Learning Unit 3: Scientific Research PDF

 Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................

 Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................2 3.1 Scientific research.................................................................................................................2 3.2 Basic research.......................................................................................................................3 3.3 Applied research...................................................................................................................3 4. DESCRIBING BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH....................................................................3 4.1 Basic research.......................................................................................................................3 4.2 Applied research....................................................................................................................4 5. APPROACHES TO RESEARCH................................................................................................5 5.1 Quantitative approach...........................................................................................................5 5.2 Qualitative approach.............................................................................................................6 5.3 Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research............................................................9 5.4 Mixed methods...................................................................................................................11 6. TYPES OF RESEARCH............................................................................................................13 6.1 Exploratory research...........................................................................................................14 6.2 Descriptive research...........................................................................................................15 6.3 Explanatory research...........................................................................................................16 6.4 Correlational research.........................................................................................................17 7. TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH............................................................................................18 7.1 Cross-sectional research.....................................................................................................19 7.2 Longitudinal research..........................................................................................................20 7.3 Other types of designs........................................................................................................23 8. SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH....................................25 9. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................26 10. SELF-EVALUATION ASSESSMENT.......................................................................................26 11. ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES...............................................................................27 12. YouTube links..........................................................................................................................27 13. OERs.........................................................................................................................................27 14. REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................27 1  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research LEARNING UNIT 3: SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Gisela van Rensburg 1. INTRODUCTION This learning unit aims to empower students to demonstrate an understanding of scientific research. 2. LEARNING OUTCOMES After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to: Explain the differences between basic and applied research. Describe quantitative and qualitative research. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research. Describe mixed methods research. Explain the concept of “multiple methods” (“triangulation”). Identify the types of research and describe each of these types. Explain time dimension in research. Compare cross-sectional and longitudinal research. Present the different types and categories of research that are used in the social sciences schematically. 3. DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS 3.1 Scientific research Research is a scientific process. The process is systematic in terms of collecting, analysing and interpreting information, to increase an understanding of the phenomena of interest. The process denotes precision, accuracy and lack of bias. Scientific research contains all procedures that researchers use, or may use in the future, to pursue knowledge. Through scientific research, evidence is provided, with the support of logical justification, to reach conclusions or statements of facts (Brink & Van Rensburg, 2022:3). This statement eliminates the concept that there is only one way of conducting research. Research is categorised according to the point of view and purpose - the major aim of the research. Research is therefore defined as a systematic process that uses disciplined methods of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to increase one’s understanding of phenomena of interest and develop and expand knowledge (Polit & Beck, 2021:2). 2  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research 3.2 Basic research Basic research is defined as research that aims at expanding on fundamental knowledge of social or organisational processes, and producing findings of significance and value to society. The researcher first states what social phenomenon (e.g., violence against women) is being researched, and then describes and/or explains this, as it occurs. 3.3 Applied research Applied research is defined as research that focuses on enhancing the understanding and solving of specific social and organisational problems, to create solutions to the problems. Specific problems are addressed by investigating the phenomena, to find solutions. By applying the acquired knowledge, the findings become of practical value and relevance to stakeholders. Activity 1 Indicate the three basic differences between basic and applied research based on the definitions above. 4. DESCRIBING BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH Research can be grouped according to what it is used for, the perspective to the research and the purpose thereof. The purpose could be either to expand on fundamental knowledge, construct theory or to solve specific problems, resulting in basic or applied research. The choice depends on the aim that the researcher has for the research (Burns & Grove, 2019). Although research can be classified as either basic or applied research, these categories are not mutually exclusive. All research can be classified on a continuum between these two poles. If the inclination is to concentrate more on a contribution to knowledge, the research is more basic in nature and, if the inclination is for the research to be more practice-oriented, it is more applied in nature. 4.1 Basic research Basic research is undertaken to enhance or extend fundamental knowledge about social reality or within a discipline. This type of research is used to support or reject theories by explaining social relationships. It is also used to interpret changes in communities, in order to enhance new scientific ideas/knowledge about our social world (Polit & Beck, 2021). Research topics are usually grouped into three broad categories, namely exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research. These categories could guide the researcher in determining the aim and purpose of a study. 3  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Basic research has the advantage that it creates a basis for the application of knowledge and insight to many social problems, happenings in one’s surroundings, areas of research or even policies. A point of criticism against basic research is that the knowledge so acquired sometimes does not offer short-term practical solutions. In such cases, applied research is conducted to improve a particular situation. Basic research is also conducted to develop, examine, verify and refine research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the basis for research methodology (Du Plooy-Cilliers, Davis & Bezuidenhout, 2014:74). An example of basic research, in this instance, is where new data collection techniques are developed to address the increased preference to collect data through online techniques (electronically). An example of basic research would be a study on the technical needs of lecturers at universities to teach and interact with students on various online platforms. The findings will have implications for practice, but the study itself does not solve a particular problem. 