UCSP Learning Package Q2 PDF

**CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO** **UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS** FIRST SEMESTER -- FINALS A. Y. 2024-2025 **LESSON 1: CULTURAL SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS** **A. KINSHIP** refers to the "web of social relationship" that humans form as part of a family, which is the smallest u...

**CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO** **UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS** FIRST SEMESTER -- FINALS A. Y. 2024-2025 **LESSON 1: CULTURAL SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS** **A. KINSHIP** refers to the "web of social relationship" that humans form as part of a family, which is the smallest unit of society. Family is a social and economic unit that consists of one or more parents and their children. 1\. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group of individuals a family is their dependency on one another with regard to their social and economic activities. This implies that the family acts as the primary support group for its members as they participate in the social processes within a society. 2\. A family can have one or more parents. In the society that you grow up in, a family usually consists of two parents---a father and a mother. However, this is not the norm for other societies who would have one parent, a mother or a father, or multiple parents due to multiple marriages. 3\. A family can have parents who are not married. Although the marriage of parents is important in religious countries such as the Philippines, it is not a prerequisite in other societies. Hence, as long as individuals are socially and economically interdependent, they can be considered a family. This puts into perspective the concept of common law marriage, which is an informal union of at least two individuals who present themselves as a couple. 4\. A family can have parents of the same gender. Although same sex marriage is illegal in most countries including the Philippines, some societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the same sex. 5\. A family should have at least one child. One of the most crucial elements of a family is the existence of children. Without a child, a couple remains to be a couple and not a family. **The purposes of a family** are to orient the individual of the norms of the society and to provide physical support as the individual mature **KINSHIP BY BLOOD -** This type of kinship links individuals based on their genetic relations (example: their bloodline). This is referred to as the descent/socially accepted connection between an ancestor and its succeeding generation. ------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- **Types** **Relationship** Unilineal Relationship is established either through the male or female parent Matrilineal Lineage trace through the female parent Patrilineal Lineage traced through the male parent Bilateral Relationship is established through both parents (male and female) ------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- **Unilineal descent** -- allows individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex group **KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE** **Marriage** is defined as the socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, their children, and their in-laws. **Function of marriage** 1. It regulates mating and reproduction 2. It creates a system that allows for sexual division of labor 3. It provides for a family dynamic that ensures the provision of needs of children. 4. It perpetuates economic institutions that are based on the family system. **Types of families based on marriage system** 1. **Patrifocal and Matrifocal** -- this type of family is focused on one parent; a father or a mother. It is associated with the term patriarchal, the rule of the father, and matriarchal, the rule of the mother. It does not solely imply that there is only one parent. In some situations, one parent is deemed more important than the other due to the economic or political positions he/she holds in the family and in society. 2. **Monogamous** -- this type of family consists of a single couple and their child or children. This is also referred to as the nuclear family. 3. **Polygamous** -- this type of family consists of several parents and their children. a. **Polyandry** -- is a marriage pattern wherein a woman is allowed to marry several men.in some other societies women marry several husbands who are at times brother. It is called fraternal polyandry. b. **Polygyny** -- is a marriage practice that allows a man to marry several women. This is a practice in the Islamic societies. In some cases, these women are sisters making it as "sororal polygyny" 4. **Extended family** -- this type of family has several married couples and their children living in one household. This consists of married parents and their married children living in one house. 5. **Reconstituted family** -- the current spouses were previously married and had children. Individuals remarried and created a new family by bringing in their children from their past marriages and often birthing their own. **POST MARITAL RESIDENCY RULES (Major residency patterns)** 1. **Patrilocal Residence** -- upon marriage, the woman is expected to transfer to the residence of her husband's father. Her children will be raised by her husband's family and be integrated to their lineage, allowing for the creation of a patrilineal descent. Virilocal residence is a subset of this practice that focuses only on the transfer of the woman from her parent's residence to that of her husband without consideration for the creation of a patrilineage. 2. **Matrilocal residence** -- upon marriage, the man is expected to take residence with his wife's mother's area, where they are expected to raise their children and integrate them to the maternal line, creating a matrilineal descent. Uxorilocal residence is a less complex rule that merely requires the husband to move into his wife's mother's household without consideration for the creation of a matrilineage. 3. **Neolocal residence -** is an arrangement that requires both spouses to leave their households and create their own at times even in a different locality. This supports the creation of a nuclear household and is commonly experienced in developed and industrialized societies. 4. **Avunculocal residence** -- this is a complex residency pattern as it requires two residence transfers. Upon marriage, the couple practices a form of virilocal and raises their children in the household of the husband's father. However, upon reaching adulthood, these children with their mother's brother and live with him and his household which may consist of his wife and young children and the other adult male offspring of his sisters. This practice allows for the creation of a patrilineage. 