Qatar's Political Development (1913-1949) Lecture Notes PDF

Qatar’s Political Development During the Reign of Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim 1913-1949 Lecture Themes  What new powers appeared in the Gulf region during the first half of the twentieth century, and what were their positions towards Qatar?  How did the British policy towards Qatar evolve in the ea...

Qatar’s Political Development During the Reign of Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim 1913-1949 Lecture Themes  What new powers appeared in the Gulf region during the first half of the twentieth century, and what were their positions towards Qatar?  How did the British policy towards Qatar evolve in the early twentieth century?  What factors motivated the British to sign the 1916 Treaty with Qatar? What were Sheikh Abdullah’s goals with this treaty?  How did British policy towards Qatar change in the 1930s, and why did they sign a new agreement with Qatar in 1935?  How did Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim successfully force the British to allow the United States to enter the oil survey process in Qatar? Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim, 1913-1949 Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim was born in Doha in 1880.  On July 17, 1913, he became the ruler of Qatar. He ruled during an important and transformational period lasting 36 years (1913-1949). New Powers in the Gulf Region in the Early Twentieth Century Essential changes in the Arab Gulf that played critical roles in the history of Qatar: 1. The Ottoman presence in the Arab Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula ended. 2. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia emerged as a regional power. The fall of Al-Ahsa to Abd al-Aziz Al Saud in 1913 marked the beginning of shared British-Qatari concern about Saudi extension towards the Gulf emirates, especially Qatar. 3. The emergence of the Pahlavi dynasty and the transformation of Iran into a significant regional power. 4. The increasing American presence in the Gulf, especially in the context of its “open market” policy and competition against the British role in Qatar, towards the end of this period. Key Changes in the History of Qatar in the Early Twentieth Century Important changes before 1916 that affected Qatar’s political situation: 1. 2. 3. 4. The Ottoman Empire relinquished sovereignty over Qatar, formalized in the Anglo-Ottoman Agreement of 1913, followed by the exit of its garrison from Qatar in 1915. The British and Ottoman acknowledgment of the rule of Al Thani in Qatar, according to the 1913 Agreement, increased the stability of the authority of the ruling family. Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim’s assumption of rule in Qatar after a series of problems with his family during the last years of his father’s reign when Sheikh Abdullah was the governor of Doha. The situation stabilized, and he became the ruler of Qatar in 1913, as he had exercised rule during his father’s lifetime. The British took control of Qatar after the Ottoman forces left in 1915. The British attempted to create a new framework for their presence in Qatar, which led to the 1916 agreement stipulating British protection of Qatar. Factors Motivating the British to Sign the 1916 Treaty with Qatar The British worked to begin negotiations with Qatar after the Ottoman exit in 1915 towards signing a treaty stipulating imposition of British protection over Qatar because: 1. 2. 3. 4. The exit of the Ottoman forces from Doha in 1915 created an opportunity for a new agreement between the British and Qatar. When the Ottoman forces were in Qatar, the British could not conclude such an agreement because Qatar was under Ottoman control. After the Ottomans left, the British wanted to prevent any other new power from imposing its influence in Qatar. The appearance of new powers competing with the British in the Arab Gulf, especially the United States, Japan, and Russia. The flourishing of the weapons trade in Qatar, and the spread of piracy in its waters, threatened the British fleet when the region was in a grave economic crisis because of World War I. The British wanted to protect their interests in this vital region, especially since the British and American companies had begun exploration of the area after finding oil in Masjid Soliman in Iran in 1908. Sheikh Abdullah’s Goals with the Treaty of 1916 1. 