4.2 Applied research The purpose of applied research is to enable researchers to try to solve specific problems or, if necessary, try to make specific recommendations and find solutions that can be implemented in practice. Applied research usually focuses on (a) specific problem(s) and its/their short-term solutions; the focus in this type of research is not so much on theory. This type of research, generally, is descriptive in nature and its main advantage is that it can be applied immediately after the results have been obtained. It is purpose driven or pragmatic. The reasons for undertaking applied research are therefore to investigate whether solutions to social problems can be found; to describe and assess social needs; evaluate existing policies and practices; recommend and implement change; and to identify gaps in the literature and new areas of research (Du Plooy-Cilliers, Davis & Bezuidenhout, 2014:75). Results obtained through applied research should be presented in a comprehensible manner to the person requesting the research. The results should be presented in such a way that they can be accessed and implemented by practitioners. Basic research, on the other hand, is reported in a scientific-technological language, because the information concerned is primarily meant for scientists. In some instances, applied research results are not published. This can happen where 4  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research commissioned research is conducted and the person or the organisation for whom the research is done thinks that the results belong to them or the organisation and that publishing the results is not necessary, or even not desirable. Applied research focuses on immediate problem solving. Sometimes, however, attempts to solve problems of a controversial nature through applied research can lead to conflict. An example of applied research could be where a study is done to determine the effectiveness of an early intervention programme for obesity in teenagers attending schools in the rural areas of South Africa. The implications for practice of this study include the importance of providing a programme to improve the health outcomes for teenagers and address social problems related to schools in rural areas. Activity 2 Conduct a search on obesity among teenagers. Select 5 articles. Extract the purposes of the articles and determine whether the research was basic in nature or applied research. 5. APPROACHES TO RESEARCH Research approach refers to the consideration related to the direction you want to go into, in terms of how you choose, collect, analyse and interpret the information that will serve as evidence, and the methods that will be used to collect and analyse the data. The research approaches to be considered are quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. 5.1 Quantitative approach Quantitative research has its roots in positivism and focuses on measurable aspects of human behaviour. Quantitative researchers use a set of orderly procedures to gather information. They move in an orderly manner - from a problem to a solution. The orderly process ensures that the researcher moves through a series of steps systematically, using objective methods to control the research situation and with a goal of minimising bias, thus, maximising validity. The approach is formalised in nature and has a carefully defined scope. Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process, in which numerical data are used to obtain information about the phenomena under investigation. This method is used to describe variables, determine cause- effect relationships between variables and examine relationships among these variables. The quantitative approach aims at examining the generally accepted explanations of phenomena and is therefore more structured and controlled in nature. The scope in this approach is larger and more universal in nature and can also be defined accurately. Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence. The evidence is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses, rather than through 5  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research personal beliefs, experiences and perceptions. An example of quantitative research is where a researcher is interested in the nature and scope of drug abuse among young adults living in communal housing in a metropolitan area in South Africa. For the research to be valid and reliable, use is made of specific scientific methods and techniques (the survey method [such as questionnaires], random sampling, etc.). This is so, because quantitative research is more structured and controlled in nature. Also, the scope of this type of research is more universal in nature and can be defined accurately. The points of departure here are that: Natural and social realities are observed and studied in the same way. Scientific knowledge should be factually based on things that can be observed and measured by means of the senses. The research process should yield value-free knowledge. In quantitative research, preference is given to the following methods and techniques: Conceptualisation of concepts that can be operationalised through measuring instruments. Data-collection techniques, such as structured questionnaires and schedules. Data-analysis techniques, varying from simple cross-tabulation of the data to complex analysis techniques. Quantitative researchers strive to go beyond the specifics of a research situation to reach a point where the findings can be generalised beyond those individuals who participated in the study. Given the control and the narrowness of the focus in quantitative research, criticism is often raised that such research does not capture the full breadth and depth of human experiences. The methods used in quantitative research are discussed in other learning units. 5.2 Qualitative approach Qualitative research aims at studying real-life scenarios - situations where little is known about the phenomenon or when the nature, context and boundaries of a phenomenon are poorly understood. The researcher focuses on exploring meanings, describing and providing an in-depth understanding of human experiences such as grief, pain, caring, or perceptions. Qualitative research concentrates on qualitative aspects such as meaning, experience and understanding. Brink and Van Rensburg (2022:122) name six key features of qualitative research: 6  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Research is conducted in the real-life situation. Focuses more on the process and less on the product. Aims at an in-depth description and understanding of people’s experiences, perceptions, beliefs, actions and events, in all its complexities. Research often generates further questions and is inductive in nature. The main instrument is the researcher, who is subjectively involved in the research. Streubert Speziale and Carpenter (2011) identify six principles of qualitative research: Believing in multiple realities. A commitment to identifying an approach to understanding that supports the phenomenon under study. Being committed to the participants’ viewpoints. Conducting the research in a way that limits disruption of the natural context of the phenomenon of interest. Acknowledgement of participants in the research process. Reporting data in a literary style, rich with participants’ commentaries. Qualitative research emphasises the fact that the social sciences require different methods than those used in quantitative research. The qualitative approach employs less strict procedures, where the scope is less defined in nature and the research is done in a more philosophical manner. In qualitative research, the point of departure is to study the element, namely man, within unique and meaningful human situations or interactions. An important aspect of this type of approach is that, often, it is observation that generates the investigation. Although qualitative research is not based on fixed and rigid procedures, it nevertheless provides the researcher with