5. **Natalocal residence** -- this arrangement allows both spouses to remain with their own households after marriage. The couple will have to arrange for meetings as the two are not living under one household. Their children are allowed to choose which household they would join. 6. **Matrifocal residence** -- this type of residency rule arises when the father is economically and physically unable to provide support for the family, thereby ascribing the role of sole provider and caregiver to the woman. In this connection, all of the children reside with their mother who is part of her mother's household. 7. **Ambilocal residence** -- this type of residence pattern allows the couple to choose to live either with the wife's mother's area or husband's father's area. This often creates an extended family, as several married children and married couples may cohabit in one household. 8. **Transnational families** -- due to globalization and transnational movements of people, families tend to practice alternative forms of residency patterns that are not based on lineage perpetuation, but mores so on economic reasons such as job offers, educational advancement and job placements **KINSHIP BY RITUALS** **A.** **COMPADRAZGO** -- individuals not originally part of the family are made extended family members by being godparents of a child of one of the actual family members. In the Philippines it is the concept of "ninangs and ninongs" for occasions such as baptism, confirmation and marriage. **Political kinship -- are** the structuring networks in politics to gain support to facilitate ease of work such as winning election posts, or facilitate comfortable communication and transactions. **Political dynasty** - is the absolute holding of power of a single family from one election to the next. It aims to control power, influence, maintain prestige and economic gains. It refers to the continuous political rule of one family. This can be in the form of the succession of rule or in the occupancy of several political positions by one family. Due to compadre system, political alliances are also created. Due to the vulnerability of this type of governance, laws are enacted to prevent the occurrence of this pseudo kinship. For example: the 1987 Philippine Constitution states in article II Section 26 that 'the state shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service and prohibit political dynasties as may be defined by law". **B. POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES** **Political organization --** is any entity that is participating in a political process. **A. Bands** -- is the least complex form of political organization as it has neither a rigid form of governance nor a structured form of leadership. It consists of 20-50 individuals who are usually related to one another by virtue of kinship. Decision making is often made by the entire group with the eldest member acting as the facilitator. It is egalitarian in social composition. It implies that individuals have equal access to resources and values. **B. Tribes** -- it comprises a number of bands that are politically integrated. They share a language, religious beliefs, and other aspects of culture. **C. Chiefdoms** -- as the socio-political domain becomes more intertwined with the economic sphere of existence, people tend to settle down in a particular area and become more settled with a homogenous form of livelihood (like farming or fishing), they organize themselves into a chiefdom. **D. States and nations** -- nations are a large area of land that is controlled by its own government. A state is a politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory, especially one that is sovereign. Nation- state is a form of political organization in which a group of people who share the same history, traditions or language live in a particular area under one government. **AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY** **Legal Authority** -- is achieved by a leader through the process of following established codes and procedures governing the allocation and distribution of power and resources within the society. Leaders who are ruling under the clout of this authority have been either elected or appointed to office following the existing laws of the land 1. **Traditional authority** - is a form of leadership legitimacy that highlights the right of a leader to rule based on inheritance of the title. People under the leadership of a ruler with traditional authority accept the latter's exercise of power as it has been the status quo in the society since their forefathers. Example is the rule of the monarchs and their allies in both patrimonial and feudal regimes. 2. **Charismatic** -- in found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others. It is based on a perceived extraordinary characteristic of an individual. This is actually true to religious organization. a. Institutional charisma -- combination of charismatic and legal authority b. Familial charisma -- combination of traditional and charismatic authority 3. **Rational** -- is empowered by formalistic belief in the content of the law. It sets a uniform principle. Example is the bureaucratic system. **C. ECONOMICS INSTITUTION** A. **Reciprocity --** is a social norm that involves in-kind exchanges between people responding to others' action with another equivalent action.it is usually positive (returning a favor), but sometimes it can become negative (punishment for a negative action). **Type of reciprocity according to American cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins (1972)** **1. Generalized** -- is similar to virtually uninhibited sharing or giving. This happens when a person shares goods, labor or expertise with other members of the community without expecting anything in return. **2. Balanced/symmetrical reciprocity** -- this occurs when a person gives another his/her goods or services, however, expecting a fair and tangible benefit at an indefinite time in the future. This can be considered as an informal system of exchange. The expectation that the giver will be compensated is anchored on social trust and consequences. In Filipino, it is referred to as "utang na loob". If someone has aided you with something, you instantly feel a debt of gratitude to that person. Because of "utang na loob", you cannot say no to that person when he/she seeks assistance from you in the future. If you will not be able to return the favor to the person who has helped you, then you will be branded by the society as "walang utang na loob", or someone who has no sense of gratitude. This mentality can cause a social repercussion on someone to isolate himself/herself for fear of having a debt of gratitude or being branded as ungrateful. **3. Negative reciprocity --** this is what people call barter. When a person gives a service or goods to another person, he/she expects to be compensated at once with the same amount of goods or services. The giver expects something of greater value in return -- that is he/she plans to profit from the transaction. Often, payment has to be immediate, for there is little or