacy of Headhunting: One of the most distinctive and feared aspects of Bontoc culture in the past was their practice of headhunting. Headhunting was not just warfare; it was linked to their beliefs about fertility, protection, and the warrior's transition into manhood. Successful headhunters were revered in the community, and headhunting rituals were often performed to honor the spirits and ancestors. This practice, however, ceased in the early 20th century due to colonial interventions, particularly by the American colonial government. 4\. Social Structure and Community Life: Kinship and Community: The Bontoc people live in small, closely-knit villages called \"ili.\" Each ili is made up of several clans, which are extended families connected by blood or marriage. Family ties are highly valued, and communal decision-making is practiced, often led by elders who hold authority. Ato and Ulog: The \"ato\" is a central institution in Bontoc society, functioning as a gathering place for men, especially during important community meetings or rituals. Boys are also trained here in the traditions and customs of the tribe. The \"ulog\" is a similar structure for women. Both ato and ulog serve as training grounds for younger generations to learn about their cultural responsibilities and social roles. 5\. Marriage and Family Life: Marriage Traditions: Marriage among the Bontoc is generally arranged by the families, with careful attention to social ties and community harmony. The families exchange goods, including food, animals, or other valuable items, as a form of dowry. Gender Roles: Men and women in Bontoc society traditionally have distinct but complementary roles. Men are responsible for heavy labor, such as building rice terraces and hunting, while women take charge of household duties and weaving. 6\. Traditional Clothing and Adornment: Weaving and Clothing: The Bontoc are known for their traditional woven garments. Men traditionally wear the \"wanes\" (loincloth), while women wear the \"lufid\" (a wrap-around skirt). Both genders often wore minimal clothing due to the warm climate, though during special occasions, more elaborate garments were worn. Tattooing: Tattoos were significant in Bontoc society, particularly for men. Tattoos were marks of achievement, often gained after a headhunting expedition, and were symbols of bravery and status within the tribe. 7\. Music, Dance, and Oral Traditions: Chants and Oral Epics: Bontoc culture has a rich oral tradition, where stories, myths, and history are passed down through generations via chants, songs, and epics. These oral traditions include tales of the gods, the origins of the people, and their relationship with nature. Dance and Music: Traditional dances often accompany rituals and celebrations. Music is played using gongs and bamboo instruments during their rituals and feasts. 8\. Canao (Feasts and Festivals): The Canao is one of the most important events in Bontoc culture, serving as a celebration for various milestones, including marriages, victories in battle (in the past), and successful harvests. These festivals involve communal feasts, music, dancing, and rituals, with everyone in the village participating. 9\. Death and Burial Practices: Beliefs about Death: The Bontoc believe that death is a transition to the afterlife, where spirits join their ancestors. Burial customs include preparing the body with rituals to ensure that the deceased will be welcomed in the spirit world. Burial Rites: Traditional burials involved placing the body in a fetal position, wrapped in cloth, and sometimes placed in wooden coffins. Burial sites were often within the community or near rice fields, reflecting their belief in maintaining close ties with ancestors. e. \- The Bontoc tribe, one of the indigenous groups of the Cordillera region in the Philippines, has preserved many of its customs and traditions despite modern influences. These customs are deeply rooted in their daily life, agricultural practices, social structure, and spiritual beliefs. Below are some of the key customs and traditions of the Bontoc people: 1\. Rituals and Ceremonies: Cañao (Feast or Festival): Cañao is the most important social and religious gathering among the Bontoc and other Igorot tribes. It is held to mark significant events such as harvests, weddings, community peace pacts, and healing rituals. The community gathers to offer sacrifices (typically pigs or chickens), perform rituals, dance, play gongs, and share food. It is a communal celebration of life and thanksgiving to the spirits. Agricultural Rituals: Many of the tribe's customs revolve around agriculture, particularly rice farming. They perform rituals before planting and after harvest to ensure good yields. Offerings and sacrifices are made to the gods and spirits who are believed to control the growth of crops. They also have a special post-harvest thanksgiving ritual. Healing Rituals: When someone in the community falls ill, healing rituals are performed, which involve prayers, offerings, and sometimes the slaughtering of animals. The sick person's recovery is attributed to the appeasement of spirits or ancestors. 2\. Head-hunting Tradition (Historical): In the past, the Bontoc practiced headhunting, known as \"kayaw,\" which was considered a rite of passage for men and a way to protect their territory. It was believed that headhunting provided fertility, strength, and protection for the community. Young men who took part in successful headhunting raids were honored and gained status within the tribe. The practice has since been abandoned, largely due to colonial intervention in the early 20th century. Headhunting was also tied to their spiritual beliefs, as the Bontoc believed the human head held spiritual power that could benefit the tribe. 3\. Marriage Customs: Arranged Marriages: Traditionally, marriages were often arranged by the families of the bride and groom. The Bontoc people placed high value on family ties, so marriages were arranged to strengthen relationships between clans or families. In some cases, a matchmaker or elder would help arrange the union. Bride Price and Dowry: A form of bride price or dowry was exchanged, which included pigs, chickens, or agricultural products. This exchange symbolized the joining of two families and was an important part of the marriage process. Wedding Celebrations: The wedding ceremony is accompanied by feasts, dancing, and music. It is a communal event where the entire village takes part in celebrating the union of two individuals and their families. 4\. Tattooing: Tattooing is an important tradition in Bontoc culture, particularly for men. Tattoos, or \"chaklag,\" were seen as a mark of courage, status, and achievement, especially for warriors who had taken part in headhunting raids. The more tattoos a man had, the higher his status in the community. For women, tattoos were symbols of beauty and maturity. These tattoos often covered the arms, chest, and back, and they were also seen as a rite of passage into adulthood. 