International Rivalry in the Arabian Gulf (16th-17th Centuries) PDF

International Rivalry in the Arabian Gulf Region in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Since the early years of the modern era, the Gulf region has experienced competition among European colonial powers and the Ottoman Empire, all vying to control and ex...

International Rivalry in the Arabian Gulf Region in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Since the early years of the modern era, the Gulf region has experienced competition among European colonial powers and the Ottoman Empire, all vying to control and expand their influence due to the region's strategic location and the desire to develop trade exchanges. What were the characteristics of these competing powers, and how did this competition manifest itself?  First - the Portuguese The Portuguese played a significant role in shaping the history of the modern Arabian Gulf. As their maritime state with access to the Atlantic Ocean realized that expansion within the Iberian Peninsula was limited, they began searching for new territories. Their maritime activity extended along the western coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama, using geographical information from the writings of the Arab navigator Ahmed bin Majid, reached the Cape of Good Hope, opening the way to India. This marked the beginning of European colonialism in those regions. The Portuguese aimed to control Indian waters and restrict Arab access by seizing their entrances, ultimately establishing an empire in the East.  The factors that led the Portuguese to explore the inland Arab seas and the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula. 1. The Arab Islamic state disintegrated due to the weakness of the political powers controlling it and their preoccupation with sectarian and political differences. 2. The Portuguese desired to monopolize the trade of Eastern goods such as spices and silk. 3. The Portuguese were driven by a crusading spirit, especially under the leadership of Afonso de Albuquerque. Their interest in the Arabian Gulf grew after their arrival on the coasts of India in 1505 and their successful establishment of a government in Goa. Portuguese Headed to the Gulf Region In 1506 AD The Portuguese king sent a fleet to the east to strengthen the Portuguese presence on the coasts. The fleet, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, aimed to close the trade outlets used by Arabs and Muslims. In 1507, they seized the island of Socotra at the southern entrance to the Red Sea and established a military garrison there. However, their attempts to seize Bab al-Mandab and Aden were unsuccessful due to strong Arab resistance. In the same year, Afonso de Albuquerque and the Portuguese turned their attention to controlling the Arabian Gulf region Island of Hormuz by taking the island of Hormuz. They also seized the ports of Ras al-Hadd, Qalhat, Muscat, Sohar, and eventually reached Hormuz, whose ruler submitted to the Portuguese. In 1521, the Portuguese occupied Bahrain due to its rich pearl diving, despite the resistance shown by the ruler of Bahrain, Muqrin bin Zamil al-Jabri, and they established a strong fortress there. Second: Islamic political forces and their position on the Portuguese The Mamluk state in Egypt and the Levant, the Safavid state in Persia, and the Ottoman state in Asia and Eastern Europe. The Mamluks: The Mamluk state was heavily impacted by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. The spice trade, which passed through Arab lands, was essential to the Mamluks. In response to the Portuguese challenge, Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri of Egypt dispatched a large naval campaign led by Hussein al-Kurdi in 1505 AD. The Mamluk fleet clashed with the Portuguese fleet led by Lorenzo de Almeida in 1509 AD, resulting in victory for the Portuguese. As the successor to the Mamluk Sultanate, the Ottoman state, which had seized Egypt in 1517, had to confront the Portuguese threat in the Gulf that endangered the holy places. Safavids: In 1515, Albuquerque recognized the conflict between the Persians and the Ottomans and quickly formed an alliance with the Shah of Persia, Ismail Safavid. This alliance, known as the Treaty of Hormuz, occurred following the Persian defeat in the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 against the Ottomans, resulting in the Persian-Portuguese treaty. This demonstrates the desire of both parties to find understanding and cooperation in order to confront the Ottomans. The agreement, concluded between the Portuguese leader, Albuquerque, and Shah Ismail I, indicates the shared interests between Persia and Portugal: 1. The Portuguese provided ships to the Shah to enable him to invade Bahrain and Qatif. 2. The Portuguese assisted the Shah in suppressing the Makran Revolution in exchange for the Shah's approval of Portugal's occupation of the port of Gwadar on the coast of Balochistan. 3. The alliance of Portugal and Persia against the Ottoman Empire. 