no trust at all between the parties exchanging goods; each is trying to get the better from the other, even if there is a lack of trust between two parties, is still operational. **B. TRANSFERS --** transfer payment is used by governments as a way to redistribute money through programs such as but not limited to, old age-linked pensions, medical and health insurance, scholarships and student grants or vouchers. These payments are considered to be components of personal income. These can be made at the national level and or the local level. The example of this is the "Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino" (4Ps) spearheaded by the DZWD. **C. REDISTRIBUTION** -- it is a manner of giving back what employees have worked either yearly, end of contract or retirement. It may include bonuses (Christmas) incentives (13th or 14th month pays, unused sick leave, leave credits and so on), benefits such as Phil health or medical insurance, pag-ibig contributions, social security service (SSS), PERAA and so on. **D. MARKET TRANSACTION -**are the exchange of goods and services through a market. The set of market transactions taking place in the economy is most important in terms of measuring the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) **E. MARKETS AND STATES --** Market economy is dependent on state leadership. Administrative protocols, international relations and priorities affect the economic status of the state. **NON-STATE INSTITUTION-** refers to private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering and promote the interests of the poor. It refers to groups that are entirely independent from the government and characterized by humanitarian and cooperative activities. **1. Bank** -- it is a financial institution that receives, collects, transfers, pays, exchanges, lends, invests, and safeguards money for its customers **2.** **Corporation** - organization created by the government charter that allows people to associate together for a common purpose under a common name. It is a legal entity that is separate and distinct from its owners. It can be used to operate all kinds of business. As a stand-alone entity, it can enter into contracts, loans and borrow money, sue and be sued, hire employees, own assets and pay taxes. The most important aspect of a corporation is its limited liability. This means that shareholders have the right to participate in the profits through dividends and or the appreciation of stocks but are not liable for the corporation's debts. **3. Cooperatives** are businesses governed on the principle of one member, one vote. It is the aggregate of members grouping together for a common purpose, and whose ideas are considered for the common interest. Cooperatives can be typified according to owners and operators. It is also an autonomous association of people who voluntarily cooperate for their mutual benefit. **4.** **Trade union** -- is an organization whose membership consists of workers and union leaders, united to protect and promote their common labor related interests. It is also Refers to an association of workers that seeks to improve the economic and social well-being of its members through social action ***The purposes of this organization are the following:*** a. Negotiate wages and working conditions. b. Regulate relations between workers and the employer c. Take collective action to enforce the terms of the collective bargaining agreement (CBA) d. Raise new demands on behalf of its members e. Help settle their grievances **ROLES OF TRADE UNIONS** 5\. **Transnational advocacy** - Refers to groups that organize across national boundaries to pursue some political, social, or cultural goals. It is also a group of networks which exist to promote principled causes, ideas and values are fluid open relationships among knowledgeable, committed actors. Their goal is to give powerless constituencies a voice in domestic and international arenas and law making. Their primary tool is information- quickly produced, accurately formulated and effectively deployed. They exist to change international policies as well as make real changes in the lives of ordinary people. One of the most common forms of this group is non-governmental organizations. 6\. **Development agencies** - Refers to an agency whose goal is to help develop and support economic growth within a specified city, region, or state by providing necessary resources and assistance. 7\. **International organizations** -refers to membership groups that function across national borders for well-defined purposes. It is also a Practical Organization through which vital international issues are addressed. International linkages and diplomatic ties are necessary for any state, private institution or government. **D. EDUCATION** It is a basic human right that can empower every individual to enjoy his/her other human rights. It leads people towards freedom and empowers them towards development and progress. It can serve as a key to open the mind of people to redeem themselves from poverty, oppression and ignorance. It is also the process of facilitating [learning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning), or the acquisition of [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge), [skills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill), [values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(ethics)), beliefs, and [habits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit). Educational methods include [teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching), [training](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training), [storytelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytelling), [discussion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion) and directed [research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research). Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators; however learners can also [educate themselves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism). Education can take place in [formal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formality) or [informal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_education) settings and any [experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience) that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The [methodology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology) of teaching is called **[pedagogy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy).** **Functions of Education** 1. **Transmission of Culture -** Education instils and transmits the social norms values and beliefs into the next generation. Teacher himself or herself has been through a similar phase of learning, after learning the social norms, teachers forward it to the next generation. Though the exact social norms are not taught and transmitted to the next generation there are few changes in it due to social change and the personal experience of teachers. 