a set of strategies with which to organise the research, and to collect and process or interpret data. In this type of research, preference is given to the following methods and techniques: Concepts that capture the meaning of the experience (situation), action or interaction of the element (man). Unstructured (open) questionnaires and interviews. Participant observation, ethnographic studies and case studies. Recording of life histories, use of autobiographies and diaries. Analysis of collected data by means of nonquantitative frameworks and category systems. Qualitative research has the following general characteristics: This type of research involves a holistic investigation executed in a natural set-up. The researcher tries to study all the elements that are present within that particular context 7  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research or situation. The context is studied as a whole, in order to understand the realities involved — one of the most distinctive characteristics of qualitative research. For this reason, the researcher tries to understand a phenomenon within its social, cultural and historical context. Individuals are the primary data-collection instrument in this type of research. As observers, they are the main data collection ‘instrument’, rather than relying on measuring instruments. The qualitative researcher can adapt to a complex situation, as it develops. Differences in values and prejudices can be considered. Additional data are obtained by means of other more objective instruments, such as documents or interview guides. The emphasis is on the use of qualitative methods. Participants are selected in a purposeful, rather than a random manner. There is a purposeful selection of a wide variety of participants, which can then be observed or interviewed by the researcher. The researcher makes use of inductive data analysis, so that unexpected results will also come to the fore. First, the researcher collects the data, and then he or she tries to understand the situation and make deductions. A grounded theory or substantive model can be developed — that is, a theory that was actually developed from the data and that is thought to be better than pre-developed theory (as is the case in quantitative research). Such a grounded theory or substantive model reflects the data in a more accurate manner. There are also many quantitative researchers who acknowledge the value of a grounded theory and who then do pilot studies to develop theoretical constructs that they eventually test by means of quantitative methods. The participant plays a role in the interpretation of the results. Qualitative researchers try to reconstruct reality from the participant’s frame of reference. Member checking is an important process in refining the results. In quantitative research, the element or person is called the respondent and, in qualitative research, he or she is called the participant. Intuitive insights are used. In qualitative research, the emphasis is more on intuition- based knowledge (i.e., on the participant’s experience of a situation). The emphasis is on social processes. Qualitative studies focus on the social processes 8  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research and the meanings attached to such social situations by the participants (Brink & Van Rensburg, 2022; Polit & Beck, 2021; Roestenburg et al., 2021). Deciding on the approach to follow is based on a variety of aspects. These include: Practical and ethical considerations where a study cannot be done by means of an experiment. Where in-depth inquiries into complexities and processes are made. In instances where the relevant variables still need to be identified. When the researcher wishes to find out and explore why the current policy and practice do not work. Research about unknown phenomena. In another learning unit, the research designs relevant for qualitative research, research methods, and how to conduct qualitative data analysis and interpretation, are discussed. 5.3 Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research The two approaches (quantitative and qualitative) complement each other in that they generate different kinds of knowledge. The problem to be studied determines the approach to the research, and the researcher’s knowledge of both these approaches promotes accurate selection of the methodology to be used. Similarities between these approaches involve that both require researcher expertise, rigor in implementation, and result in the generation of scientific knowledge. The differences between the two approaches are displayed in table 1. TABLE 1: Characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research Characteristics Quantitative research Qualitative research Philosophical origin Logical positivism Naturalism, interpretivism and humanism Focus Concise, objective, reductionistic Broad, subjective, holistic Reasoning Logistic, deductive Dialectic, inductive Basis of knowledge Cause-effect relationship, prediction Meaning, discovery and about social reality understanding, constructing detailed descriptions of social reality Theoretical focus Tests theory, seeks to control Develops theory, seeks to phenomena understand phenomena Researcher Controls phenomena. Begins with Shared interpretation, capture involvement preconceived ideas about how context in its entirety. Few concepts are interrelated preconceived ideas with 9  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research emphasis on participants’ interpretations of events and circumstances Researcher Does not participate in events under Involves sustained interaction participation investigation, most likely to collect with the participants in their data from a real distance own language and in their natural setting Concepts Concepts are converted into Participants’ natural language operational definitions. Focus is on a is used to come to an relatively small number of concepts understanding of their world (concise and narrow) (complex and broad) Research design Standardised and replicable Flexible and unique Data collection Systematically in a standardised Data sources are determined manner by information richness to enrich understanding Units of analysis Variables which are elements that Holistic, concentrating on the form part of the whole relationships between elements, contexts, words. Whole is always more than the sum Methods of analysis Statistical analysis Individual interpretation Findings Generalisation, accept or reject Uniqueness, dynamic theoretical propositions understanding of phenomena, and new theory (Compiled from Brink & Van Rensburg, 2022; Burns & Grove, 2020; Roestenburg et al., 2021) Data collection in quantitative and qualitative research differs in the following ways: One of the characteristics of quantitative researchers is that they use a system as a point of departure for their research. This system is then applied to the phenomenon that is investigated: for example, they will use a structured schedule for an interview, or response categories in a questionnaire or test. In other words, a specific structure is imposed on the phenomenon. In qualitative research, on the other hand, the point of departure is that the phenomenon should be self-evident — that is, the phenomenon needs to manifest itself, as it is, and the researcher will report this. Quantitative researchers look at the phenomenon from a distance — a disadvantage being that they then have problems accommodating behavioural manifestations that were not anticipated in the research. 10  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, are more involved in and with the phenomenon. Sometimes, they are even prepared to be part of the phenomenon that is studied: for example, as members of a gang. This would give them the opportunity to describe their own experiences, from their own observations. Qualitative researchers are therefore more open to observation and to pinpoint behaviour or conduct accurately. Activity 3 Consider the COVID-19 pandemic. Healthcare professionals were important role players in the vaccination programmes set out by the South African government. How would you investigate the phenomenon of “vaccination for all” from a (1) quantitative and a (2) qualitative perspective? Include the purpose of the study and how the data will be collected. 