The Ottoman-British Conflict Over Qatar (1871-1915) PDF

The Ottoman-British Conflict Over Qatar (1871-1915) Lecture Themes How did the Ottoman presence in the Arabian Gulf and Qatar evolve during the second half of the 19th century ? What are the factors that motivated the Ottomans to send a military campaign to al-Ahsa and Qatar in 1871? What was the Br...

The Ottoman-British Conflict Over Qatar (1871-1915) Lecture Themes How did the Ottoman presence in the Arabian Gulf and Qatar evolve during the second half of the 19th century ? What are the factors that motivated the Ottomans to send a military campaign to al-Ahsa and Qatar in 1871? What was the British position towards this campaign ? How did Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani respond to the Ottoman campaign ? Did the Ottoman military campaign achieve its goals? Why did the Ottomans fail to build a strong presence in the Gulf? Why was there a clash between the Ottomans and Qataris, even though the Qataris welcomed the Ottomans when they first arrived? What was Britain’s role in eliminating the Ottoman presence in the Arabian Gulf? British Influence in the Gulf: Facts about the Ottoman Presence in the Gulf Ottoman sovereignty over the Gulf was only spiritual and nominal. There was no Ottoman military presence south of Basra, and the absence of Ottoman influence on the Arab Gulf coasts created an opportunity for the British government of India to impose its influence in the Gulf, especially since there were also no influential local or Arab powers. Since the first half of the nineteenth century, the Arabian Gulf coast had come under British influence entirely. This was accomplished through treaties and agreements that Britain used to handcuff the region’s Sheikhs to uphold the general peace and maritime truce since 1820. Britain had confirmed its presence in the Arabian Gulf by protecting its transportation lines between Bombay and Basra to transfer mail. In 1871 the Ottomans suddenly decided to send a military campaign to the Arabian Gulf. Factors that encouraged the Ottomans to send a military campaign to Al-Ahsa and Qatar in 1871 In the late 1860’s, the Ottoman Empire’s interest in the Arabian Gulf grew significantly. Reasons for that: 1. The appointment of Midhat Pasha as governor of Baghdad from 1869 to 1872. Midhat Pasha had a strategic vision and was considered one of the best administrators in the Ottoman Empire. He was an advocate of government reform, and called for the extension of Ottoman authority over the Arabian peninsula to support the state’s religious influence. He also intended to annex the Gulf emirates and chiefdoms to the Ottoman Empire. He was trying to compensate for the Ottoman Empire’s loss of its possessions in the Balkans and around the Black Sea. Factors that encouraged the Ottomans to send a military campaign to Al-Ahsa and Qatar in 1871 2. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 highlighted the strategic importance of the Arabian Gulf region and facilitated the Ottoman fleet’s access to Basra. This increased Ottoman control over the world’s leading trade routes, the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf Factors that encouraged the Ottomans to send military a campaign to Al-Ahsa and Qatar 3. The creation of a modern Ottoman army and its readiness to enter battles after gaining combat experience during the Crimean War against Russia. 4. The attempt to revive the Islamic Caliphate and Islamic Union was associated with support for the Ottoman presence in the Arabian Peninsula, challenging colonialism and especially British influence and colonialism. Factors that encouraged the Ottomans to send military a campaign to Al-Ahsa and Qatar The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the political conflict within the Saudi family between Prince Abdullah bin Faisal and his brother Saud after the death of their father Faisal bin Turki in 1865. The conflict led Prince Abdullah bin Faisal to request the assistance of the Ottoman governor of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, in his bid to assume power in Riyadh after his brother Saud succeeded in seizing Riyadh and Al-Ahsa. He wrote to Midhat Pasha declaring his desire to announce his loyalty to the Ottoman state and pay an annual royalty on the condition that the Ottomans would help return him to his position in Riyadh. Abdullah also warned that Najd and Al- Ahsa could fall under British influence, claiming that the British supported Saud in the conflict between them. The 1871 Ottoman campaign against al-Ahsa - Abdullah’s request came at the perfect time for Midhat Pasha’s plans, and he prepared an extensive military campaign under the leadership of Mehmed Nafiz Pasha. The campaign left Basra on April 20, 1871, and