2. **Social integration -** Education unifies the individuals in society and creates the sense of solidarity among them. It helps the individuals and groups to cooperate with one another and find a common ground for social life. Nations are built because of education because it unifies people into an organized unit. Educational institutions are instruments of the state to promote unity, cooperation and solidarity among the diverse members of society (Schaefer 1995). In nation building, education plays the role of integrating the diverse groups to develop a common identity, loyalty, respect for other institutions, and love for country, among others. 3. **Career Selection -** Education helps individuals to think about their career which they want to pursue in future. It prepares them for future endeavors. Provide them with all the necessary information regarding their social life and professional life. 4. **Techniques of Learning Skills -** Education teaches an individual various techniques of learning professional skills. There are different educational institutions for learning different professional skills. For example, if a person wants to pursue a career in engineering, there are engineering colleges and universities. 5. **Socialization** - Human beings are social animals, in order to learn social skills and social norms of society, one has to socialize. Educational institutions provide us the platform to interact with different people of our own age and common interest. It helps us to groom our personality and acquire quality personality traits. 6. **Rational Thinking** -Education helps us to think rationally and conclude any event, situation and issue with reasonable explanation. 7. **Adjustment in Society** - Education groom the personality of an individual which helps him/her to adjust in any environment, group, community and society. 8. **Patriotism**- Love for nation and country are instilled in people from a very young age through educational institutions. They learn their duties and obligations towards their nation and their country.  **EFFECTS OF EDUCATION ON SOCIETY** **1. Education is important in the creation of any democratic society. **The real safeguard of democracy, therefore, is education." People need a good education if they want a good democracy. **2. Education is needed to make a society geopolitically stable. **Without a proper [educational system](https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/deprogramming-children-isis-n780081) available to everyone, terrorists could use free education as a way to radicalize people. In other words, geopolitical stability is one of education's most powerful effects on society. **3. Education leads to economic prosperity in the global marketplace. **One of the most important effects education has on society is giving the people who live in a society the skills they need to compete in the global marketplace, and the skills they need to produce technological goods that can be sold on the open market. **4. Education gives people the knowledge they need to elect capable leaders. **Plato stated, "In politics we presume that everyone who knows how to get votes knows how to administer a city or a state. When we are ill... we do not ask for the handsomest physician, or the most eloquent one." Education helps the members of society see through the manipulations used by politicians to get votes so that the members of the society can vote for the leader who is best able to run the society. **5. Education helps promote tolerance in a society and helps reduce common conflicts between diverse populations in an urban setting. **Helen Keller said that "The [highest result](https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/helen_keller_133850) of education is tolerance." Educating members of society about other people who either live in the society or its neighboring states have the power to reduce many conflicts. **6. Education has the power to help societies, and the world in general, changes for the better. **According to Nelson Mandela, "Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. Malcolm X says that: "Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today." Education is a powerful tool that can be used to make the world a better place to live in. **7. Education is important because it helps members in a society learn from the mistakes of the past. **Plato has stated that geopolitical stability cannot be created by forming a democratic government; if the government is established by force or because of overthrowing an old regime, the new government could transform from a government that encourages peace and democracy into a new government that uses force to maintain power. Having an education is important because [good education](https://www.npr.org/2017/09/22/552665068/can-teaching-civics-save-democracy) allows members of a society to learn from past mistakes and prevent the same mistakes from happening in the future. **8. Education is the first step a society needs before giving rights to women and other minority groups. **Education is a powerful tool that enables women and other minority groups to gain fundamental civil rights. It is important to treat women and other minorities with respect in the classroom. **9. Education reduces violence and crime in societies. **Teaching people to read has been shown to prevent people from engaging in crime. In fact, the Melissa Institute for Violence Prevention and Treatment is a charity group uses education to combat violence and crime. **10. Education creates hope for the future. **Giving people hope that they can improve their lot in life is one of the more powerful effects education has on a society. John F. Kennedy best expressed the power of a good education when he said: "Let us think of education as the means of developing our [greatest abilities](http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/8280.html), because in each of us there is a private hope and dream which, fulfilled, can be translated into benefit for everyone and greater strength for our nation."  