5.4 Mixed methods In this section, a short introduction to mixed methods research is provided. Where researchers identify reasons to combine and integrate both quantitative and qualitative approaches in one study, one refers to mixed methods research. There is thus a deliberate combination of approaches, with different underlying assumptions and paradigms. Researchers aim to draw on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative approaches and to limit the weaknesses in using one single approach. A key feature of mixed methods research is the strength of the methodological pluralism that could lead to superior research (Mitchell, 2018). A mixed methods approach involves the collection and integration of qualitative and quantitative data in a single or a sequence of studies where mixing can occur at the level of methods (Creswell, 2013), methodology (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010), or across disciplines. Mixed methods research is therefore an approach where both qualitative and quantitative data are collected in a single study, data sets are integrated, and interpretations made based on the strength of both the approaches to answer the research question (Creswell, 2013). The researcher comes to a deeper understanding of a phenomenon, through the systematic integration of the data. The integration of findings from the qualitative and the quantitative phases is thus the distinct claim in mixed methods research. The four major types of mixed methods designs are: Exploratory mixed methods design. Explanatory mixed methods design. Triangulation design. 11  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Embedded mixed methods design. The detail of mixed methods research is beyond the scope of this module. Should you wish to read more about this design you will find valuable information in textbooks written by Creswell (2013) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010). Mixed methods research and research using multiple methods are different types of research. In the latter, multiple quantitative designs are used to answer a research question. 5.5 Multiple methods or triangulation Researchers may decide to use multiple methods to reach the aim of the study. Qualitative and quantitative research differ, but they can also, in specific areas, complement each other. Multiple methods research enhances construct validity. Because of the complicity in a “confused reality”, it is difficult to study/investigate a phenomenon in its totality. In this complex reality, multiple methods (also called “triangulation”) afford a partial solution (Roestenburg et al., 2021). A multiple method study can be described as a study in which the researcher uses multiple methods of data collection and analysis. The variety may be drawn from “within-methods” approaches, where different types of, for example, quantitative designs are used (e.g., a survey and a quasi-experiment). Alternatively, it could involve using “between methods” approaches, where quantitative and qualitative data collection procedures are used (e.g., survey and in-depth interviews). The use of multiple methods or perspectives to collect and interpret data about some phenomenon and, therefore, to converge on an accurate representation of reality, is also referred to as triangulation. Triangulation assumes that any bias inherent in a particular data source, be it researcher or method, would be neutralised when used in conjunction with other sources. Triangulation can be done using different methods: Data triangulation — the use of more than one data source (questionnaires, diaries, interviews, observational data). Researcher triangulation — the use of more than one researcher in a single study to achieve intersubjective agreement. Theory triangulation — the use of multiple theories or perspectives to interpret a single set of data. Methodological triangulation — the use of multiple methods to study a single topic, for example combining quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study. Analysis triangulation — the use of two or more analytical techniques to analyse the same set of data. 12  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research (Source: Polit & Beck, 2021) If various methods and techniques are used for measuring the same variables and these measuring instruments yield identical results, it will lead to a greater and deeper measure of belief in these methods and techniques. The main advantage of this type of research is that, if there were to be only one measuring instrument for measuring the same phenomenon, the investigation would be even more reliable and valid. This type of investigation involves repetition in investigating the same phenomenon. This could be done by the sequential and simultaneous use of quantitative and qualitative methods; thus, developing a hypothesis or hypotheses through the qualitative method and testing them through the quantitative method. It is important, however, not to use the two research approaches at random or for convenience sake. An example here would be a quantitative investigation in which the respondents are given questionnaires. If there are a few open-ended questions in the questionnaire, it still does not mean that the researcher now also makes use of the qualitative method. Therefore, it is important to note that the underlying meaning of the data should be investigated thoroughly and taken into account. Multiple methods, therefore, have the following distinctive characteristics: Research decisions are based on assumptions that include both the quantitative and the qualitative approaches to research. A style of research is used that includes both quantitative and qualitative methods and techniques. The data are used in a complementary manner. ACTIVITY 4 You plan to investigate the use of social media as a communication strategy between students in an open distance learning context, using multiple methods. The study will make use of data and researcher triangulation. What data sources will be used? 6. TYPES OF RESEARCH Whether a study is qualitative or quantitative, no particular research design is considered to be more valuable than another. The main purpose of a study determines the research design to be used and the type of research. The best design is therefore always the one that is most appropriate to the research problem and purpose. Research can be descriptive, exploratory, explanatory or correlational in nature. Table 3.2 presents an example of how the main purpose of a study varies. The example not only indicates the types of research, but also shows how at least five different studies can evolve 13  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research from one problem area, and how both quantitative and qualitative approaches are appropriate, depending on the purpose. TABLE 2: Obesity in pregnant women living in Polokwane, Limpopo Types of research Purpose of the research Descriptive To describe the dietary patterns of obese pregnant women residing in Polokwane Exploratory To explore how pregnant women residing in Polokwane experience their obesity Explanatory To determine the reasons for obesity among pregnant women residing in Polokwane Correlational To determine the relationship between compliance with a weight reduction programme and successful weight loss in pregnant women residing in Polokwane (Adapted from Brink & Van Rensburg, 2022:133) These types of research can be used either separately or in conjunction with one of the other types. Depending on the particular purpose of the research, a researcher can, for example, concentrate on an exploratory investigation into a problem or phenomenon. If, however, it is necessary to explore and describe the problem or phenomenon, both exploratory and descriptive research will be used. What is important, however, is that one of the three aims of research — namely exploration, description or explanation — will dominate the investigation, and thus will also determine the outcome. 