2. Sheikh Abdullah wanted to ensure the transition of power to his son, the crown prince Sheikh Hamad. He wanted the British to acknowledge Hamad as the crown prince so he could prepare the transition of authority to him without significant issues if he died. Abd al-Aziz al-Saud’s seizure of Al-Ahsa in 1913 and his success in pushing the Ottoman forces out of Al-Ahsa and submitting the region to his rule, as well as the arrival of his forces to southern Qatar, all made Sheikh Abdullah very concerned about the increasing power of Abd al-Aziz al-Saud even though they enjoyed strong relations. The British thought that Abd al-Aziz was trying to increase his country’s borders, and he might think of taking Qatar. The British aimed to prevent that through:  They agreed with Abd al-Aziz under the Treaty of Darin (Qatif) of 1915 that he would not attack Qatar and the Gulf emirates or interfere in their internal affairs.  Conclude an agreement with Qatar guaranteeing its sovereignty over Qatar to keep it away from Saudi influence and control. The Treaty of Darin stipulated that Abd al-Aziz would not attack the Sheikhdoms of the Gulf that had treaty relations with Great Britain, so the British were trying to include Qatar among these Sheikhdoms to ensure that it would not fall under Saudi control. Emir Abd Al-aziz Bin Saud With Percy Cox And The Sheikh Of Muhammara What was the Treaty of 1916? The Treaty of 1916 was a policy of British protection over Qatar signed between Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim, the ruler of Qatar, and Sir Percy Cox, a British resident in the Gulf. It stipulated: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sheikh Abdullah would cooperate with the British to prevent the slave trade, piracy, and weapons trade. The British would offer financial assistance and limited amounts of weapons annually to Qatar. They would provide 500 rifles initially and the same amount each year, as long as it was ensured that these weapons would not be exported or sold and that the Sheikh’s subjects would not trade in them. The Sheikh promised to protect British merchants and the British representative in Qatar. Qatar was prohibited from relations with any other country without British approval. The British pledged to protect the Sheikh of Qatar in case of any attack from the sea and to employ their good offices to stop any attack on Qatar. The Sheikh would not relinquish rights to, mortgage, or rent any piece of Qatari territory in any way or grant any country a concession without British approval. The Provisions Sheikh Abdullah Refused to Agree On Sheikh Abdulla objected to some of the provisions that the British requested in the treaty: 1. The appointment of a British agent in Doha. He promised to consider that in the future. Sheikh Abdullah feared the British agent’s interference in Qatar’s internal affairs, which would decrease his domestic authority. 2. Allowing Indian merchants (the banyan) to enter the country as British subjects, he explained that their entry would lead to competition against the local people about their substance and commercial activities. 3. Establishment of post and wireless telegraph offices. He did not think the country needed these services then, but he promised to consider them in the future. Right: Percy Cox, The British Resident In The Gulf Left: Sheikh Abdullah And Sheikh Hamad’s Children With The Wife Of The British Political Agent In Kuwait, Mr. Dickinson British Policy in the Arab Gulf and the 1916 Treaty The Treaty of 1916 was necessary regarding the British policy that World War I had imposed, similar to the 1915 Treaty of Darin with Abd al-Aziz Al Saud. With these two treaties, the British wanted: 1. To use al-Ahsa and Qatar to reach their strategic goals in the Gulf, including pressuring the Ottoman Empire in the phases of World War I. 2. To reach a solution without Germany reaching the waters of the Arab Gulf. 3. The goal of preventing Abd al-Aziz al-Saud’s movement from doing anything against Qatar. Until then, Qatar did not have stable or agreedupon political boundaries. With this treaty, Britain wanted to prevent Abd alAziz from annexing Qatar to his territories. 4. The treaty was not aimed at protecting Qatar in any basic way. It was instead aimed at protecting British interests in the Gulf. This became obvious during the phase of practically applying the agreement. The 1916 Treaty Between Qatar and the British: Generally, the treaty made the British the caretakers of defending Qatar, and its external affairs, while leaving its internal affairs related to the local ruler. The Treaty guaranteed Qatar’s independence under the guarantee of British protection. The 1916 Treaty was the last treaty signed with the Gulf leaders. The British brought Qatar into the framework of British protection with the treaty. Lord Curzon, the British Governor of India (left), said that these treaties made the Arab Gulf region a “Britsh lake.” The treaty gave Qatar, along with the other Arab Gulf emirates, an unclear political situation. They were not British colonies or under British mandates or protectorates, but they were part of the British Empire with exceptional circumstances known as treaty relations. Sheikh Abdullah and his son, the crown prince Sheikh Hamad, in 1948 Practical Application of the 1916 Treaty: Qatar accepted the treaty of its own will, and Britain pledged to fulfill its commitments towards Qatar. However, the developments during the years after World War I made the British ignore its commitments and interpret the treaty from a position of power according to its interests. The issue of arming Qatar and defending came up about rumors of its borders being under threat after Abd al-Aziz Al Saud’s power increased. This worried Sheikh Abdullah, and he invited Mr. Trevor, the political resident in the Gulf, to test British intentions towards Qatar. Trevor got to Doha in 1921, and Sheikh Abdullah asked him: 1. 