JFK's words about America apply to every society on Earth **FORMAL EDUCATION** - It is an organized education model which is structured and systematic. This model presents rather a rigid curriculum that corresponds to laws and norms. It's a presentational education. This means that there are students, teachers and institutions involved. Schools and universities use this method to teach their students. Formal education institutions are administratively, physically and curricular organized and require from students a minimum classroom attendance. In formal education teachers and students have to observe, this involves intermediate and final assessments in order to advance students to the next learning stage. In formal education you receive a degree or diploma at the end of the formation but there are also desired behavioral objectives. **INFORMAL EDUCATION** - It covers a vast array of learning that all people take part in, in their lives every day. It covers activities like individual and personal research on a subject or interests for themselves by using books, libraries, informal trainers, the internet or other resources. Informal education also includes aspects whereby the individuals seek or want to learn a specific skill or when they look into a certain area and don't use formal or non-formal ways to learn. But informal education means also learning things without the learner realizing that he learned it. This can be any kind of information that the learner picked up from the television, radio, conversations with friends and/or family. **PRIMARY EDUCATION AS HUMAN RIGHT** It is the most fundamental form of education. It provides the foundation and lays the groundwork for not only more advanced levels of education, but also basic participation in and contribution to, the modern world. Primary education is a right of every child and it is the responsibility of the state and parents to ensure that every child is provided with a satisfactory level of education. Primary education creates opportunities and opens doors as well as allowing new generations to break free of chronic and inter-generational poverty. Any state sanctioned welfare system should prioritize universal primary education. **Primary education** teaches discipline and helps to develop individuals who appreciate the importance of adhering to a routine. **Education leading to productive and inventive citizenry** Universities were originally established to have a place to transfer the knowledge of the old generation to the present generation. Education is now seen as a means to promote and improve the life of the community and the whole nation. Through research, schools can help in the promotion of health, solving crimes, disorders and provide guidelines for management and leadership. It can also find ways to increase productivity, recreation and offer solutions to problems that confront the people in the community. Education also helps in economic prosperity and social environment in the society. Well-educated citizens generally work in higher level jobs. With the leadership of an educated population, many social conditions are improved. Even health services of different countries were improving because of educated people. Education is geared toward the achievement of the 21^st^ century competencies the world is now becoming a global community and there is a need to level the grounds between citizens of rich and poor countries **E. RELIGION AND BELIEFS SYSTEM** It is important in the formation of society; it is the oldest human institution, as old as the caveman thousand years ago. Religion as defined by Giddens, \"as a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is shared, all-encompassing and supernatural.\" **Anthropologist's Definition** "...any set of attitudes, beliefs and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts or demons" (Ember, C.R. & Ember, M., 1992: 324) What is considered supernatural? All societies possessed beliefs that can be grouped under the term religion. Religion is a cultural universal. **THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON RELIGION:** 1\. Sociologists are more concerned with the people rather than the divine aspect of religion. 2\. Sociologists are concerned with how different religious institutions and organizations function in society. 3\. Sociologists believe that religion provides social stability. If a society is dominated by a common religion, there will be social stability; however, if a society practices various religions, the society will experience destabilization and conflict. For example, India has numerous religious practices, like Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism and many others. Because of this, cases of discrimination and hate crimes emerge in this country. 4\. Sociologists explain religion in the light of social forces rather than the personal, spiritual or psychological forces. **FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION** 1\. Religion provides answers to questions like: purpose of life, why people suffer, why people die, meaning of existence, existence of afterlife and the like. 2\. Religion provides comfort and meaning to life suffering. 3\. It promotes social solidarity. 4\. It provides guidelines for everyday life. According to Guillum (2005) and Wallace (2007) as cited in the book of Henslin, people who attend church are less likely to abuse alcohol, nicotine and illegal drugs than people who do not go to church. 5\. Religion sets limits on people\'s behavior. In some states in the United States, the selling of alcohol before noon on Sundays is prohibited. This is to get people into the church. 6\. Although religion is not a campaigner of change, in some instances it leads to some changes in society. One good example is the EDSA I in 1986. **Belief system-** is a set of beliefs regarding what is true and false. What is good or bad, what is beautiful and ugly, what is acceptable by society and what is considered as unacceptable. A belief system usually possesses the foundational principles on which a religion, a science, a culture or the philosophy is based but may not necessarily the religion, the science, the culture or philosophy itself. A. **Animism** -- the oldest form of religion in the world. It is the belief that physical objects are sacred and inhabited by spirits. It has been a practice since ancient times. They believed that there are spirits in trees, rocks, mountains as well as people. It is also a worship of ancestors. They offer sacrifices, prayers, dances or other forms of devotions to these spirits in hope of blessing upon areas of life (crops, health, fertility, etc.) or for protection. Animistic people perform rituals, customs, and ceremonies that celebrate this sacred object to summon aid or pacify spirits, through the help of the shaman or the Person considered having to communicate with spirits. There are also varying ceremonies held based on an astronomical event, changing of the season or evil event. There can be a ceremony for the harvest season, for initiating a child into adulthood, for fertility, for burial and wedding. Music, dance and offerings are often included in the ceremonies. Religious leaders are ascribed the authority to perform rituals and summon spirits because they are believed to have ability to communicate with the spirits. They are often referred to as shamans/mediums. They are also often considered as do -it all healers. Ancestor worship is also a vital feature of animism, where spirits of dead relatives are believed to be providing help to the living. Along with this is the practice of burying some material goods together with the body of a dead relative. Festivities and ceremonies play important roles in the propagation and the continuance of the belief system. B. **Polytheism** -- is the belief in multi deities or gods and goddesses. As people become more and more akin to a close-knit society, their belief in the many spirits that inhabit things has