6.1 Exploratory research Exploratory research does exactly what the name says: research is done in a particular field or topic in the social sciences on which no research has been done or of which mention has been made, but which has not been addressed in a scientific manner. Exploratory research starts with a phenomenon of interest, by not only describing the phenomenon, but also examining the nature of the phenomenon, the way it manifests and other related factors that influence the phenomenon. An example of exploratory research is where the value of a health education programme on cancer meets the psychosocial, physical, practical and information- seeking needs of men with advanced cancer. The major purpose of exploratory research is the development and clarification of ideas and the formulation of questions and hypotheses for more precise investigation later. Exploratory research investigates the “what” of the matter, but seldom gives a final answer. The researcher could ask questions to ascertain, for instance, what the cause of a situation was or what made a person feel the way they felt. 14  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Exploratory research is made more difficult by the fact that there are no guidelines in accordance with which the research can be done. What is important, though, is that exploratory research can help to determine what further research can be done about the phenomenon, or about a specific topic. This information is usually obtained through questions and recommendations and lays the basis for a meaningful research design, so that further research can be done. Any subsequent research will then be more systematic and extensive in nature. In exploratory research, the researchers must enter the field with creativity, an open mind and flexibility. They must be able to have an investigative position to explore all sources of information. The researchers must enter the field with an open mind, ask creative questions and must be led by the flow of the interaction with the participants - thus, use opportunities to probe and explore unexpected opportunities that have larger implications on the richness of the data that is collected. Exploratory research aims to: Familiarise oneself with the basic facts, people and problems that need to be addressed. Develop a clear picture of the events. Develop various ideas, tentative theories and postulations. Determine the desirability of doing additional research. Formulate questions and refine phenomena with a view to more systematic investigations. Develop techniques and determine the direction of further investigations. (Source: Gray et al., 2017; LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2014). There are three possible methods to be used in exploratory research, which are: The study of secondary sources of information — to provide new insights into a problem. An analysis of selected cases — knowledgeable people providing new insights into the research problem. A survey of persons who are likely to have information on the phenomenon under investigation — to generate ideas. 6.2 Descriptive research When a researcher wishes to accurately portray people’s characteristics or circumstances, and the frequency with which they occur, a descriptive design will be suitable. Descriptive research is aimed at giving the specific details of a situation (in this case, a social phenomenon), social environment or relationship. It attempts to describe a phenomenon, for example, the demographic characteristics of users of illegal 15  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research substances and to which degree the types of substances vary in terms of the users’ income, age, gender, etc. Although descriptive and exploratory research often overlap, there are differences. Descriptive research attempts to provide a complete and accurate description of a situation or phenomenon, where exploratory research is characterised by flexibility. Before researchers can describe a phenomenon, they should be clear about the main focus of the study. Often, therefore, a topic should first be explored before it can be described. Only then can descriptive research be embarked on – on a specific or fixed basis. The researcher begins their research topic with a specific definition, to give a thorough and accurate description of that topic. The outcome of the investigation should be a detailed picture of the topic under investigation. Description plays an important part in the humanities and a thorough description is regarded as the first step towards understanding a phenomenon. In descriptive research, we try to determine “how” or “why” the phenomenon comes (came) into being, and everybody that is (was) involved. Descriptive research aims to: Give an accurate profile of the research group. Describe a process, mechanism or relationship. Give a verbal or numeric picture (e.g., percentages). Generate information that will stimulate new possible explanations. Provide basic background information or context. Compile a series of categories or to classify types. Explain specific sequences, phases or steps. Document information disproving previous findings about a particular topic (Source: Gray et al., 2017; LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2014). Descriptive research, therefore, provides an accurate picture of the characteristics of a specific person, event or group, in real-life situations, for the purpose of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency of an event or situation, and categorising information (Burns & Grove, 2020). An example of a descriptive study is where the experiences of men with advanced cancer is studied in relation to their feelings of masculinity. Through in-depth interviews, the researcher could make conclusions in relation to aspects of masculinity (Polit & Beck, 2021:12). 6.3 Explanatory research 16  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Explanatory research is aimed at gaining insight into a situation, phenomenon, community or person. Usually, this type of research becomes necessary because of a shortage of research for basic information about a new field of interest (Bless et al., 2013). It clarifies the relationships among phenomena and identifies why certain events occur. Explanatory research is aimed at explaining “why” a topic or phenomenon took a specific course. Explanatory research is usually based on exploratory and/or descriptive research. By using explanatory research, the researcher tries to identify the reason(s) why the event took place. In other words, this type of research looks for causes and reasons why “something” happened or did not happen. An example of explanatory research is where the researcher tests a model to explain the role of patients’ attributes in the design of a health education programme for men with advanced cancer. Explanatory research aims to: Determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory. Find out which of the various possible explanations is the best. Promote knowledge of an underlying process. Combine different factors or topics under a general statement or explanation. Build and expand on a theory, so that it can be more complete in nature. Expand on a theory or principle into new areas or issues. Provide data to prove or disprove an explanation or forecast regarding a specific topic. Explanatory research is therefore conducted to understand the underpinnings of specific phenomena, and to explain systematic relationships amongst phenomena. 6.4 Correlational research Correlational research refers to a systematic investigation of relationships between two or more variables, to explain the nature of the relationship in the world and not to examine cause and effect. There is no researcher intervention and, thus, no manipulation of the independent variable, because the event of interest (dependent variable) has already occurred. Therefore, the correlation does not indicate causation. When a correlation exists, a change in one variable corresponds to a change in others. The correlation can be positive or negative. Although this type of research may confirm the existence of a correlation, it is generally insufficient to indicate that a causal relationship exists. Consider this classic example. When a large number of babies were born with birth 17  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research defects (armless and legless) in the 1960s, researchers investigated the factors that might have been the cause or that might have been correlated with the defects (effect) (Vargesson, 2015). They discovered that all the mothers of these babies had taken thalidomide, a sedative, during their pregnancy. A relationship could therefore be established between the drug and the specific birth defects. The independent variable was not manipulated, because the event had already occurred. Correlational studies can provide meaningful information about how variables function in relation to one another. Another example is where the researcher wants to find out whether there is a relationship between strong rugby players and their fathers. Thus, the researcher wants to determine whether there is a positive correlation between performance and the quality of the relationship between son and father. This implies that the better the relationship between the rugby player and his father, the higher his performance will be. ACTIVITY 5 Use the table below and indicate the type of study and its purpose for the following study. An investigation into the living conditions of people living in rural areas in South Africa. Types of research Purpose of the research Descriptive …. Exploratory …. Explanatory …. Correlational …. 7. TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH An important factor in research is the way it deals with time. A study may take place at a particular time, or it may be deliberately stretched over a long period of time. In any research project, it is necessary to determine beforehand how much time will be required to obtain the necessary information. A cross-sectional study is nonrecurrent in nature and is done at a specific point in time, whereas a longitudinal study is done over a longer period of time. A further categorisation of studies refers to prospective and retrospective studies. Prospective studies refer to studies where data is first collected about a presumed cause 18  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research and, subsequently, the effect or outcome is measured. This study could be cross-sectional or longitudinal in nature. Prospective studies usually yield better quality evidence than retrospective studies. An example of a prospective study would be to study the impact of chronic pain and functioning impairment on patients’ quality of life. The research will select a group of patients suffering from arthritis and determine their pain and functioning impairments. These patients will be followed up over a period of time, to determine their quality of life. Retrospective studies involve collecting data on an outcome occurring in the present and then linking it retrospectively to determinants that occurred in the past. The researcher starts with an effect and works backwards to determine what was associated with this effect in the past. Retrospective studies are typically cross-sectional (data about present outcomes and past events collected at a single point in time). The classic example of a retrospective study is the thalidomide study mentioned above (Vargesson, 2015). From this study, a relationship could be established between the drug and the specific birth defects. In this study, the independent variable was not manipulated, because the event had already occurred. Another example of a retrospective study would be of the experiences of adults who moved their parents to an assisted living home by determining their experiences and recollection of the stress after a year of having to move their parents from their home into an assisted living home. 7.1 Cross-sectional research Cross-sectional research is used to examine data at one point in time. This research is conducted when all the information on a specific topic is collected at the same time and no identical project will be done after a specific period of time. Cross-sectional studies are appropriate for describing the status of phenomena or for describing relationships among phenomena at a fixed point in time. These studies are limited to a given period of time and concentrate only on the here and now. It is, however, important that a comprehensive, in-depth study be done of the specific problem or phenomenon concerned. Reference is made to a specific period of time when those events took place, but this reference tends to pertain to the past (e.g., car hijackings that occurred between January and December 2022). Consider this example of a cross-sectional study. The researcher wishes to study the changes in professionalism among social work students as they progress through a four-year baccalaureate programme. A cross-sectional study would be to investigate this by gathering data from students from all four classes at a single point, and then 19  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research comparing the groups. If the seniors had higher scores on a measure of professionalism than the juniors, it might be inferred that the social work students become increasingly socialised professionally by their educational experiences. To make this kind of inference, one would need to assume that the seniors would have responded as the juniors responded had they been questioned three years earlier or, conversely, that junior students would demonstrate increased professionalism if they were questioned three years later. One important disadvantage of cross-sectional research is that it cannot include, for example, changes in the social process — only changes regarding the period during which the data were collected. It is difficult to demonstrate causality. Still, it is more cost-effective than longitudinal research and is the most common choice for social scientists (Bless et al., 2013). Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory in nature, with descriptive research yielding the best results. 7.2 Longitudinal research Longitudinal studies are done to determine long-term effects and are done over an extended period of time. Researchers collect data at several points in time. Four situations call for longitudinal research: Studying time-related processes — some research problems specifically concern phenomena that evolve over time (e.g., learning, professional development, physical growth.) Determining time sequences — the sequencing of phenomena could be important (If a researcher hypothesises that receiving a diagnosis with cancer results in depression, it would be important to determine that the depression did not precede the diagnosis.) Making comparisons over time — to examine whether changes have occurred over time (For example, if one wants to explore the progression of grieving among parents of babies who died of birth complications.) Enhancing research control — by collecting data at multiple points to enhance the interpretability of the results (In this type of research, two or more studies are done on a specific topic or phenomenon, over a period of time. The measuring instrument(s) used should be standardised as far as possible. The study is done to determine if there was any change with the group(s) in the course of time.) An example of a longitudinal study would be an investigation into the psychomotor and reasoning abilities of children from infancy to adolescence. After a number of years, another study will be done, based on the same principles, to see how this group of children differs from the previous group. The first group, say, consists of children who grew up without cellphones. A second group will then consist of children who were 20  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research exposed to free use of cellphones. A third group will be exposed to both cellphones and computers. In this way, the researcher can determine the influence of technology on the child’s psychomotor and reasoning abilities. Longitudinal research is predominantly descriptive and explanatory in nature. It is used mainly in applied research, and more specifically in evaluative research. This type of research has the advantage that it can point out specific tendencies with great certainty, which makes it possible for researchers to make forecasts. This type of research is more complex and more expensive than cross-sectional research, but is also more indicative of social change. Polit and Beck (2021) point out that, often, longitudinal studies constitute the only way of pointing out specific characteristics, as well as causal relationships between variables. Consider the same example of researching social work students that was discussed under cross-sectional research. The researcher wishes to study the changes in professionalism among social work students as they progress through a four-year baccalaureate programme. A longitudinal study would be to investigate this by gathering data from students, every year until they graduate and then examine changes over time. In this way, one could make inferences of how professionalism increased as they progressed with their years of study. The design of longitudinal research falls within various categories (Polit & Beck, 2021), namely: Panel studies The same people, group or organisation is investigated again over various periods of time. The participants must supply data at two or more points in time. The panel refers to the sample of subjects providing data. Because the same people are being studied over time, the researcher can identify individuals who did and did not change, and then investigate their differentiating characteristics. A panel study could