5\. Weaving and Traditional Clothing: Weaving: The Bontoc people are known for their intricate weaving skills. They produce colorful woven textiles that are used for traditional clothing. These textiles are made from natural fibers such as cotton and are dyed using natural dyes. The patterns and colors in the textiles often have symbolic meanings, representing various aspects of their culture, such as fertility, protection, and social status. Clothing: Traditional clothing is simple but meaningful. Men wear the \"wanes\" (loincloth), while women wear the \"lufid\" (wrap-around skirt). For special occasions and ceremonies, they wear more elaborate versions of these garments, adorned with beads and traditional accessories. Women often accessorize with beaded necklaces and brass bracelets. 6\. Ato and Ulog (Community Gathering Centers): Ato: The \"ato\" is a central institution in Bontoc society, serving as a meeting place for men and elders. It is where important community decisions are made, disputes are settled, and cultural teachings are passed down to younger generations. Boys are also trained here in the customs and responsibilities of adulthood. Ulog: The \"ulog\" is the female counterpart of the ato, serving as a communal place for women, where they conduct their own gatherings and social events. Both the ato and ulog play vital roles in maintaining the cultural fabric and social structure of the community. 7\. Death and Burial Customs: Beliefs about Death: The Bontoc people believe that death is a transition to the afterlife, where spirits join their ancestors. There are specific rituals that guide the deceased into the next life, and the family must observe these customs to ensure that the spirit does not bring harm to the living. Burial Practices: Traditionally, the dead were buried in a seated or fetal position, wrapped in cloth, and sometimes placed in wooden coffins. The body would be buried near the rice fields or within the community, reflecting their belief in staying close to their ancestors. Mourning Rituals: After a person dies, the family and community observe a period of mourning, during which specific rituals are followed to ensure the safe passage of the soul to the spirit world. Feasting and offerings are also part of the burial customs, with the belief that these offerings would help the deceased in the afterlife. 8\. Music and Dance: Music and dance play an essential role in Bontoc culture, particularly during rituals and ceremonies. The main musical instrument is the gangsa (flat gongs), which are played during rituals, feasts, and celebrations. The gongs are usually accompanied by other traditional instruments like bamboo flutes and drums. Dances are performed to mark important events such as harvest festivals, weddings, and religious rituals. The dances often mimic the movements of daily life or nature, such as planting rice or mimicking birds. Both men and women participate in these communal dances. 9\. Storytelling and Oral Traditions: The Bontoc people have a rich oral tradition, where stories, myths, and epics are passed down from generation to generation. These stories often explain natural phenomena, the origins of their people, and lessons in morality. Storytelling is also a way of preserving their history and transmitting cultural knowledge to the younger generations. 10\. Peace Pacts (Bodong): Bodong (Peace Pacts): The Bontoc tribe, like other Cordilleran groups, practices bodong, a traditional peace pact between tribes or villages. This system helps prevent conflicts and maintain peace between different communities. When disputes arise between two groups, the bodong leaders mediate to settle the issue through negotiation and peaceful agreement. The bodong is a crucial part of maintaining harmony and preventing warfare between different tribes in the region. 11\. Agriculture and Subsistence: Rice Terracing and Farming: The Bontoc are highly skilled agriculturalists. They construct rice terraces on the mountain slopes, which are similar to those built by their Ifugao neighbors. Rice is the staple food and is central to their way of life. In addition to rice, they grow root crops, vegetables, and fruits, and they raise livestock like pigs and chickens. Farming Festivals: Farming-related activities are often accompanied by rituals and festivals to seek blessings for good weather, protection from pests, and bountiful harvests. **AGUILAR, JOHN CHRISTIAN C.** f. WEAVING -- Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting.  WOODCARVING -- Wood carving is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object.  BEADWORK: Beadwork is a decorative craft that involves using beads to create various items, including jewellery, clothing, and accessories  BASKETRY: Basketry is a traditional craft that involves weaving materials such as bamboo, rattan, and other natural fibers to create various functional and decorative items.  g. The community of Bontoc, located in the Philippines, faces several issues, including: Economic Challenges: Limited job opportunities and reliance on agriculture can lead to poverty and underemployment. Infrastructure Development: Inadequate transportation and basic services hinder access to education and healthcare. Environmental Concerns: Deforestation and climate change impact agriculture and local biodiversity. Healthcare: Access to healthcare services can be limited, with some residents needing to travel long distances for treatment. Education: There are disparities in educational resources and infrastructure, affecting the ability of students to access quality education. **2. IBALOI** a. The Ibaloi people are an indigenous group primarily located in the northern part of the Philippines, particularly in the province of Benguet in the Cordillera Administrative Region. Their traditional territory includes areas around the city of Baguio and the municipalities of Itogon, Tuba, La Trinidad, and others in the region. The Ibaloi are known for their rich cultural heritage, including their traditional practices, crafts, and agricultural methods. b. The Ibaloi (also spelled Ibaloy; Ibaloi: ivadoy, /ivaˈdoj/) are an indigenous ethnic group found in Benguet province of the northern Philippines.Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying \"pertaining to\" and badoy or house, together then meaning \"people who live in houses\". c. The Ibaloi people typically have physical features which can include: 1. 2. 3. 