2. 3. Would the British help his country if it was exposed to internal threats? Could the British help Qatar by giving him a few cannons and rifles? Would the British help Qatar if Ibn Saud posed a danger, either during his reign or during that of his successors? The Practical Application of the 1916 Treaty From the British officials’ answers, Sheikh Abdullah thought the British policy was to avoid involvement in Qatar’s internal affairs to the greatest extent.  It was obvious that the British would not answer Sheikh Abdullah’s pleas to protect him from any crises he might face from his family members The British would not help him except the sea if an external power attacked Qatar The British did not agree to his request with regard to approving the succession of his son Sheikh Hamad. The British also delayed in all sorts of ways about providing the Sheikh with weapons The Saudi-British Treaty (The Treaty of Jeddah of 1927) In 1925, Abd al-Aziz Al Saud expanded his territory significantly by seizing the Hijaz and ending the rule of the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (the ashraf) there which had lasted many centuries. This meant a significant increase in Abd al-Aziz Al Saud’s power, and the British decided to confirm his position towards the Arab Gulf emirates again, to confirm to Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim that they were committed to his protection: The Treaty of Jeddah, signed in May 1927, stipulated:  I: Abd al-Aziz Al Saud promised not to attack the regions of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and the Omani coast that were all under British protection and that had agreements and treaties with the British government.  II: Abd al-Aziz Al Saud promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of these emirates. III: That his borders with these protected regions would be determined at a later date. The British-Qatari Negotiations Regarding the Airport:       In 1918, the British Royal Air Force was founded, and this led to an increased importance for the Arab Gulf emirates in British policy since they fell on the air route to India. In 1929 the RAF Ministry began communicating with Gulf leaders attempting to convince them to agree to build airports to receive and facilitate the tasks of the Royal Air Force. These British attempts initially faced strong objections from the region's rulers, especially the Sheikh of Qatar. Using carrot and stick techniques, the British signed the first airline agreement with the ruler of Sharjah, Sultan bin Saqr Al-Qasimi in July 1932, and the first British plane landed in Sharjah at the end of that year on its way to India. The discovery of oil in Bahrain in 1932 led to a significant increase in interest in the region in British policy, and with the increasing importance of oil in international politics, the British had to protect their interests in the region. This would not be possible without establishing airports, so the British increased pressure. The negotiations between the British government and Sheikh Abdullah to build an airport in Qatar began in 1931 and 1933. The British-Qatari Negotiations Regarding the Airport Sheikh Abdullah received a letter from the political agent in Bahrain informing him that he would visit Doha in late October 1931 to discuss building an airport for British airplanes to land in Doha. At that meeting, Sheikh Abdullah rejected building an airport in Doha because he was afraid that would lead to British control over the country and the seizure Of his ruling authorities in the country. After Sheikh Abdullah refused the building of an airport in Doha, the British asked for his approval to build an airport in Rayyan – the British insisted on establishing an airport in Qatar. Sheikh Abdullah agreed but set the condition that the British should protect Qatar’s security “and commit to defending the country from tribespeople who aimed to harm the country, or attack the planes as they landed.” The Doha airport was established in early 1934, and the first British plane landed there in May carrying a group of oil experts and the political agent of Bahrain. Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah received the plane and took the passengers to meet his father. The Oil Concession and Renewal of the Protection Treaty, 1935 The British took advantage of their exclusive control in the Arab Gulf region, especially after World War I, and wanted the region’s leaders to execute policies that would serve British interests. The 1916 Treaty did not provide complete protection to the country – it was limited to protection from sea attacks, and Sheikh Abdullah was increasingly concerned about land-based attacks, especially from Abd al-Aziz Al Saud. Sheikh Abdullah wrote to the British resident in the Gulf, Mr. Fowell, in May 1935 and requested: 1. The renewal of British protection of Qatar, with the condition that the new treaty would include sea and land-based protection. 1. That the British acknowledge his son Sheikh Hamad as Qatar’s crown prince and ruler in the event of his death. British Goals in Renewing Protection of Qatar in 1935: The British welcomed Sheikh Abdullah’s request to sign a new agreement warmly. They were disappointed that their companies had lost many of the oil fields in the Gulf region while oil had become the key to the world’s military conflicts.  The American companies had managed to take over the oil industry in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq, and even in the epicenter of Great Britain’s early control, Iran. The American companies had become a strong competitor of the British companies.  The British saw Sheikh Abdallah’s proposal as a golden opportunity they had to take to obtain the concession to survey for oil in Qatar. Negotiations of the 1935 Protection Treaty The British political resident’s rapid response to Sheikh Abdullah confirmed that: 1. The British government was prepared to meet his requests for the Anglo-Persian company’s oil concession to be renewed. The Sheikh had agreed to the company’s request to conduct geological surveys of Qatar’s land to explore for oil in 1925. 2. Protection would be against any dangerous land-based attack on Qatar. 3. The British would provide this protection with the Royal Air Force. For this reason, the RAF would need all the necessary facilities in the country including the use of wireless telegraph, landing spaces, oil storage facilities and other facilities. 4. The Royal Air Force would have the right to visit Qatar whenever needed. The 1935 Protection Treaty: In April 1935, a British political resident visited Qatar to discuss the details of British protection. On 11 May 1935, the political agent specified the bases of British protection: 1. 2. 3. 4. The British would grant Qatar protection in exchange for obtaining an oil concession for the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This protection would apply to severe external attacks that the Sheikh was not involved in causing, either from the sea or the land. The Royal Air Force would provide the protection. Qatar would protect the British Air Force officers and their equipment within Qatari territory and guarantee the safety of the airports and services. The 1935 Qatari-British Treaty 5. The British agreed to acknowledge the crown prince (Sheikh Hamad bin Abdallah), on the condition that he commit to the provisions of the 1916 Treaty, and confirm that the new treaties would apply to his successors. The new elements of the treaty were signed on May 24, 1935. The oil concession was signed a few days before, on May 17, 1935, with the AngloPersian Oil Company. The British took advantage of Qatar’s need for real protection by imposing its conditions, especially after the British knew that American oil companies were trying to convince Sheikh Abdullah to grant them the concession rights to extract oil from Qatari territory by offering advantages that were better than what he got from the British oil companies. This was especially true after Sheikh Abdullah visited King Abd al-Aziz Al Saud in Riyadh in 1933. Abd al-Aziz advised him to grant the oil exploration concession to American companies. Sheikh Abdullah Bin Jassim And His Sons, Ali And Hamad, With The British Agent In The Gulf Qatar And Oil In The First Half Of The Twentieth Century Developments related to the discovery of oil in Qatar in the first half of the twentieth century: I: The process of surveying for oil began in Qatar in 1925 when Sheikh Abdullah agreed to the Anglo-Persian Oil Company’s request to perform geological surveys. However, the concession agreement was not signed until 1935 by Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim and Mr. Charles Clark, the company. The agreement stipulated the company’s right to survey for, drill for, extract, transport, refine and sell oil and natural gas for 75 years. Qatar and Oil II :Several border disputes emerged between Qatar and its neighbors when the oil survey concession was granted to the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, along with maps related to Qatar’s borders. The most important was with Saudi Arabia, as there had been a border crisis with KSA in 1934, and this crisis lasted until the final drawing of boundaries in 2001. There was also a crisis with Bahrain in 1937 over defining possession of the islands and the continental shelf. The British made themselves the judge of this dispute and issued a lousy judgment that complicated the matter and extended the problems. International adjudication finally ended this crisis in 2001. III :Even though the exploration process took about 14 years (1935-1949) and the first signs of oil began to flow from Dukhan in late 1939, these processes stopped because of the second world war. Exporting oil from Qatar started in December 1949, when the first cargo of crude oil was shipped out of the port of Mesaieed on the southeastern coast. 