become sifted and these spirits were reduced to a fewer number of beings called as deities. As the knowledge of people progresses through time, so does their way of living. People learned to settle in farms, which grew into villages and into cities. C. **Monotheism** -- comes from the Greek "monos", which means one, and "theos", which means god. \"Thus, monotheism is a belief in the existence of a single god. - Today, some believe that the Mormons are a modern example of monolatry (recognition of the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one deity) because they teach the existence of many gods of many worlds, yet worship only the one. - The conception of all other religions as \"idolatry\" (i.e., as rendering absolute devotion or trust to what is less than divine) has often served to justify the destructive and fanatical action of the religion that is considered to be the only true one. D. **Institutionalized religions** -- the beliefs and practices of an organized religion are governed by an official body and such beliefs and practices are unified into a single system. Every adherent to such a system conforms to it wherever they are regardless of culture and tradition. - It is viewed as a social institution in which belief systems and rituals are analytically arranged and formally established. Institutionalized religion is typically characterized by an official doctrine (or dogma), a hierarchical or bureaucratic leadership structure, and a codification of rules and practices. There are more than a hundred religions in the world but Islam, Christianity and Hinduism are the most embraced religion by the people. 1. **CHRISTIANITY** - It is the most-widespread religion in the world with 2.1 Billion followers which is almost 1/3 of the population on earth. Some 2000 years ago, Christianity emerged in Palestine; they were regarded as a sect, different from the religious practices of the Jews and the Romans. Christians were persecuted during that time, however after four centuries; Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. 2. **ISLAM** - It is the second largest and fastest growing religion in the world. Muslim is the name for those who practice al-Islam, Arabic term which means submission without reservation to God's will. Muslim have an absolute, unquestioning, positive devotion to Allah. For modern Islam they trace their history to Arab prophet MUHAMMAD. Islam spread rapidly after the death of Muhammad but all Muslims accept and practice the five pillars: As non-Muslim one must understand that not all Muslims are Arabs because most of the Muslims are Arabs because most of the Muslims belong to Northern Africa and West Asia. 3. **HINDUISM** - It is the oldest religion that dates back to 4,500 years ago. The religion started in the Indus River Valley and for centuries Hinduism remains to be the dominant religion in India and Pakistan. Hinduism also spread outside India; some followers can be found in Africa and Indonesia. Indian culture and Hinduism are intertwined with each other. Hinduism is different from the other religions in the world because of some reasons: A) No founder B) No sacred writing C) Do not picture God as a single entity. Hindu beliefs and practices vary from one society to another, but all of them believe and follow the dharma- a duty to act in connection with the traditional caste system. Also, one considers the principle of karma- a belief in the spiritual progress of the human soul. A Hindu believes that in every action one must be thoughtful of the spiritual consequences of his action. Karma works through reincarnation---a cycle of new birth following death, an individual is reborn into a spiritual state depending in his moral quality of previous life. Hindus do not believe in ultimate justice in the hand of a supreme god, although in the cycle of rebirth, each reaps what he/she sows another teaching in Hinduism is Nirvana----it is the state of spiritual perfection. When a soul reaches this esoteric existence, he/she is spared from further rebirth. A religion is sometimes difficult to define or label as monotheistic or a polytheistic. Hinduism can be regarded as monotheistic because it regards that the universe is a single moral system; however, it can also be polytheistic because it sees evidence of this moral order in many elements of nature. In the United States, some still regard Hinduism as a cult over the past years, and in Western Europe most are not that familiar with the religion, but despite of this, Hinduism is a powerful force in offering both explanation and guidance to life. **F. HEALTH** It is a state of physical, mental and social well being. It is the absence of disease or pain but it does not mean that in the absence of disease, a person is healthy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer---they are more productive and happier. People are the wealth of the nation; they are the drivers towards progress and development. To advance in life and reap the advantages of this development, what we need is good health. **Ethno medicine** is also known as the study of cross-cultural health systems. This process is known even during the early days of anthropology. A health system encompasses many areas: perceptions and classifications of health problems, prevention measures, diagnosis, healing (magical, religious, scientific, healing substances), and healers. Ethno medicine has extended its emphasis and included topics such as perceptions of the body, culture and disability, and change in indigenous or \"traditional\" healing systems, especially as resulting from globalization. The well-known Contemporary Western Biomedicine (MUBM), a process of healing which is based on modern Western science that emphasizes technology in diagnosing and treating health problems related to the human body, is an ethno medical system, too. Medical anthropologists now study WBM as a cultural system intimately bound to Western values. Thus, the current meaning of the term ethno medicine encompasses health systems everywhere. There are some diseases that have very limited distributions around the world due to the fact that they are caused by unique combinations of environmental circumstances and cultural practices. These are generally called culture-specific syndromes and illness. This kind of disease is peculiar and to some extent endemic to a certain culture because of how they are contracted which is crucially linked to their cultural practices and surroundings. Example: 1. **Usog** is a very curious case of sudden nauseous condition of the nausog which can be cured by mainly using the saliva of the nang-usog. This usually happens when someone visits a house for the first time. Children are very prone to this phenomenon. Atang is offered to the spirits so that healing becomes possible. 