4. These features may vary among individuals due to intermarriage and regional diversity, but these characteristics are common within the Ibaloi community. Additionally, their traditional attire, often made from brightly colored woven fabrics, showcases their cultural identity. Ibaloi culture is rich in traditions, including vibrant festivals, music, and dance, often tied to agricultural cycles. Their beliefs center around animism, reverence for nature, and ancestor worship, reflecting a deep connection to their land. Rituals play a key role, especially in farming and healing, with community participation being essential. They also have strong social structures and oral traditions that preserve their history and values. **ALVAREZ, JHERIAN ISABELA D.** Tradition of Mummification - The Ibalois, especially the affluent families, have an ancient tradition of preserving a loved one\'s dead body through mummification. It is a complicated process that takes about weeks or months and sometimes even years to accomplish. Explanation- Preservation of the physical body was the main purpose of mummification. In earlier times, before building tombs became common. the Ibaloi tribe is the only tribal group that creates mummies in the Philippines \*only tribal leaders were mummified, most mummies are heavily tattooed. Cañao Tradition - A popular native feast amongst the Ibalois is the Cañao Tradition. It is a thanksgiving ritual that refers to several native feasts of the Ibaloi and Benguet people. Explanation - A ritual is performed to appease the spirits, seek approval, or simply to give thanks or appreciation. Tapuy is an important offering since rice was a special commodity in the past and was only served during special occasions. Music is another integral part of the Ibaloi tradition. They use traditional instruments like the gangsa (gongs) to create melodies that accompany their rituals and celebrations. Explanation - These musical traditions have been passed down through generations, preserving the unique soundscapes of the Ibaloi culture. MARRIAGE & WEDDING CUSTOMS The native Ibalois practiced parental marriage, that is, parents chose their children\'s mates. Explanation -This marriage custom eventually waned, however, due to sad experiences on the part of the children who were not paired off well. The parents of both bride and groom still decide on what to do during the wedding feast and ceremony. The groom\'s parents who shoulder most of the wedding expenses do most of the decision making. An Ibaloi wedding celebration is held at the bride\'s house. Although the dowry system is not observed, it is a must that animals like carabaos, cows or pigs be butchered for the wedding celebration which lasts from two to five days or even longer, especially for rich families. It is considered disgraceful for both parties if no animals are butchered. The Ibaloi people are known for their artistic talents, which manifest in various forms. Their arts and crafts include pottery, woodcarving, and intricate basketry. Explanation - Basket weaving is done by the men. The women\'s favorite basket is the kayabang, The shage consists of two finely woven bamboo or rattan covers meeting at the center so that the result is a square basket. Ibaloy wood carving is utilitarian, hence plain and simple. The palting is a wooden pouch with an elliptical base and smoothly curving sides Salaw, a porcelain and earthernware jars or pots. It is especially used not only for making rice wine (tapey) but also for cooling water and salting meat. The Ibaloi ethnic group faces various challenges, including: Economic Challenges: Many Ibaloi people rely on agriculture, but they encounter issues like land loss, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to markets. Environmental Issues: Deforestation and mining activities threaten their ancestral lands, impacting their livelihoods and cultural heritage. Social Inequality: They often face marginalization and limited political representation, affecting their ability to advocate for their rights. Explanation - Economic Challenges: Agriculture is a primary source of income, yet many Ibaloi farmers struggle with outdated farming techniques and lack access to technology or financial resources. This hampers their productivity and economic stability. Environmental Issues: The push for mining and logging in Ibaloi territories has led to significant environmental degradation, threatening their natural resources and traditional ways of life. Water sources and forests are increasingly under threat. Social Inequality: The Ibaloi often face systemic marginalization, with limited representation in local and national governance. This makes it difficult for them to advocate for their rights and access essential services. **3. IFUGAO** a. Ifugao is located in Ifugao province in the Philippines situated in the Cordillera Administrative Region occupying the northern-central section of Luzon.They reside in the municipalities of Lagawe (capital of Ifugao). Also in Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan, Lamut, Mayoyao, and Tinoc. b. Three prominent theories proposed by scholars regarding the origin and migration of the Ifugaos are: Henry Otley Beyer\'s Theory: Beyer suggests that the ancestors of the Ifugaos belonged to the first wave of Malays who migrated to the Philippines from Southeast Asia. 2.Felix Keesing\'s Theory: Keesing proposed that the present-day Ifugaos are descendants of people who originally lived in Central Cagayan Valley. 3.Criticisms and Alternative Views: Other scholars have criticized both Beyer\'s and Keesing\'s theories. They argue that there is insufficient evidence to support the direct migration routes proposed by Beyer, particularly regarding cultural similarities between different regions. Explanation - According to this theory, these ancestors settled initially around Lingayen Gulf before migrating northwards They traversed through Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, and eventually reached Ifugao, where they constructed rice terraces, starting in Banaue. Beyer\'s theory emphasizes the continuity of migration patterns from the lowlands to the highlands, with the construction of rice terraces as a marker of cultural identity. According to this theory, some of these people migrated to Nueva Vizcaya and others to the mountains of what is now Ifugao due to Spanish colonization in Cagayan and Isabela. Keesing\'s theory suggests a different migration pattern, emphasizing displacement and refuge-seeking in response to external pressures. Additionally, the assumption that rice terracing and gabi cultivation are unique to Ifugao culture has been challenged, suggesting that these practices are more widespread and not exclusive to Ifugao territory. **AMILA, MICHAEL GEMS G.