be done to explore the antecedent characteristics of smokers, who were later able to quit smoking. The researcher could also examine how characteristics and conditions at time 1 influence characteristics and conditions at time 2. A problem with panel studies is that it could be expensive, due to the time frame and researchers could also face problems of attrition (the loss of participants over time). Attrition could pose a problem of potential biases and difficulty with generalisability of the findings. Follow-up studies Follow-up studies are similar to panel studies, but are usually undertaken to determine the subsequent development of individuals who have a specific condition 21  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research or who have received a specific intervention (Polit & Beck, 2021). The population is thus drawn from a very specific population, unlike panel studies, where the population is drawn from a more general population. Like panel studies, the challenge lies in retaining the participants. A study could be done on smokers who undergo a specific cognitive therapy programme to stop smoking. Data pertaining to their smoking patterns could be collected after three months and then again after one year of attending the programme. Tracer studies (Time-series research) In tracer studies, the researcher “traces” people or follows their lives over a period of time. In most cases, the data is only collected at one point (e.g., ten years after release from prison or five years after completion of a drug rehabilitation programme). This type of study is not strictly longitudinal, but produces data, which simulates a longitudinal design (Bless et al., 2013). Cohort research Cohort studies are used when a different sample from the same population is studied, at different points in time. These studies are done by using a category of people, who had the same experiences in life, over a specific period of time. In other words, the category of people is investigated as a whole, to determine its most important characteristics. The emphasis is on cohort or category, and not on the specific individual. An example here could be a specific group of children, who were adopted between the ages of five and seven. They are then studied over different periods of time — for example, every year. In this way, the researcher can study specific qualities and characteristics, to determine the influence of their early years’ environment on the emotional status of this group. If another group is used for the same study, with exactly the same requirements, except that they were adopted before the age of one year, this constitutes a second cohort group of people. This will enable the researcher to determine the influence of the environment on the emotional status the people concerned. Trend designs Trend designs investigate changes in the general population in relation to a particular phenomenon. The researcher selects different samples of participants from the same population. At pre-set intervals of time, data are collected from that particular sample. The researcher must be able to justify generalisation from the sample to the population under investigation. Data analysis strategies are used to predict future trends from examination of past trends. This type of design could be used to investigate (identify and compare) body types of female models used in fashion magazines over the past ten years. Three groups of models could be used: models used ten years ago (early trends), models used five years ago (intermediate trends) and models used recently. Trends related to female body types can then be 22  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research examined. Trend studies are also sometimes referred to as retrospective studies, to see what kind of changes took place. 7.3 Other types of designs Some designs are not specifically classified under a particular time dimension. These types of designs are also not necessarily discipline specific. Case study research Case study research involves studies that are thick and detailed descriptions of a social phenomenon that exists within a real-world context (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2014). In case-study research, the researcher conducts an in-depth investigation into various characteristics of a single entity or small number of cases over a specific period of time. Hence, it is also sometimes classified under time dimension research. Case study research, therefore, aims at understanding issues that are important to the specifics of the case or entity. This means that the data that are collected are more detailed, varied and comprehensive in nature. A social unit is investigated in its entirety. Such a unit or such cases can include individuals, groups, organisations, forums, specific incidents or a geographic unit. Case study research and qualitative research are not identical in nature. However, almost all qualitative research seeks to construct representations based on in- depth, detailed knowledge of cases. In case study research, in-depth investigations are done into one or more cases, or a specific number of cases can be compared with one another. What is important, however, is that the researcher focuses on various factors. Case study research constitutes an in-depth investigation into interaction among factors influencing explanations or change, which are then analysed. In this type of research, use is made of logical or analytical induction. In other words, the researcher will study one case or a specific number of cases regarding a specific topic and will then analyse the information obtained in detail. The researcher will investigate the characteristic context of that particular case, to determine how the different aspects are taking shape. This is also a way of organising data with a view to taking stock of social reality. In longitudinal studies, unlike in case studies, a large number of units or cases are used to collect data over time, to look for specific patterns. In other words, the focus is more on designated patterns across many units or cases. Case study research is also used to link the micro level to the macro level. On the micro level, the behaviour of individuals is studied so that it can be applied to social structures and processes on a large scale (macro level). The focus of case study research is on the element that is typical, rather than unique. The topic of the case-study should be 23  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research selected with care, so that the unit that is studied is a typical one. The point of departure is the identification of a unit that is typical of many other cases, and that particular case is then regarded as an example of a category of events or a group of individuals (e.g., hijackers, couples challenged with infertility and homeless people). Data may be collected by means of various techniques, such as: Observation by the researcher - of physical characteristics, social qualities or conduct. Interviews. Questionnaires, psychological tests. Written accounts by the subjects in the form of diaries, narratives, etc. Data reported in newspapers, court and school reports, as well as other documents. In order to apply case studies in an effective manner, the researcher should have a thorough knowledge of existing theoretical knowledge about the topic, and should also be able to identify significant variables and isolate them from other variables that are not so relevant. In this type of research, use is often made of grounded theory research, because it begins on an empirical level and ends at the conceptual level. Also, only those variables that converge with the data are used. The researcher should guard against specific prejudices that pose a constant threat to the objective of the study and objective data collection and analysis. The researcher should not erroneously ascribe conclusions to factors that are only associative in nature and are not necessarily cause-effect related. Case study research requires the collection of extended data, to obtain an in-depth understanding of the entity being studied. Narrative analysis Narrative analysis focuses on narrative accounts or stories as the object of inquiry (Polit & Beck, 2022). These narratives or stories allow the researcher to understand how people make sense of experiences or events in their lives. People narrate their stories to make sense of their worlds. In this way, their inner world of needs can be linked to the external world of observable actions. Analysing