arrived at Ras Tanura. - Kuwaiti forces joined the Ottoman campaign. The Ruler of Kuwait, Sheikh Abdullah bin Sabah Al-Sabah, supported the campaign with a naval fleet he led. Midhat Pasha mentioned in his memoirs that the Kuwaiti ruler contributed eighty ships that carried the food and military supplies. - After the campaign succeeded in seizing al-Ahsa and Najd, Midhat Pahsa created the “County of Najd” and named the ruler of Kuwait, the new county’s governor in recognition of his efforts. The Ottoman campaign and the imposition of Ottoman influence on Qatar, 1871-1872 The sources indicate that Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed welcomed Ottoman influence in order to combat British influence and to rid himself of British pressures that had become a constraint on Qatar in the 1868 agreement. Sources also indicate that the Sheikh of Kuwait Abdullah Al-Sabah visited Doha in July 1871 by sea to persuade Sheikh Mohammed Bin Thani, the Sheikh of Qatar, to accept the Ottoman protection of Qatar. The Sheikh refused, but his son Jassim, who was considered the actual ruler of the country due to his father’s old age, accepted the offer and raised the Ottoman flag over the ruler’s palace in Doha. Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani did not object to or prohibit his son Jassim’s actions. The Ottoman campaign and the imposition of Ottoman influence on Qatar, 1871-1872 This duality in Qatari policy could be interpreted as Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani wanting to appease the British in order to protect Qatar’s coasts, since the British were the sovereigns over the sea. However, he allowed Jassim to raise the flag in order to protect Qatar’s land boundaries from the Ottoman forces that were already present in AlAhsa, and in anticipation of a resolution of the conflict between the two forces. Factors that Motivated Jassim to Accept Ottoman Sovereignty over Qatar: By announcing Ottoman protection and sovereignty over Qatar, Sheikh Jassim wanted to achieve several goals: 1- Ridding his country permanently of Saudi family influence. This increased his closeness to the Ottoman Empire, especially after the country was exposed to some hostile attacks from Saud bin Faisal’s followers without the British authorities in the Gulf taking any action. This rendered the Ottoman presence a type of protection against any ground assault. 2- Ridding Qatar of the influence of Al Khalifa, the rulers of Bahrain, particularly their influence in Zubara and al-Bidaa, and freeing the Qatari tribes from their obligation to pay the Al Khalifa taxes. 3- Jassim’s desire to free Qatar of the restrictions posed by his father's pledges to the British under the 1868 agreement. Factors that Motivated Jassim to Accept Ottoman Sovereignty over Qatar: 4- Getting rid of the Indian merchants (Al-Banyan) who were British subjects. They were competing with the local people in trade and the pearling industry and trade. 5- Jassim’s desire to use the rivalry between the two major powers (the Ottoman and British Empires) to maintain Qatari independence and freedom of movement. 6- Religious motives also had a significant impact on Sheikh Jassim’s preference of the Ottomans over the British, as the Ottoman Sultan remained the Caliph of the Muslims, and he did not want to rely on the British in that context. The Ottoman Presence in Qatar in 1872 In January 1872, the Ottomans sent a new force to Qatar from al-Ahsa with a cannon, and the Ottoman ship “Ashur” arrived carrying more artillery to support the Ottoman presence in Qatar. The commander of the Ottoman garrison in Qatar announced: 1- Qatar had become an Ottoman district subordinate to the County of Najd. 2- Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the governor of Qatar. 3- Qatar was exempt from paying taxes because it lacked cultivable land. 4- The presence of an Ottoman military force in AlBidaa as a symbol of Ottoman rule and to defend the country against external aggression. The Ottoman Presence in Qatar in 1872 Beginning of the relationship: The Ottomans did not intervene extensively in Qatar's internal affairs, and Jassim maintained most of the country’s internal administration. Jassim ran Qatar affairs without contest, while the Ottoman forces took responsibility for Qatar’s external protection. Britain's position on the arrival of Ottoman troops to Qatar  When Jassim declared his acceptance of Ottoman sovereignty, the British political resident’s assistant, Major Grant, visited Doha. He met Sheikh Jassim and asked him about his acceptance of Ottoman protection over Qatar.  