** c. The Ifugao people, primarily from the mountainous region of the Philippines, have distinctive physical features shaped by their environment and heritage. They often have medium to tall statures, with skin tones ranging from light to dark brown. Their facial features may include high cheekbones, straight hair, and expressive eyes. Traditional Ifugao attire, such as the \"wanes\" for men and \"tapis\" for women, also reflects their cultural identity. Additionally, their physical build is often lean and muscular, a result of their agrarian lifestyle and the physically demanding nature of rice farming in the terraces. d. Social classes exist in Ifugao society, and these are based on wealth, indicated by the possession of heirloom objects such as antique porcelain; sacrificial animals like carabaos, pigs, and chickens; other household items of value; and a considerable amount of money. The hagabi lounge chair is a status symbol, indicating that the family belongs to the kadangyan (aristocracy). Those who were captured during head-taking excursions belong to the nawotwot (lower class). To this group also belong the field workers who do not own land but serve the kadangyan either as servants or tenants. In between the two classes are the natumok, who may own small pieces of land, but these are not sufficient to give them a year-round harvest. The rich Ifugao usually command authority, although fair treatment is accorded to all. Ordinarily, the rich belong to the mombaki (shaman) clan who perform marriages, recite myths during marriages and victory feasts, and offer animal sacrifices and prayers for the recovery of sick people. BELIEFS. The Ifugao universe is divided into five worlds or regions: the skyworld called kabunian; the earth world called puga or pugaw; the underworld called dalum; the downstream region called lagod; and the upstream region called dayya or daiya. Beneath the underworld is a substream called dagah-na. All the regions of the universe are inhabited by thousands of deities and spirits; yet, there is no supreme deity. Deities are Matungulan, gods and goddesses of plenty or the godof all worlds; Dimapon, god of fortune: Manahaot, god of sorcery and deception; Bagob, god of harvest; Bulul, god of the idols; Montalong, god of humans; Bibiyo, fairy gods; and Mabaki, gods and goddesses of war. These deities are known only to the mombaki, whose training and preparation for this position take a number of years. e. In the Kiangan district, the rich are composed of three groups: the kadangyan, ordinary rich; the ballihung or immuyya-uy, the middle elite; and the himagabi, the wealthiest. Feasts are a measure of an Ifugao's prestige or rank. Reasons for holding them are "abundance in life; a miraculous increase in rice, pigs and chickens; and quick growth of children" (Barton 1946, 126), all perceived as divine gifts. There are five occasions for the holding of prestige feasts: the uyuawe or baiyah, in which chickens' bile sacs are examined for omens; the balog, in which the host indicates his rank with a wooden stick to which is attached hanging leaves and knives; the kolat or lotob, which marks the male heir's first haircut; the hagabi, when the hagabi bench is made or taken into the owner's house; and the kamalig, when a wooden floor, instead of the cheaper runo mat, is laid underneat BAKI OR RITUALS Baki or rituals express the Ifugao's religious beliefs and are led by the mombaki. A ritual may consist of the following steps: the gonod or invocation to the deities or ancestors by name; the dayum or prayer to the deities; the aiyag, in which the mombaki invites the ancestors to come and possess him; the hikkop, in which an ancestor or deity possesses the mombaki; and the tobal, in which the mombaki exhorts the possessing deity or ancestor by expressing the purpose of the feast and the will of the people. Offerings are always part of the rites performed. These consist of betel nut, chicken claw, feathers, rice wine, pigs, dogs, and chickens. In minor rites, the dried skin and inner layer of the pig's jowls are offered. It is taboo for the people, even for the mombaki, to eat this part of the pig. The more important rites involve stages in the Ifugao life cycle: rice planting, rice harvesting, sickness, weaving, hunting, acquisition of prestige, marriage, and death and burial. Nearly all rites are performed underneath the house or granary, except for hunting, headhunting, and aiyag. f. The Ifugao people are known for their rich tradition of creative crafts, deeply rooted in their culture and environment. Some notable crafts include: 1\. Rice Terraces: The iconic Ifugao Rice Terraces are not only agricultural marvels but also a form of landscape artistry, showcasing intricate engineering and aesthetic beauty. 2\. Wood Carving: Ifugao artisans create detailed wooden sculptures, particularly ritual objects, household items, and intricately carved figurines called \"bulul,\" which represent rice gods. 3\. Textiles: Traditional weaving is significant, with vibrant handwoven fabrics used for clothing and ceremonial items. The designs often carry cultural symbolism and are made from locally sourced materials. 4\. Baskets and Handicrafts: Ifugao craftswomen weave baskets, mats, and other functional items using indigenous materials, showcasing intricate patterns and designs. 5\. Ceramic and Pottery: Some Ifugao communities create pottery, often used for cooking and ceremonial purposes, featuring traditional designs. These crafts reflect the Ifugao\'s deep connection to their environment and cultural heritage, blending functionality with artistic expression. g. The Ifugao community faces several issues, including: 1\. Cultural Preservation: Balancing modernization with the preservation of traditional practices, rituals, and languages. 2\. Land Disputes: Conflicts over ancestral lands due to development projects and land conversion. 3\. Environmental Degradation: Deforestation and climate change affecting rice terraces and biodiversity. 4\. Economic Challenges: Limited access to markets and fair pricing for traditional agricultural products, impacting livelihoods. 5\. Youth Migration: Young people leaving for urban areas, leading to a decline in local knowledge and traditions. 6\. Access to Education and Healthcare: Struggles with infrastructure and services in remote areas. Addressing these issues requires a balance between development and the protection of cultural heritage. **ANCHETA,DONNA CONSUELO N.** **4. ISNEG** Also known as Isnag or Apayao, they have a rich culture and unique traditions that reflect their heritage and lifestyle in the northwestern region of Northern Luzon. The name "Isneg" derives from their indigenous language, meaning "people who have gone into the interior." a. The Isneg people inhabit the northwestern region of Northern Luzon, specifically in the Cordillera province of Apayao. The Isneg settlements, built on hills along the rivers, have been an important part of their cultural heritage. b. The Isneg are a small ethnolinguistic group inhabiting the wide mountains of the area. Various names have been used to differentiate the Isneg. The Spaniards referred to them as los Apayaos (referring to the river along which they live) and los Mandayas (taken from the Isneg term meaning "upstream"). \--*Isnag, the Isneg language, is spoken by around 300,000 people. They also speak Ilocano.