2. **KURU is** a fatal culture specific disease of the brain and nervous system that is found in South Fore (Fore are people who live in Okapa District of the Eastern Highlands Province in Papua New Guinea). Symptoms of kuru are palsy, contracted face muscles, loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eventually even eat. Kuru victims become increasingly thin. The people of South Fore call this disease a \"trembling sickness\" and \"laughing sickness\"; death occurs within six to twelve months of the start of the symptoms. Most of the victims are women in their 20\'s and 30\'s. And this phenomenon causes a social problem since after the death of these victims, men/husbands are left with their children and there are only few marriageable women in the community. The people believe that this is the work of a witch who uses contagious magic. As a result, witch hunts are organized and former witches are forced to confess and then join anti-witch cults. However, none of these remedies slows the rate of increase in the number of Kuru victims. An American pediatrician named Carleton Gajdusek went to Papua New Guinea in the late 1950\'s and tried to research for the solution. Through the use of microscopic examination, he found out that the disease organism was carried in the blood and was concentrated in brain tissue. And the means of transmission was through cannibalism. People of South Fore had a funeral practice where women butchered the corpse and became the main cannibals. This is also shared with their children; while men thought it unmanly, and in early 1960\'s cannibalism was prohibited in Papua New Guinea and this caused the drop off of victims of kuru. Between 1996 and 2004, 11 people were diagnosed with kuru simply because all of them were born before 1950 and had been inflicted with kuru before the end of cannibalism. It showed that the incubation period was 34-41 years in these cases. In the Philippines, pasma, sumpa/gaba and namaligno are all part of everyday life of a Filipino. It is part of the culture, particularly the beliefs and traditions of our ancestors. 3. **PLASMA** is an interaction of hot and cold. It is defined as an \"exposure illness\" which occurs when a condition considered to be "hot" is attacked by a \"cold\" element and vice versa (Tan 2008). In the cage of post-partum syndrome or colloquially known among Filipino Ag nabaliw, the cold element settles in the head causing post-partum depression. This is not different from the yin and yang of the Chinese people---they believe that there must be a balance of nature. 4. **SUMPA** and **GABA**, sumpa is a swear word inflicted by a person while GABA is a curse given by a divine being and usually God or Bathala. A girl is diagnosed with Progeria; her family believes it is with sumpa since her father is known to be a womanizer. They believe that one of his women gives sumpa to his daughter. And a woman who is diagnosed with breast cancer believes that it is GABA, from her siblings, cousin and other relatives who suffer, too, with cancer. It is believed that GABA was inflicted to the family by a god due to some abuses done by their ancestors to their community. Sumpa and GABA are not far different from the karma of the Buddhists. 5. **NAMAMALIGNO** is a widespread belief in the Philippines. It is a belief that a disease is caused by a supernatural or a mystical being. A lady is rushed to an emergency room because of bleeding and pain in her abdomen. The doctors diagnose her with a tumor in her ovary and advise her parents to get ready with the operation. However, the parents insist that their daughter might be namaligno-diwata or anito wants to marry her. That is why he inflicts pain on her so he can have her in his palace. **System of Diagnosis, Prevention and Healing** Traditional medicine is the sum total of the knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs, experiences indigenous to different cultures used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness. It is also called complementary and alternative medicine. **Philippine Folk Medicine** **1. Albularyo-** It is referred to as general practitioner; he/she is knowledgeable in most folkloric modalities and is very familiar with the use of medicinal plants. His/her understanding is usually based on hand-me-down practices and tradition. Method of healing is usually through prayers, bulong, orasyon, pulse-taking and herbal Plants and is believe to possess supernatural powers **2. Manghihilot -** Traditional midwife or massage therapist who treats muscle pain and assists in childbirth. It concentrates on methods and treatments applicable to injuries, fractures and musculoskeletal conditions. Hilot in the Philippines is a massage therapy used in ancient times. It is a therapeutic manipulation that has a good effect on the veins, bones and muscles. This is different from the others because it uses medicinal plants, such as various herbs and banana leaves. **a. Bentosa** cupping massage is a healing method adapted from the Chinese over 3,000 years ago. It is used to drain excess fluids antitoxins; stimulate the peripheral nervous system; bring blood flow to stagnant muscles and skin; and loosen adhesion, connective tissue and stubborn knots in soft tissue. **b. Dagdagay** is a traditional Filipino foot massage that originates from the Mountain Province. It is a therapeutic foot massage that uses sticks. This way of massage helps the person to attain good blood circulation and to strengthen its immune system. It is the reason why many old people in the Mountain Province can still carry logs or can travel up to the next mountain. **3. Faith healer** - a healer who claims that he/she is bestowed with divine power by God to heal patients with strong faith in God. 4\. **Exorcist** -- a priest especially ordained to evict spiritual entities out of a person **5**. **The medico**- It is an albularyo but adopts western way of healing. He/she uses the traditional way of healing and at the same time gives prescriptions of medicines. But sometimes problems arise because these medicos do not have a formal education in medicine. **6. Magtatawas-** It detects illness through a ritual called tawas. It is a popular diagnostic ritual performed by most alternative healers that provide clues to the nature and cause of the illness. Pagtatawas originally came from a chemical---crystalline double sulfate of aluminum and potassium---and early on, it was used exclusively for the diagnostic ritual. Filipino healers claim that their healing prowess comes from God --- a calling from a supernatural being. Their healing practices are generously filled with prayers and religious rituals, performed through mediation with the Holy Spirit. *Most Filipinos in the rural areas have related spirits or the local name "anitos". Some practices are done in order to maintain harmony and relationship with the sacred:* a. Asking permission or requesting the spirits to give way, when one passes or goes through a supposed dwelling place of the Anitos, like trees, caves, brooks or rivers. b. Asking permission when answering the call of nature in the forest, or the fields or wayside c. Perform folk rituals before and after using