He considered this a breach of the 1868 Agreement. Sheikh Jassim replied that he accepted Ottoman protection because he did not have sufficient British protection on his land borders. He also said he had nothing to do with the 1868 Agreement because he was not party to it, and it was limited to maritime peace and did not prevent Qatar from relations with other countries.  After his visit to Najd in late 1871, Midhat Pasha said that he considered the County of Najd to include Najd, al-Ahsa, Qatar, Bahrain, the Oman Coast and Masqat, which increased British concern. Britain's Position Regarding the Ottoman Campaign in Qatar and AlAhsa in 1871  The British were very concerned about the Ottoman campaign in Qatar and al-Ahsa, especially since it was not only a land campaign but also a sea campaign, which threatened the interests of the British fleet in the Gulf  British concern grew after the 1871 report of the British consul in Baghdad, Herbert, which indicated the Ottoman desire to impose the Empire’s control on Bahrain and Masqat after Qatar and al-Ahsa  The British government commissioned the British Resident in the Gulf, "Col. Billy" to reassure the rulers of Bahrain and Muscat that the campaign’s goal was not to attack their property and lands and that they were under British protection.  When Billy sent his report to the Government of India regarding Ottoman intentions to establish a naval fleet in the Gulf, it angered the Government of India.  The Government of India watched the Ottoman naval presence in the Gulf closely. In 1871 a British report said that a number of Ottoman officers had arrived and that the Ottoman fleet in the waters of the Gulf included ten ships The Results of the 1871 Ottoman Campaign in al-Ahsa and Qatar - The campaign established Ottoman rule in al-Ahsa, and the rulers of both Qatar and Kuwait announced their loyalty to and dependency on the Ottoman Empire, even if it was only nominal. - The campaign affected the Gulf Sheikhdoms negatively because the Ottoman presence on the Gulf coast motivated the British to impose tighter control over the region, especially after Midhat Pasha’s representative came to Bahrain asking that the Sheikh allow the establishment of a coal warehouse there. The Sheikh agreed to that and donated land for the project, but the British did not allow it. - The campaign’s results did not last long because Midhat Pasha’s term in Iraq ended. The idea of Ottoman expansion in the region and imposing Ottoman influence was closely connected to him. - After this campaign, the British undertook an extensive maritime survey to monitor the area. The British also strengthened their maritime and military presence in the Gulf. Sheikh Jassim Becomes the Sole Ruler, December 18, 1878 Sheikh Mohammad bin Thani passed away in early December 1878, and Sheikh Jassim took his place on December 18, 1878. This date is considered the beginning of the modern state of Qatar and its independence, which was achieved through the efforts of Sheikh Jassim to obtain the recognition of both the British and the Ottomans that Qatar was independent. Sheikh Jassim was able to gain experience in administering the country’s affairs by helping his father since he was a young man, and he succeeded in steering its policies through many fundamental changes in the region. Sheikh Jassim believed that British influence clashed with his Hanbali Islamic beliefs and sovereignty over the country. During this period, he was convinced that a limited Ottoman presence did not pose a more significant danger than the British and would not restrict his leadership or his ability to achieve his political ambitions. The Development of Sheikh Jassim’s Relationship with the Ottomans: In the first stage: Sheikh Jasim built a strong friendship with the Ottomans and remained the country’s highest authority. Therefore, in 1884 Sultan Abdul Hamid decreed Sheikh Jassim’s promotion to a higher Ottoman rank to reward his loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, his strong administration of Qatar, and his stance against British ambitions. He also set a monthly salary for Sheikh Jassim, but Sheikh Jasim gave up the salary towards keeping his relationship with the Ottomans decentralized. In the second stage: The Ottomans increased their influence in Qatar and tried to limit Sheikh Jassim’s authority. This led to a clash between the two sides and the Battle of Wajbah, in which the Qataries achieved victory over the Ottoman forces. Sheikh Jassim’s relationship with the Ottomans was lukewarm after the Battle of Wajbah until he died in 1913. The Development of Sheikh Jassim’s Relationship with the Ottomans and the British in Details Sheikh Jassim thought accepting nominal Ottoman sovereignty would not harm Qatar’s position or affect his administrative influence. A few years after he confirmed Ottoman sovereignty, it became clear that the Ottoman desire to impose administrative procedures would negatively