* c. The Isneg are described as having a slender and graceful stature, being kind, hospitable, and generous, with a strong sense of self-reliance and courage.  d. *Spiritual Beliefs and Connection to Animals* Isneg rituals often involve the use of animals as offerings to appease and communicate with ancestral spirits. *\--These ceremonies serve as a way for the Isneg people to express their gratitude, seek blessings, and ensure the spiritual well-being of their community.* ***Animal*** ***Symbolism*** -------------- ----------------------------- *Deer* *Guidance and protection* *Snake* *Wisdom and transformation* *Eagle* *Divine messenger* *Turtle* *Longevity and strength* CUSTOMS AND RITUALS OF BIRTH One such ritual is the "panagpudno," where friends and relatives gather to offer prayers and blessings to the newborn. *\--Birth is considered a sacred event in Isneg society, and various rituals are performed to ensure the well-being of both the mother and the child.\ \ * COURTSHIP and MARRIAGE The process typically involves the exchange of gifts between the prospective groom and the bride's family, symbolizing respect and commitment. Isneg courtship rituals often include the participation of the community, with songs, dances, and storytelling serving as a means of courtship expression. *\--The bride typically wears a handmade, intricately woven blouse called "saklay," adorned with intricate beadwork and embroidery. The groom, on the other hand, dons a traditional "g-string" known as "wanes." Both the bride and groom also wear headdresses and other accessories to complete their wedding ensemble.\ *  FESTIVALS AND CELEBRATIONS **Festival** **Date** **Description** ------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Apayao Day October Commemorates the founding anniversary of the province; showcases Isneg culture through traditional dances, music, and arts and crafts. Kinni-kinnipas Festival May Tribute to the bountiful harvest; features lively street dancing, agricultural exhibits, and traditional handicrafts. Laga Festival March Celebrates the art of weaving; highlights Isneg textiles through a fashion show and showcases traditional weavers' craftsmanship. WEAVING Using traditional backstrap looms, Isneg weavers skillfully create vibrant and intricate designs that are inspired by nature and their spiritual beliefs. These textiles, known as "ina-at," are often used for clothing, accessories, and home decor. WOODCARVING They intricately carve animal figures, masks, and other decorative items using locally sourced materials. These carvings often depict animals that hold significant spiritual and cultural meanings to the Isneg, such as the eagle, snake, and deer. **Art Form** **Materials Used** **Significance** -------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- Weaving Natural fibers, dyes Textiles for clothing, accessories, and home decor Woodcarving Local wood Decorative items and spiritual representations Pottery Clay Functional and artistic pottery Basketry Dried grasses Functional and decorative baskets CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT **Traditional Clothing** **Adornments** ---------------------------------- ----------------------------- Linapet (woven wraparound skirt) Limek (beaded necklace) Kalinga (traditional blouse) Linglingo (beaded bracelet) Tapok (headgear) Asog (earrings) *\--These intricate accessories are often made with beads, shells, and natural materials found in the Isneg's surroundings. The designs of these adornments often feature animal motifs, symbolizing the Isneg people's spiritual connection to nature.* The Isneg people continue to face challenges in the modern world, including poverty, limited access to education and healthcare, and the impact of development projects on their traditional lands. However, they are also working to preserve their culture and traditions, and to advocate for their rights and interests. **ANGELES, KHYLL CHRISTIAN J.** **5. KALINGA** a. Kalinga is bounded on the north by the province of Apayao, on the east by Cagayan and Isabela, on the west by Abra and on the south by Mt. Province. Kalinga has a total land area of 3,231.25 sq. km. b. Kalinga originated from the Gaddang and Ibanag languages meaning, "headhunter". In the days gone by, headhunting was once regarded a noble "pursuit" and symbolized bravery. Theirs was a warrior society that accorded tatoos as status symbols awarded to warriors which men respected and women admired. c. They are generally known to be tall, dark-complexioned, and lissome with high bridged noses. The Kalingas as contrary to the notion of other cultures are peace loving people. They give importance to family solidarity, friendship, integrity and respect. These values in fact are encapsulated in their three core values, namely; fain, ngilin, and paniyaw which can be heard and observed in their oral tradition. d. In every celebration, they incorporate dance and traditional music as a form of thanksgiving and cultural preservation. The Kalinga belief in a Supreme Being, Kabuniyan, the creator and giver of life, who once lived amongst them. Salidsid is a courtship dance showing the love of Kalinga men towards Kalinga women while Tuppaya is the beating of the gongs. e. Pregnant women and their husbands are not allowed to eat beef, cow\'s milk, and dog meat. They must also avoid streams and waterfalls as these cause harm to unborn children. f. Kalinga weavers utilize raw materials from abaca, coguen, maguey, and banana then braid them with cotton or polyester textile. Kalinga Clothing Men: Bahag Women: Kain Kalinga Tatto Art, the people doing this also called mambabatok Men: with ruthless men that fight from countless wars, they commemorate their victories, they would put special marking or tattoos in their bodies. Women: they put tattoos on their bodies as a sign of strength and beauty. g. The Kalinga peoples\' valleys were also threatened by infrastructure projects proposed by the Philippines government which endangered their communities, sacred places, rice terraces, livelihoods, and natural heritage. **BAGAYAWA, CRIZZY RANICCA E.