4. The Shah relinquished Hormuz and recognized the Portuguese protection over it. This agreement provided the Portuguese with a good opportunity to establish themselves in the waters of the Arabian Gulf, and supported their position in Hormuz, turning it into their strongest center in the Gulf. The Ottomans: The Ottoman Empire was established in 1299 AD in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) and reached its peak in the sixteenth century, spanning Asia, Africa, and Europe. Initially focused on European conquests, the Ottomans shifted towards the Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula at the start of the sixteenth century for several reasons: 1. They felt threatened by the Safavid Empire's expansion into the Arab region, particularly after the Safavids reached the eastern coast of the Arabian Gulf, occupied Baghdad and Mosul in 1508 AD, and formed alliances with regional rulers and sheikhs. 2. The Ottomans sought to protect the holy places from Portuguese invasion and gain support from fellow Muslims. 3. They aimed to control trade routes in the region. This shift led to the pivotal Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 AD, resulting in the Ottoman Sultan Selim I's victory and the Safavid retreat. Subsequently, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent established the Ottoman province of Basra and expanded the Ottoman state's borders to include the island of Qeshm, Hormuz, and Qatif. The Ottoman Empire sought to counter Portuguese attempts to enter the Red Sea by sending a military campaign from Egypt. Despite some success, the Portuguese defeated the Ottoman forces in the Battle of Diu. They could not expel the Portuguese from the Arabian Gulf due to various factors, which led to the Ottomans maintaining only a small military presence in Al-Ahsa. The Bani Khalid defeated the Ottoman in 1670, and they only appeared militarily after that in the last quarter of the nineteenth century during the Ottoman campaign on Al- Ahsa. The Yaruba: The Yaruba family emerged in Oman and successfully unified the country, aiming to expel the Portuguese from the Omani coasts. In 1650, Imam Sultan bin Saif retook Muscat from the Portuguese, marking the end of Portuguese control in the Arabian Gulf. Their departure opened the door for the Dutch, French, and English to establish themselves in the region, leading to competition and disputes among these European powers during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The collapse of the Portuguese presence in the Arabian Gulf In the 16th century, the Portuguese Empire thrived but later collapsed due to deteriorating military power. As the 17th century began, the Dutch and English sought to eliminate Portuguese influence in the Arabian Gulf, driven by commercial and political interests rather than a crusading spirit. In 1600, the English defeated the Portuguese near Jask and Qeshm. Through an alliance with Shah Abbas the Great, they expelled Portuguese influence, gaining significant commercial privileges. Together, they successfully seized the Portuguese military base in Hormuz in 1622, allowing the British East India Company to establish a commercial center in Bandar Abbas.  Factors contributed to the weakness and collapse of Portuguese power in the Arabian Gulf: 1. Spain successfully occupied Portugal from 1580 until 1640. 2. Portuguese policy was marked by fanaticism, greed, and cruelty, leading to frequent revolutions against the Portuguese rule. 3. There was a lack of Portuguese presence in the colonized areas. 4. The Portuguese government held a monopoly on profitable goods and did not allow merchants to establish commercial companies, which led to corruption within the administrative system. Additionally, disagreements between senior officers led to disorder in the Portuguese navy. 5. Naval powers like the Dutch and English emerged as competitors to the Portuguese, displacing them from their positions in the Arabian Gulf. 6. The Ya'aribi in Oman showed strong resistance. Third: The British presence in the Gulf The British started their colonial presence in Asia by setting up the English East India Company in 1600 AD, which later became the British East India Company. This colonial enterprise operated under the pretense of being a commercial venture. Its members expanded Britain's influence across Asia and the Indian Ocean, reaching the Arabian Gulf primarily through trade rather than conflict with the local populations of the region.  A. English: The Anglo-Persian-Dutch alliance against the Portuguese After a shift from friendly to hostile relations between Persians and Portuguese, an alliance formed between England, the Netherlands, and Persia against the Portuguese. They engaged in naval battles to eliminate Portuguese influence, and the English emerged as a dominant power in the region.  B. The Anglo-Dutch Competition After forming the Anglo-Dutch naval alliance and displacing Portuguese influence in the Gulf, the alliance only lasted briefly. Once the English established themselves in Hormuz and the Gulf, a new competitor emerged in the Netherlands. Dutch merchants successfully settled in the port of Bandar Abbas, making it their commercial center. This caused concern and unease for the English, especially amidst political conflicts between the two nations in Europe. Consequently, the English shifted their commercial center from Bandar Abbas to Basra. This move aimed to distance themselves from Dutch competition and to establish closer ties with the Ottoman authorities.  B. The Anglo-Dutch Competition The Dutch began to feel the seriousness of their position after facing local revolts and continuous attacks from Mir Mahna. These factors led to the decline of Dutch influence in the Arabian Gulf by 1765. As a result, Britain found itself as the sole major power in the region. However, it soon faced off against the growing French presence and began preparing to counter it.