impact his influence and authority, motivating him to combat increasing Ottoman influence in Qatar. Qatari-Ottoman relations began to deteriorate in 1875, when Qasim Agha, the commander of the Ottoman garrison in Qatar, increased his influence in Doha, insisting that the Qatari Sheikhs consult with him on every matter. He also began increasing the fees he would take from the Qataris. The Development of Sheikh Jassim’s Relationship with the Ottomans and the British In 1887, the Ottomans decided to establish a customs administration in Qatar. This meant a significant decrease in Qatar’s financial resources, which made Sheikh Jassim oppose this project, claiming that such a step would meet with large strikes from the merchants. Sheikh Jassim left Doha, and announced that he was giving up his title of governor. Sheikh Jassim asked for British protection, but the British did not completely trust him and they did not want to enter into an armed conflict with the Ottoman Empire for this reason. The Development of Sheikh Jassim’s Relationship with the Ottomans and the British  This led to another change in Sheikh Jassim’s position towards the Ottoman Empire and announced his acceptance of Ottoman sovereignty.  The British refused to support him and confiscated his property in Bahrain and Bombay after Sheikh Jassim deported the Indian merchants (Banyan) from Doha. The British considered this an attack on their subjects and confiscated the Sheikh’s assets in Bombay and Bahrain  Muhammad Rahim Safar, the British resident’s agent in Bahrain, met Sheikh Jassim and warned him that if he continued defying the British he would meet the same fate as the nationalist Egyptian leader Ahmed ‘Urabi (who was arrested and exiled to the Seychelle islands.)  The Ottomans welcomed the change in Sheikh Jassim’s position, but continued in its plans to increase its hold on Qatar, sending a force of 250 soldiers in 1888. The governor of Basra also visited Doha and confirmed the establishment of a coal warehouse there. The Ottoman Empire also rewarded Jassim with medals, but he did not accept these reforms. Ottoman Attempts to Impose Their Influence in Qatar Between 1887-1891 the Ottomans created a plan to impose their influence in Qatar through establishing direct Ottoman administration. Nafiz Pasha, the governor of Al-Ahsa, visited Doha in 1887. He built a warehouse for coal to supply Turkish ships with fuel, increased the size of the Ottoman garrison in Doha to 1000 soldiers, and stationed a steam ship in the Doha port. He also decreed: 1. 2. 3. 4. The appointment of an Ottoman deputy for the local governor (the Sheikh) argued that the Sheikh often left Doha Creating an Ottoman government administration building Appointment of Ottoman directors for Doha, Zubara and Khor al-Udaid. They would be responsible for collecting revenues from the ships and imposing taxes and fees on pearling ships Strengthening the Ottoman garrison in Doha These were initially suggestions, but the Ottoman administration quickly attempted to implement them. Akif Pasha, the new governor in Al-Ahsa, visited Doha in 1889 and tried to convince Sheikh Jassim to accept the Ottoman reforms. Sheikh Jassim refused, indicating a possible clash. Ottoman Attempts to Impose Their Influence in Qatar These suggestions angered Sheikh Jassim because they would weaken his authority and deprive him of his main revenue source: customs. One of the reasons Sheikh Jassim welcomed Ottoman rule in Qatar initially was his goal to free himself of the taxes his father had committed to. With these new taxes he would be paying more to the Ottoman authorities in Basra than his father was paying. The Ottoman administration in Basra, on the other hand, was becoming convinced that as long as Sheikh Jassim was governor in Qatar they would not be able to impose their reforms. Ottoman Attempts to Impose Their Influence in Qatar before Al-Wajba battle The Ottomans attempted to remove Sheikh Jassim from his position and appoint one of his competitors, Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab bin Nasser al-Sabia’i, who had come to Qatar from al-Ahsa in 1882 and settled in al-Ghariya on the northern coast of Qatar and became an important pearl merchant. He tried to win the support of the tribal Sheikhs by distributing money and became an enemy of Sheikh Jassim. The Ottomans appointed him governor, but Sheikh Jassim sent a military campaign to Al-Ghariya in 1889 that forced Al-Sabia’i to flee with his family to Al-Ahsa by sea. The Ottomans tried to appoint Nasser bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, one of those who had broken off from the ruling family in Bahrain, but the British objected because of the animosity between Nasser and the Sheikh of Bahrain Ottoman Attempts to Impose