** **6. KANKANAEY** The Kankanaey are one of the indigenous groups in the Cordillera Administrative Region of northern Luzon, Philippines. They are part of the larger Igorot ethnic group and are primarily found in the provinces of Mountain Province, Benguet, and some parts of Abra and Ilocos Sur. a. b. c. Physically, the Kankanaey people share similar features with other indigenous Cordilleran groups, though they may have slight variations due to their distinct genetic lineage. Typical facial features of the Kankanaey people include: - - - - - - These physical characteristics are typical of highland communities across the Cordilleras, where both cultural and environmental factors have shaped their way of life and physical traits. Distinctive Cultural Practices and Clothing: Their traditional clothing and adornments can also give them a distinct appearance, with bright, intricately woven tapis (wrap skirts) and bahag (loincloths) being commonly worn during rituals and ceremonies. Traditional tattoos, though less common now, were also a sign of beauty, strength, and tribal identity in earlier generations, adding to their cultural distinctiveness. d. e. f. g. The Kankanaey indigenous group, like many other indigenous communities in the Philippines, faces a variety of challenges that affect their cultural preservation, livelihood, and well-being. Some of the key issues facing the Kankanaey community include: 1\. Land Rights and Ancestral Domain\*\* \- One of the most significant issues for the Kankanaey people is the \*\*loss of ancestral lands\*\* due to government infrastructure projects, mining operations, and illegal land grabbing. Despite legal frameworks like the \*\*Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997\*\*, the implementation of land rights protections is often inconsistent, leading to conflicts over land ownership and use. \- Encroachment on ancestral lands threatens their way of life, as the Kankanaey depend heavily on agriculture and natural resources for sustenance. \#\#\# 2. \*\*Mining and Environmental Degradation\*\* \- \*\*Mining activities\*\* in the Cordillera region, where the Kankanaey live, have led to widespread environmental degradation, including deforestation, water contamination, and soil erosion. Mining operations often occur without the full consent of indigenous communities, resulting in the destruction of their natural environment and the displacement of families. \- The Kankanaey rely on the land for agriculture, so environmental degradation affects their ability to farm and maintain their traditional livelihoods. \#\#\# 3. \*\*Cultural Erosion\*\* \- \*\*Cultural erosion\*\* is a growing concern as younger generations are increasingly influenced by modern education, technology, and urbanization. Many young Kankanaey people move to cities for better job opportunities, which often leads to a disconnect from their traditional customs, languages, and practices. \- The \*\*loss of traditional knowledge\*\* related to farming, rituals, weaving, and community life is a major concern for elders who wish to preserve their cultural heritage. \#\#\# 4. \*\*Access to Basic Services\*\* \- Remote Kankanaey communities often have limited access to \*\*basic services\*\*, such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure. Lack of proper roads, healthcare facilities, and schools make it difficult for community members to access essential services, contributing to poverty and limiting opportunities for development. \- Inadequate healthcare services in these remote areas also result in higher rates of untreated illnesses and poor maternal health outcomes. \#\#\# 5. \*\*Education Challenges\*\* \- While there have been efforts to improve education access for indigenous communities, the \*\*education system\*\* in the Kankanaey areas often fails to incorporate their cultural values and traditions. The curriculum tends to be disconnected from their indigenous knowledge systems, which creates a gap in understanding their identity and heritage. \- Additionally, many children from these communities have difficulty pursuing higher education due to financial constraints and limited educational resources in rural areas. \#\#\# 6. \*\*Economic Marginalization\*\* \- The Kankanaey people, like many other indigenous groups, face \*\*economic marginalization\*\*. Most rely on agriculture, but the lack of government support, access to markets, and the impacts of climate change make farming increasingly difficult. \- Tourism has brought some economic opportunities, but often the benefits are unevenly distributed, and the commodification of their culture for tourism can sometimes contribute to cultural dilution. \#\#\# 7. \*\*Political Marginalization\*\* \- Indigenous peoples, including the Kankanaey, often experience \*\*political marginalization\*\* in local and national governance. Despite having legal recognition through laws like IPRA, they are frequently excluded from decision-making processes that affect their lands and resources. \- Advocacy for their rights is ongoing, but they still face significant barriers in ensuring that their voices are heard at both the local and national levels. \#\#\# 8. \*\*Displacement and Migration\*\* \- Some Kankanaey people are forced to migrate to cities or other regions due to \*\*land issues, environmental destruction, or lack of livelihood opportunities\*\* in their home areas. This migration can lead to loss of cultural identity as individuals adapt to urban lifestyles and face the challenges of economic survival in unfamiliar environments. \- Those who migrate often face discrimination and limited job opportunities, adding to the community\'s vulnerability. \#\#\# 9. \*\*Climate Change\*\* \- \*\*Climate change\*\* poses an increasing threat to the Kankanaey's agricultural practices. Changes in weather patterns affect their traditional farming methods, leading to lower crop yields and food insecurity. As the environment becomes more unpredictable, the community\'s ability to sustain themselves through traditional agriculture is challenged. \- Natural disasters, such as typhoons and landslides, are also frequent in the Cordillera region, further exacerbating these challenges. \#\#\# 10. \*\*Health Issues\*\* \- Due to remote locations and limited access to healthcare facilities, the Kankanaey community faces \*\*health challenges\*\*, including malnutrition, poor maternal care, and limited access to clean water and sanitation. Traditional medicine and healthcare practices may not be enough to address more complex health issues that require modern medical interventions. \#\#\# Conclusion: The Kankanaey community is resilient and continues to uphold its traditions and cultural practices, but they face numerous challenges that threaten their way of life. Addressing issues such as land rights, environmental degradation, cultural preservation, and access to services requires a concerted effort from both the government and civil society to ensure the survival and well-being of the Kankanaey and other indigenous groups in the Philippines. **BELTRAN, ABEGAIL U.