stories is more than just telling a story; it opens up the reasons why the story got told in a particular way. Reflective essays are also examples of narrative analysis. An example of narrative analysis is where homeless people’s stories of seeking healthcare at a large tertiary hospital are analysed. In this study, the stories highlight the feelings of being disrespected, embarrassment with their appearances and lack of continuous care. 24  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Historical research In historical research, data relating to past occurrences are collected systematically and then critically analysed. Historical research primarily focuses on qualitative data, but could, in some instances, involve statistical information. Existing data for historical research are in the form of: Diaries Published articles Artefacts Medical records Photos and films Letters Newspaper articles, and more Possible interviews are conducted with purposively selected people, who participated in historical events or have experienced the effects of historical events, such as children of soldiers who served in the war. In historical research, the researcher aims to describe what happened, how it happened and why it happened. Relationships between events are explored and interpreted within the historical context and within the context of new viewpoints. An example is the history of training of black nurses over a period of hundred years. Information was gathered through, inter alia, training records, professional registration, letters, photographs and newspaper articles. ACTIVITY 6 In some rural schools, bathroom and toilet facilities do not meet the standards of health and hygiene. In the past five years, cases were reported where children drowned in pit toilets. Health reports also indicate that disease outbreaks in some schools are hygiene related. Indicate the studies that can be conducted to address this phenomenon. Types of research Purpose of the research Cross-sectional design …. Follow-up study …. Case study …. Narrative analysis …. 8. SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 25  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Each type of research has its own place in the research process and, for this reason, it is necessary to use each of them in its specific place in the project that is studied. These types and classifications of research are therefore not mutually exclusive, but complementary in nature as far as the research process is concerned. TABLE 3: A classification of types of research Classification: What is investigated Types of research Category What it is used for, the perspective to the research and Basic research the purpose thereof Applied research Methodology Approach Quantitative research Qualitative research Mixed methods Triangulation Purpose Types Exploratory research Descriptive research Explanatory research Correlational research Time dimension Periods of time/ duration Cross-sectional research Longitudinal research Trend designs Case-study research (can be time- related) Other designs Not specifically classified Case -study research Narrative analysis Historical research 9. CONCLUSION Research is planned and organised in an orderly manner and based on scientific justification. Phenomena are therefore investigated in some or other way. Any social science research project will make use of some type or classification of research that will serve as the blueprint for the methods that will be used. In the following learning units, more specific details will be given as to how these types and categories of research are applied in the research process. 10. SELF-EVALUATION ASSESSMENT This section aims to test your level of understanding of the content presented in this learning unit. 26  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Are you able to define uses and perspectives (categories) in scientific research? Are you able to describe the methodology in terms of research approaches? Are you able to differentiate between the different approaches to research? Are you able to describe the time dimensions in research? Are you able to plan research using the uses, approaches, types and time dimensions? Are you able to describe other types of designs that are relevant to social sciences research? 11. ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES This section aims to enhance your learning experience on some of the learning outcomes addressed in this learning unit. 12. YouTube links Social research Sociology Research Methods: Crash Course Sociology #4 - Bing video Different types of research https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3vyheXBPSsg Introduction to qualitative and quantitative research https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=69qP8kFJp_k 13. OERs https://le.ac.uk/courses/cpd-quantitative-and-qualitative-research-methods https://www.oercommons.org/courses/information-literacy-basic-research-skills/view https://www.oercommons.org/courses/in-support-of-basic-science 14. REFERENCES Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. 2021. The practice of social research. 15th ed. Cape Town: Oxford University. 27  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research Bless, C., Higson-Smith, C. & Sithole, S.L. 2013. Fundamentals of social research methods: An African perspective. 5th ed. Cape Town: Juta. Bowling, A., & Ebrahim, S. (eds). 2005. Handbook of health research methods. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Brink, H., & Van Rensburg, G. 2022. Fundamentals of research methodology for healthcare professionals. Cape Town: Juta. Burns, N., & Grove, S.K. 2020. The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis and generation of evidence. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier. Burns, N., & Grove, S.K. 2019. Understanding nursing research: Building an evidence- based practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. Clark, T., Foster, L., Sloan, L. & Bryman, A. 2021. Bryman’s social research methods. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Creamer, E., 2018. An introduction to fully integrated mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell J.W., & Creswell J.D. 2018. Research design: Quantitative, qualitative & mixed method approaches. 5th Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. 2018. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Flick, U. 2014. An introduction to qualitative research. London: Sage. Gray, D.E. 2021. Doing research in the real world. 5th edition. UK: Sage. Gray, J., Grove, S.K., & Sutherland, S. 2017. The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis and generation of evidence. 8th ed. Mosby: Elsevier. Grove, S.K., Gray, J.R., & Burns, N. 2018. Understanding nursing research: Building an evidence-based practice. 7th ed. Elsevier. Hesse-Biber, S.N., & Johnson, R.B. 2015. The Oxford handbook of multimethod and mixed methods research inquiry. Oxford University. Leavy, P. 2017. Research design. London: The Guilford Press. 28  Learning unit 3 | RSC2601 Scientific Research LoBiondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J. 2014. Nursing research: Text and study package. 8th ed. London: Elsevier. Mitchell, A.J. 2018. A review of mixed methods, pragmatism and abduction techniques. The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 16(3): 103-116. Mouton, J. 2002. Understanding social research. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Neuman, W.L. 2003. Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. 5th ed. USA: Pearson Education. Padgett, D.K. 2017. Qualitative methods in social work research. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Sage. Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. 2022. Essentials of nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice. 10th ed. Wolters Kluwer. Polit, D.F., & Beck, CT. 2021. Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. 11th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Roestenburg, W.J.H., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B., & De Vos, A.S. 2021. Research at grass roots: For the social sciences and human services professions. 5th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Streubert, H.J., & Carpenter, D.R. 2011. Qualitative research in nursing: Advancing the humanistic imperative. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkens. Vargesson, N. 2015. “Thalidomide-induced teratogenesis: history and mechanisms.” Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews 105(2): 140–56. doi:10.1002/bdrc.21096 29