Their Influence in Qatar      The Ottoman administration in Basra began to prepare to impose its control in Qatar. They presented their reasons for dismissing Sheikh Jassim to Istanbul: He secretly agreed with the British political resident and obtained modern weapons from the port of Uqair (in Al-Ahsa). He had been collecting taxes from merchants for years while refusing to pay annual fees to the Ottoman Empire, and goods stolen from the port of Uqair were sold in Qatar. The Basra administration prepared a campaign including cavalry and footsoldiers to go from Basra to al-Ahsa, then to Doha, under Mehmed Hafiz Pasha, the governor of Basra. Mehmed Hafiz Pasha reached Doha in February 1893 with a force of 300 horsemen. The Ottoman administration also requested support from the Sheikh of Kuwait, Mohammad Al Sabah, who sent a force under the command of his brother, Mubarak, to help with the attack on Qatar. Mubarak went to alAhsa with the force aiming to reach Qatar from the south. When the crisis between Sheikh Jassim and Hafiz Pasha worsened, Sheikh Jassim sent a letter to the authorities in Istanbul requesting that they oppose Hafiz Pasha’s policies that would lead to the destruction of the country and the flight of its people. His letter did not lead to any action from Istanbul, and the situation deteriorated. Sheikh Jassim’s position towards the Ottoman attempts to impose their influence in Qatar These events led Sheikh Jassim to prepare for a confrontation with the Ottomans. He followed a clever plan, announcing that he was leaving Qatar and instead making a settlement in Wajba, about 12 miles west of Doha. He resigned from the position of governor of Qatar, handing the position over to his brother Sheikh Ahmad bin Mohammad Al Thani, and claiming that he was too old and sick for the position. In the letter of resignation he sent to the governor of Basra, he mentioned that the Ottoman deputy the governor had appointed could administer the region’s affairs himself. The Ottoman governor rejected his resignation and requested that Sheikh Jassim continue his work. Th The 1893 Battle of Wajbah When Hafiz Pasha arrived in Doha, Sheikh Ahmad Al Thani received him. Still, Hafiz Pasha summoned Sheikh Jassim and guaranteed his safety. Sheikh Jassim declined to appear, citing his old age. The negotiations between Hafiz Pasha and Sheikh Jassim through his brother Ahmad continued for a month. Hafiz Pasha demanded that Sheikh Jassim pay back taxes to the Ottoman Empire, amounting to taxes for 15 years. The delay in negotiations left no way out of a confrontation: On March 15, 1893, Hafiz Pasha imprisoned Ahmad Al Thani and 12 important Qatari leaders, angering the Qataris. Then Hafiz Pasha laid siege to Doha from the land and the sea. When Sheikh Jassim heard of this, he tricked the Ottomans into thinking he had left Qatar and dispersed his forces. The 1893 Battle of Wajbah Sheikh Jassim had stationed his men on the desert road connection Qatar to al-Ahsa, prohibiting mail from passing between the Ottoman forces and al-Ahsa. He also sent a force of 1,000 cavalry from the tribes to face the Kuwaiti forces led by Mubarak Al Sabah so that his forces would not fall pretty to Mubarak alSabah’s. Sheikh Jassim distributed his forces to several critical points and prepared an elaborate ambush for the Ottoman forces, and Hafiz Pasha sent a force of 150 soldiers to take the Wajbah fort. The Qatari forces ambushed the Ottomans, attacking them from all sides near the Wajbah fort north of Mesaimeer. The Ottomans sustained heavy losses in men and equipment, so they withdrew and took cover in one of the Sheikh’s castles in al-Shaqab. The 1893 Battle of Wajbah The Qatari forces laid siege to the Ottomans at al-Shaqab and shelled the castle after seizing several Ottoman cannons. The number of Ottoman soldiers killed reached 97, including a commander named Yusuf Effendi, in addition to many wounded and taken prisoner. The Ottoman forces had to withdraw from Doha, and the Ottoman ship Al-Muraykh fired its cannons to cover the withdrawal operation. Hafiz Pasha moved his headquarters from Doha to the ship in fear of Sheikh Jassim’s men. Reasons for the victory of the Qatari forces over the Ottomans in Wajbah I: Sheikh Jassim’s good planning, as he prepared an elaborate ambush against the Ottoman forces that they did not discover. II: Control over the water wells near the battle field, prohibiting the Ottoman forces from getting water. III: The intense heat and the fast, as the battle happened during Ramadan IV: The large number of Qatari forces, including 3000-4000 soldiers equipped with firearms and horse and camel cavalry. The Qatari forces managed to take the one cannon the Ottomans had and use it against them. After the Ottoman defeat, Hafiz Pasha requested amnesty and a truce from Sheikh Jassim, but Sheikh Jassim insisted that Hafiz Pasha release Sheikh Ahmad and the leading men of Qatar first. He also demanded that the Ottoman forces that came with Hafiz Pasha as well as the rest of the Ottoman soldiers in Doha leave. Hafiz Pasha fulfilled Sheikh Jassim’s conditions. Results of the 1893 Battle of Wajbah 1. 