** **8. KARAO** a. \- The Karao people live as a small community in Bokod, Benguet, in the eastern regions of north Luzon. Description: This area is characterized by its rich natural resources, lush forests, and diverse ecosystems. The tribe\'s territory is situated in high-altitude environments, which play a significant role in their agricultural practices and cultural traditions. b. \- It is claimed by almost all the umili of Karao that their ancestors originated from an ili (village) located somewhere in eastern Bontoc. Description: The Karao tribe, originating from the Cordillera region in the Philippines, has a distinct identity through customs, language, and agricultural practices, preserving strong connections to their ancestral land. c. \- The Karao tribe, a Filipino indigenous group, is known for their medium builds, dark skin, straight black hair, strong facial traits, and colorful woven attire. Description: When it comes to physical features, there are several general characteristics that can be noted among the Karao people: 1\. Stature: Like many indigenous Filipinos, members of the Karao tribe tend to be of medium to short stature. Their height often reflects the average for indigenous people in the Philippines, ranging between 5 feet to 5\'6\". 2\. Skin Tone: The Karao generally have a brown or medium tan skin tone, a feature common among indigenous populations in the Cordillera region. Their skin color reflects adaptation to a mountainous, outdoor lifestyle. 3\. Facial Features: Eyes: Karao people typically have almond-shaped eyes, a feature shared with other Austronesian populations. Nose: Their nose tends to be broad and flat, though there is variation within the tribe. Cheekbones: Like many indigenous peoples in the Cordillera, Karao individuals tend to have high and prominent cheekbones. Lips: The lips are typically full, but as with other features, there is a range of variation. 4\. Hair: Karao individuals generally have straight to wavy hair. Their hair is usually black or dark brown, reflecting the typical hair color in the region. d. \- Karaos celebrate life stages, harvests, and thanksgiving with special sleeping quarters, Kubunian god, and their own ethnic religion, with Christians among them. Description: The Karao tribe\'s culture is deeply connected to nature and ancestral heritage, with animism and rituals involving spirits. Their identity is expressed through music, dance, and crafts, with ancestral worship being a significant aspect. e. Rituals Harvest Festivals Traditional Dress Music and Dance Oral Traditions Spiritual Beliefs Description: Rituals: They conduct various ceremonies for life events like births, marriages, and deaths, often involving community participation and spiritual offerings. Harvest Festivals: These celebrations feature feasting, music, and dance, expressing gratitude for bountiful harvests and honoring ancestral spirits. Traditional Dress: The Karao wear vibrant, handwoven garments, often embellished with beads, reflecting their cultural identity during ceremonies and daily life. Music and Dance: Integral to their culture, traditional songs and dances are performed at gatherings, conveying stories and preserving history. Oral Traditions: Storytelling plays a vital role, with elders passing down myths and legends that teach values and community history. Spiritual Beliefs: Their customs are closely tied to nature and ancestral worship, with rituals aimed at maintaining harmony with the environment. These practices strengthen community bonds and preserve their unique cultural heritage. f. \- The Karao tribe is known for their creative crafts that reflect their cultural heritage and artistry. 1\. Weaving 2\. Basketry 3\. Carving 4\. Beadwork 5\. Pottery Description: 1\. Weaving: The Karao are skilled weavers, producing intricate textiles using traditional methods. Their fabrics often feature vibrant colors and patterns that hold cultural significance. 2\. Basketry: They craft baskets from local materials, such as reeds and bamboo. These baskets are both functional and decorative, often adorned with unique designs. 3\. Carving: Wood carving is an important craft, with artisans creating traditional figurines, utensils, and ceremonial items that showcase their artistic skills and beliefs. 4\. Beadwork: Beaded jewelry and adornments are popular, with intricate designs that reflect their identity. These pieces are often worn during rituals and celebrations. 5\. Pottery: While not as prominent, some Karao artisans create pottery for everyday use, often decorated with traditional motifs. g. \- The Karao tribe, like many indigenous groups, faces several challenges that affect their community: Land Rights Cultural Preservation Healthcare Access Education Political Representation Description: Land Rights: Encroachment on their ancestral lands by logging, mining, and agricultural development threatens their traditional way of life and access to natural resources. Cultural Preservation: Rapid modernization and globalization pose risks to their cultural identity and traditions. Younger generations may be less engaged in traditional practices. Healthcare Access: The Karao often face challenges in accessing healthcare services, leading to health disparities and a lack of proper medical care. Education: Access to quality education can be limited, impacting literacy rates and educational attainment within the community. Political Representation: The Karao may struggle to have their voices heard in political decisions that affect their lives, resulting in a lack of representation in local governance. **BENITEZ, CRISTINE C.** **9. KALANGUYA** The Kalanguya are an indigenous group in the Philippines, primarily inhabiting areas in northern Luzon, particularly in the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Benguet, Ifugao, and parts of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija. They are part of the larger Cordillera ethnic group and are known for their distinct language, customs, and way of life. a. \*The Kalanguya tribes live in the mountain range of Caranglan in Nueva Ecija, others live on the other side of the mountain range covering portions of Pangasinan, then upstream to Benguet Province and then upward to Ifugao.  -The mountainous haven of the Kalanguya lies within the heart of Northern Luzon, Philippines. The government has declared most of these mountain areas either as forest reserves, watersheds or National Parks. If is not however, a separate political subdivision but it can be considered as such, since most of the areas are geographically contiguous. The Kalanguya area spans the administrative regions of Pangasinan, Cagayan Valley, Nueva Ecija and the Cordillera. It is composed of the municipalities of Tinoc and Asipolo of Ifugao Province, the municipalities of Ambaguio, Kayapa, Santa Fe, and Aritao of Nueva Vizcaya; portions of the municipalities of Buguias, Kabayan, and Bokod of Benguet Province; a portion of the municipality of San Nicolas, Pangasinan; and a portion of the municipality of Caranglan, Nueva Ecija. All these municipalities can be reached through rugged roads or foot trails. b. \*The little valley of Ahin is considered as the ancestral home of the Kalanguya. The old folks including other ethnolinguistic groups claimed that their forefathers originate from the valley of Ahin. In this particular place, the people of Ahin speaks the Nīni Kalanguya. The Kalanguya people trace their origins to the mountainous regions of the northern Philippines, specifically in