1949 is a crucial turning point in the history of Qatar and the Qataris because, at that point, the country began to benefit from oil, entering a new phase of political, economic, and social development. Qatar and Oil IV :The success of the British company, which became known as the Qatar Petroleum Company, encouraged Sheikh Abdullah to grant a concession for surveying Qatar’s offshore waters to the American company Superior Oil. This created a crisis between the Sheikh and the British company Qatar Petroleum, which objected, citing its 1935 concession. Both parties resorted to adjudication, and a ruling was issued in favor of Sheikh Abdullah in 1950 because the concession’s provisions did not include Qatari waters. However, the American company found no oil and sold its submission to the Shell company. In 1952 a new agreement was signed during the reign of Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah. According to this agreement, Qatar would receive 50% of the profits from the company. Then a new deal was signed with the Shell company as well. These new agreements protected the country’s interests and gradually achieved national control over the oil sector. After World War I, the British did not enjoy their exclusive influence in the Gulf for very long. The American companies succeeded in competing with the British over oil surveying and exploration, creating a robust American presence in the Gulf. A Drilling Platform in Dukhan in 1938 Qatar During World War II Before oil was discovered and exported in commercial quantities, Qatar experienced ten years of deprivation (1939- 1949), with economic conditions deteriorating because of the following: 1. The halt in oil explorations in 1942, as the British authorities deemed it necessary to stop those operations and focus on the war effort. The AngloPersian Oil Company shut down its operations, and many locals lost their livelihoods as a consequence. 2. The deterioration and stagnation of pearl fishing, as merchants refrained from providing financing, and the sales stopped because of the war in Europe and the closure of Paris markets. The conditions in Qatar worsened, and prices rose. Sheikh Abdullah sought British help to bring food supplies into the country during the crisis. The British established the Middle East Supply Center in Cairo to supply foodstuffs to the Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula. Qatar Requests Weapons From Britain The 1916 Treaty stipulated that Britain would supply the Sheikh of Qatar with 500 rifles and 75,000 rounds of ammunition each year for his personal use and to arm his guards. He promised to ban the import and sale of weapons and prevent his subjects from trading in them. However, Britain kept delaying. To demonstrate its commitment to Sheikh Abdullah, in 1926, Britain eventually approved his request to provide Qatar with 500 rifles and 75,000 rounds of ammunition by the 1916 agreement in exchange for 25,500 rupees. However, it was only to serve British interests in Qatar. In 1925, the previous year, British geologists had begun a geological survey of Qatar and needed protection. By providing Qatari forces with modern weaponry, it was possible to protect them. Sheikh Abdullah refused to receive the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's representative and the accompanying team of British geologist engineers in early 1926, citing the lack of security due to his followers' lack of weapons. This prompted Britain to fulfill his request and furnish the weapons. However, Britain later declined to provide more weapons on the pretext that it was bound to protect Qatar, so there was no need to provide him with weapons. Qatar Requests Weapons From Britain In 1937, the dispute between Bahrain and Qatar was renewed because of unclear borders when land became a primary source of wealth due to the granting of oil exploration concessions. Al Khalifa of Bahrain incited the Al Naeem tribe in northwest Qatar to rebel against the authority of Al Thani and submitted several claims to the British political resident claiming their entitlement to Zubarah. Although the political resident rejected these claims and stressed that Zubarah was an integral part of the Sheikhdom of Qatar, Sheikh Abdallah needed to strengthen his power in that region. To do so, Sheikh Abdallah took two measures: 1. 