2. 3. 4. The Battle of Wajbah became an essential event in the modern history of Qatar because of Sheikh Jassim’s courage in facing the forces of the Ottoman governor of Basra, Hafiz Pasha. This increased his popularity and fame as a strong leader in Qatar, and the Ottomans had no choice in the end but to grant him general amnesty. The Ottoman government recognized the dangerous situation in Qatar and chose a political solution, dismissing the governor of Basra Hafiz Pasha. The British tried to take advantage of the situation in Qatar by sending the British consul to Doha. He met Sheikh Jassim in Wakra and offered British protection over Qatar, but Sheikh Jassim refused. The Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II sent Basra's religious leader (naqib al-ashraf), Muhammad Sha’ib, to Shaikh Jassim to conclude a political settlement that would prevent Qatar from falling into the grip of British sovereignty. Results of the 1893 Battle of Wajbah Sheikh Jassim confirmed his continuing loyalty to the Ottoman Sultan and freed the Ottoman prisoners to show his good intentions. He also presented his resignation from the position of governor of Qatar to the religious leader of Basra, arguing that he was too old to continue to rule.. It was agreed that: 1. Sheikh Jassim would return the weapons he seized from the Ottomans during the battle. 2. The Ottoman government would issue a general amnesty to Sheikh Jassim. 3. The Ottoman authorities accepted Sheikh Jassim’s resignation and granted his brother Sheikh Ahmad bin Mohammad Al Thani the position. The religious leader of Basra succeeded in solving the conflict between the Sheikh of Qatar and Istanbul, and the return of the relationship to its previous state was one of the main reasons the British could not conclude a protection treaty with Qatar at that time. Results of the Battle of Wajbah When the religious leader of Basra arrived in Doha Sheikh Jassim emphasized that the conflict was the result of the unfortunate actions of the Ottoman governor of Basra. Sultan Abdul Hamid II understood Sheikh Jassim’s importance and political role, so he stopped the conspiracies against Sheikh Jassim and dismissed the reports that the British presented regarding the issues between him and the Ottoman administration. Sheikh Ahmad bin Mohammad Al Thani took over the affairs of the governorship of Qatar in 1893 until he was assassinated by one of his servants in 1905. He also had an Ottoman deputy. At that point, the affairs of the country returned to Sheikh Jassim’s control, but he stayed in Lusail and relied on his son, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani, to run things. Sheikh Abdullah visited Lusail, on the road between Doha and AlKhor, to ask his father for advice on sensitive issues. The British Aggression Against Zubara, 1895  In May 1895, the bin Ali tribe took refuge in the Zubara region in Qatar. They were coming from Bahrain, where one of the rulers, Sheikh Issa bin Ali Al Khalifa’s brothers had attacked a member of the tribe. When Sheikh Issa did not help bin Ali Sheikh, Sultan bin Salama, Sultan sent a request to the Ottoman governor of al-Ahsa, Ibrahim Fawzi Pasha, asking if bin Ali could enter Ottoman protection. The governor welcomed this request and sent Sheikh Sultan an Ottoman flag with a decree that he and his tribe should reside in Zubara. Sheikh Jassim also welcomed the tribe and helped them.  The British were afraid that the Ottoman forces, with the help of the bin Ali tribe and Sheikh Jassim’s forces, would attack Bahrain and endanger British interests there. The British government in India sent orders to the British forces to attack the Zubara port. They attacked Zubara and confiscated seven bin Ali ships, and moved them to Bahrain. They requested that the tribe return to Bahrain, but they refused. Sheikh Jassim bin Thani’s position regarding the shelling of Zubara in 1895:  The governor of al-Ahsa protested against the British ships’ attack against ships of Ottoman subjects to the British resident, but the British did not pay any attention to their complaint.  The British had warned Sheikh Jassim and the Sheikh of bin Ali that the tribe should return within one hour or the port of Zubara would be shelled. The two ships Sphinx and Bijan did shell Zubara with their cannons, and the shelling destroyed the Zubara fort as well as a large number of ships, 88 of which belonged to Sheikh Jassim. 