the southern part of the Cordillera region, including portions of Ifugao, Nueva Vizcaya, Benguet, and nearby areas. They are part of the broader Igorot ethnic group, known for living in the highlands of Luzon. -The term \"Kalanguya\" is thought to have been derived from their ancestral and linguistic roots. The Kalanguya language is an Austronesian language that shares features with other languages spoken by indigenous peoples of the Cordillera. Their origin stories, as passed down through oral tradition, emphasize their deep connection to the mountains and the land, particularly their agricultural practices like wet-rice farming c. \*The Kalanguya people, an indigenous group from the northern Philippines, typically have physical features similar to other groups from the Cordillera region. These may include: Height: Generally medium stature. Complexion: Light to medium brown skin tone. Facial features: Broad cheekbones, straight or slightly curved noses, and almond-shaped eyes, often with a monolid or a slight fold. Hair: Typically straight and dark, often black or very dark brown. Build: Lean and muscular, adapted to the physical demands of mountainous terrain and farming. -These features may vary, especially with the influence of intermarriage with other groups over generations. d. 1\. Religion and Spiritual Beliefs: \*Ancestral Worship :The Kalanguya traditionally believe in the existence of ancestral spirits called \"anitos.\" Explanation :These spirits are honored through rituals to ensure good fortune, protection, and guidance. \*Nature Spirits: Kalanguya animism emphasizes the existence of spirits inhabiting natural elements like trees, rivers, and mountains. Explanation: They believe these spirits must be respected to maintain harmony with nature. 2.Cultural Values: \*Respect for Elders: The Kalanguya highly respect their elders, who are seen as custodians of traditional knowledge and wisdom.  Explanation: This can include being addressed with honorifics, showing deference in speech and actions, and ensuring their comfort and well-being, particularly as they age. The practice not only maintains family harmony but also preserves cultural and moral values passed down through generations. \*Bayanihan (Community Spirit): Cooperation and mutual aid are essential values. The community works together for collective success, especially during planting and harvesting seasons, house-building, and other major tasks. Explanation: It remains an important aspect of Filipino identity, especially in times of need, such as during natural disasters, where communities come together to support one another. e. \*the morning of the wedding day is for cooking all the food. Explanation: The wedding celebration always takes place at the house of the bride\'s family. Primarily, the morning of the wedding day is for cooking all the food. The elders will be seated together in a circle and talk to each other about anything for the most part as the younger men and women are busy cooking the food.  \*The men Wear bahag loincloth while the women wear tapis wrap around skirts. -The Kalanguya traditionally wear handwoven garments made from natural fibers. The men wear bahag (loincloth) while women wear tapis (wrap-around skirts) with intricate patterns. The patterns and colors of their clothing often have symbolic meanings related to status, occasion, or origin. These customs reflect the Kalanguya\'s deep respect for nature, their ancestors, and their tight-knit community. \*Music and Dance -Traditional music and dance play a vital role in Kalanguya rituals and celebrations. Instruments like the gongs and bamboo flutes are commonly used during ceremonies. Their dances are rhythmic and often mimic the movements of nature, such as birds or animals, expressing a deep connection to the environment. \*Tattooing and Adornment -Tattoos, while not as common today, were once an important aspect of Kalanguya culture, signifying bravery, status, or achievement. Both men and women adorned themselves with tattoos, often made with natural pigments. Jewelry and beadwork also hold symbolic value, with beads being used as heirlooms, dowries, or amulets. f. 1.Weaving: -The Kalanguya are known for traditional handwoven fabrics, often with intricate patterns. These textiles are used in clothing and blankets, with distinct geometric designs that hold cultural meanings.  2.Basketry -The Kalanguya people are skilled in making baskets from rattan, bamboo, and other natural materials. These baskets are used for various purposes, including storage, carrying produce, and even for ceremonial uses. 3\. Wood Carving -They create tools, ritual items, and decorative objects from wood, often integrating symbolic designs that reflect their connection to nature and ancestral beliefs. 4\. Beadwork -Beaded accessories and garments play a significant role in their cultural attire, especially during important events and ceremonies. Each piece often has symbolic significance related to status, identity, or spirituality.  5\. Handwoven faby -The Kalanguya are known for traditional handwoven fabrics, often with intricate patterns. These textiles are used in clothing and blankets, with distinct geometric designs that hold cultural meanings. g. The Kalanguya community faces several challenges that impact their cultural, social, and economic well-being: 1\. Land Rights and Displacement -Many Kalanguya communities struggle with land ownership issues, particularly as agricultural lands are taken for development projects or mining activities, leading to displacement and loss of traditional livelihoods. 2\. Cultural Erosion -Rapid modernization and urbanization threaten traditional practices, languages, and customs. Younger generations may adopt external influences, risking the loss of cultural identity. 3\. Access to Education and Health -ServicesAccess to Education and Health Services: Remote locations can limit access to quality education and healthcare, leading to disparities in opportunities and well-being for community members. 4\. Economic Challenges -Many Kalanguya depend on subsistence farming and may lack access to markets, technology, or training, making it difficult to improve their economic conditions. 5\. Environmental Issues \- Deforestation, climate change, and resource depletion affect traditional farming and fishing practices, impacting food security and community resilience. 6\. Political Marginalization -Indigenous rights and representation in local governance can be inadequate, hindering their ability to advocate for their needs and interests. 7\. Social Issues -Issues such as poverty, lack of employment opportunities, and access to basic services can lead to social unrest and weaken community cohesion. \*Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach, including legal recognition of land rights, support for cultural preservation, and improved access to resources and services.