2. He built the Zubarah Castle in 1938 to confirm his authority over the western coast of Qatar. He sought to win the loyalty of the Al Naeem tribe. In 1938, Sheikh Abdullah requested armored cars from the British administration per Britain's pledge in the 1935 agreement to consolidate his authority over the entire Qatari territory upon renewal of protection. However, Britain declined his request, claiming that armored cars were not suited to operate in the country. Britain also fell short of its pledge to supply Qatar with arms annually. Britain wished to retain the right to defend Qatar and to keep the Sheikh in constant need of British aid. Sheikh Abdullah Refuses Appointment Of British Political Agent In Qatar Sheikh Abdullah reacted to Britain's refusal to supply arms by rejecting the appointment of a British political agent in Qatar. As Sheikh Abdullah insisted on rejecting the appointment of a British officer or political agent in Qatar, Britain founded the Rumaila Hospital in 1946. It assigned the hospital's doctor as its unofficial political agent in Qatar. The Crown Prince Crisis In 1948 And Britain's Attempt To Exploit It In May 1948, Crown Prince Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah, the Sheikh’s second son, died in the Oil Company Hospital in Dukhan. Already ill and in his 70s, his father had to retake control and manage the affairs of the entire country alone. Sheikh Abdullah appointed his eldest son, Sheikh Ali, as crown prince. Sheikh Ali did not resemble his late brother and needed to be more ambitious to rule. He did not make administrative changes except for requesting that the British authorities provide him with some weapons to maintain law and order. The Crown Prince Crisis In 1948 And Britain's Attempt To Exploit It When Sheikh Abdullah asked Britain to recognize his son Ali as the crown prince, the British authorities took advantage of the situation and asked the Sheikh to appoint a British political agent in Qatar. Sheikh Abdullah resisted by nominating his son to become the crown prince before a congregation of his family members, tribal leaders, and elders. He asked their opinion, and the attendees signed the meeting minutes approving the nomination. The Sheikh surprised the British authorities. However, Britain continued to exert pressure on Sheikh Abdullah to appoint a British agent in Doha, and accused him of not maintaining security and not wholeheartedly fighting the slave trade. Sheikh Abdullah Abdicates Power To His Son, Sheikh Ali, In 1949 When Sheikh Abdullah decided to relinquish power to the crown prince, he was becoming sicker and facing more troubles from his family members concerning the allocations of revenues paid to the Ruler by the oil company. One Doha market witnessed clashes in which some Indians and Pakistanis were killed. The British authorities exaggerated the event to pressure the Sheikh to approve the appointment of a British political agent in Doha. Eventually, Colonel William Hay arrived in Doha on August 16, 1949, requesting that the Sheikh approve the appointment of a British political agent in Qatar in writing. On August 20, 1949, the acting British political resident recognized Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah Al Thani as the ruler of Qatar. Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah, the new ruler, approved the appointment of a British political agent in Qatar and endorsed the validity of the agreements signed between his father and the British government. He also signed a letter requesting the appointment of a British adviser, who arrived in Qatar with a team of British to appoint a British political agent in Qatar in writings. This was a prelude to expanding relations between Qatar and Britain to connect the country to British politics. The Appointment Of A British Political Agent In Doha On August 23, 1949, Britain appointed John Wilton as Qatar’s first British political agent. Britain was late to appoint a political agent in Qatar despite having had political agents in all of the Arab Gulf emirates for a long time. The reasons behind this delay include: Britain did not need a political agent in Qatar after 1916. Sheikh Abdullah refused to appoint a political agent for fear of losing his authority and grip on power. Britain did not want to force a British political agent on the Sheikh but wanted the Sheikh to request it willingly. Britain was content with the Bahrain-based political agent managing British affairs in Qatar without significant problems. However, in early 1949, the British position changed because oil explorations after World War II indicated great potential for extracting and exporting oil in commercial quantities in Qatar.