120 more ships were confiscated and sent to Bahrain.  On the second day of the attack, the Ottoman flag in Zubara and all Ottoman officials, had disappeared.  Sheikh Jassim raised a truce flag, and sent a letter of apology to Mr. Wilson, the British resident in the Gulf. He accused the Ottoman governor of alAhsa of gathering the bin Ali in Zubara since the resident had accused Sheikh Jassim of being responsible for the events and demanded that he pay the expenses of the attack on Zubara. Shaikh Jassim bin Thani’s position regarding the shelling of Zubara : Shaikh Jassim accepted the British conditions including: 1. 2. 3. Returning the bin Ali tribe to Bahrain Dispersing his forces that had gathered around him in Zubara Returning the Bahraini ships that his men had seized during the crisis He refused to pay the costs of the military campaign against Zubara, arguing that the Ottoman administration, and not him, was the reason for the problem, and that he had already suffered debilitating losses because of the British attack The bin Ali tribe returned to Bahrain except for their Sheikh, Sultan bin Salama, and a number of his men who preferred to stay in Qatar. The Ottoman empire did not do anything besides protest against the British attack on Zubara. This was an element in the shift in Sheikh Jassim’s relationship with the Ottoman state, which could not defend him against the British. Even so, Sheikh Jassim remained on good terms with both the British and the Ottomans throughout this period. The Sheikh of Kuwait Attacks the Huwajir inside Qatari Territory in 1898 After the Battle of Wajbah, Ottoman-Qatari relations remained lukewarm. Sheikh Jassim refused to participate in bearing the expenses of the Ottoman-Greek wars. In April 1898, Mubarak Al-Sabah, the Sheikh of Kuwait, attacked the Hawajir in southern Qatar and seized a large number of their goats, camels, and livestock as well as some of Sheikh Jassim’s own possessions. Sheikh Jassim sent a request to the Ottoman government asking that it force the Sheikh of Kuwait to return the property of the Hawajir, but the Ottoman government did not pay much attention to this matter. This made Sheikh Jassim believe that they were colluding with the Sheikh of Kuwait because he did not contribute to the expenses of the Greek war. This resulted in an armed movement against the Ottomans in Doha which killed some Ottoman soldiers. The Ottomans accused Sheikh Jassim of inciting the Qataris, but the collision between the two did not completely rupture. Throughout his life, Sheikh Jassim was careful to maintain Islamic unity and solidarity. In 1908 he sent a letter to the governor of Basra encouraging him, in the name of Islam, to trust Abd al-Aziz Al Saud in Najd, warning him about the British interests in the region, and calling on him to support the Islamic community. The Anglo-Ottoman Agreement of 1913: After the Ottoman state understood that it was unable to face the British because of its wars with Italy in Libya, as well as the secessionist movements in the Balkans, the Ottomans decided to enter a negotiated solution to its problems with the British in the Arab Gulf region. The Anglo-Ottoman agreement of 1913 was the result of those negotiations. Article 11 of the agreement, which was particular to Qatar, stipulated: 1. The Ottomans relinquished all of their rights in the Qatar peninsula on the condition that the peninsula would be ruled through inheritance by the Al Thani family as it had been in the past. 2. The British promised to prevent the rulers of Bahrain and Al Saud from interfering in Qatar’s internal affairs or threatening its independence. 3. The British agreed that the Ottoman force in Doha would stay and would raise the Ottoman flag and that Najd and al-Ahsa were under Ottoman influence, to appease the Ottomans. Even though this agreement was never ratified because of the first world war, it emphasized Qatar’s independence and sovereignty, as well as the local rule of Al Thani, from the perspective of both the Ottomans and the British Sheikh Abdullah Takes Over Power in Qatar:  Sheikh Jassim bin Muhammad Al Thani passed away on July 17, 1913, and his son Sheikh Abdullah took over rule in Qatar.  Sheikh Abdullah was born in 1880 in Doha. The British and the Ottomans acknowledged Sheikh Abdullah as the heir to rule over the entire Qatar peninsula.  The Ottomans gave up all of their rights over Qatar after the start of World War I. On November 3, 1916, the British signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim bringing Qatar into its system known as the administration of the Trucial Emirates. Letter from Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani informing the Political Agent in Bahrain of the death of his father Sheikh Jassim