anything that is part of nature, like when one cuts a tree, enters a cave, drinks from a spring or rolls a stone. d. Performing folk rituals before undertaking an activity like building a house, sowing, fishing, mining, going on a journey, curing an illness e. Packing an offering of native food and drink (Ilocano: atang) to express gratitude for a bountiful harvest or for taking anything from natures f. Offering a part of what one eats or drinks when one takes a meal in an open area **Western Way of Healing-** is far from the traditional healing that we have known in the Philippines. It is the method of treatment which involves research through a scientific process. It is the treatment of medical conditions with medication, by doctors, nurses and other conventional healthcare providers. It differs from the other eastern traditional medication since it relies more on medications and has gone through a formal scientific process. Western medicine encompasses all types of conventional medical treatment including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and physical therapy, practitioners of Western medicine are doctors, nurses, physical, occupational, and respiratory therapists. Generally, anyone visiting a doctor\'s office or hospital will receive allopathic treatment. In Africa and Asia almost 80% still adhere to traditional medication rather than the modern way of healing. Industry is worth big money. **Alternative Medication-** means any form of medicine not recognized and practiced by the western medicine or conservative medicine as practiced by a majority of doctors today. Alternative medicine exists in all cultures to some degree and terms such as traditional medicine, indigenous medicine or folk medicine etc. are used to describe such practices. These medicines dated back hundreds or even thousands of years depending on the country and culture. **These are some alternative medicines very popular today:** **1. Acupressure** is similar to acupuncture but here it is the use of fingers to treat ailments such as tension and stress, aches and pains, menstrual cramps, arthritis. **2. Acupuncture** is the use of fine needles inserted at specific points to stimulate, disperse, and regulate the flow of vital energy, and restore a healthy energy balance. **3. Aromatherapy** is the use of \"essential oils\" distilled from plants. Aromatherapy treats emotional disorders such as stress and anxiety as well as a wide range of other ailments. Oils are massaged into the skin in diluted form, inhaled, or placed in baths. In the Philippines, the Congress passed a law on December 9, 1997 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8423 is an act creating the Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (PITAHC) to accelerate the development of traditional and alternative health care in the Philippines, providing for a traditional and alternative health care development fund and for other purposes. **Health as Human Right** Principles were laid out to make sure that right to health 1. Non-discrimination -- it seeks to guarantee that humans are exercised without discrimination based on race, color, religion, language, sex, national or social origin, birth or other status such as disability, age, marital and family status, sexual orientation and gender identity, economic and social situation. 2. Availability -- this means that there should be a sufficient quality and functioning public health and health facilities, goods services and programs. 3. Accessibility -- health facilities, goods and services should be available to everyone. It has three overlapping elements: a) physical accessibility b) affordable or economic accessibility c) information accessibility 4. Acceptability -- all health facilities, goods and services must be respectful of medical ethics and culturally appropriate and of good quality. 5. Quality -- health facilities, goods and services must be scientifically and medically appropriate and of good quality 6. Accountability -- states and other duty-bearers are answerable for the observance of human rights 7. Universality -- the human right to life to which the right to health is connected is universal and inalienable. All people in the world are entitled to. **The key aspects of the Right to Health** 1\. The right to health is an inclusive right that includes the following: These are Safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, Safe food, Adequate nutrition and housing, Healthy working and environmental conditions, Health-related education and information and Gender equality. 2\. The right to health contains freedoms. These freedoms include the right to be free from non-consensual medical treatment, such as medical experiments and research or forced sterilization, and to be free from torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. The right to health contains entitlements like: The right to a system of health protection, right to prevention, treatment and control of diseases; access to essential medicines. 3\. Health services, goods and facilities must be provided to all without any discrimination. 4\. All services, goods and facilities must be available, accessible, acceptable and of good quality. **LESSON 2: SOCIAL & POLITICAL STRATIFICATION** **Social Stratification**- is when individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less permanent hierarchy of status. It is the distinction given to the population into a superimposed classic. This distinction or ranking is manifested in the existence of an upper and lower class, unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, social values deprivations, social power and influences among the members of a society. **Political stratification**- is concerned with the unequal distribution of political rewards and inequalities in access to political offices. All societies have stratification; no society is unstratified. Even the most primitive societies had some form of social stratification. In the Philippines, even before the coming of the Spaniards, each barangay employed social class. \"The family of the Datu, Pantas and other high-ranking officials belongs to the Maharlika class. The second class was the Timawa. Timawas were traders, artisans, soldiers of the datu in times ofwar and they enjoyed some privileges and freedom. The last class was the Aliping Namamahay and Saguiguilid. Aliping namamahay stayed in the house of their lord, they cannot be sold and can gain their freedom. The Aliping saguiguilid stayed in the kitchen; they were regarded as a property of their lord. Most of the time, aliping saguiguilid were captives of war and so they occupied the lowest class in the society. The functionalist perspective states that systems exist in society for good reasons. Conflict theorists observe that stratification promotes inequality, such as between rich business owners and poor workers. Symbolic interactionists examine stratification from a micro-level perspective. **POWER, PRESTIGE AND WEALTH** **1. POWER-** According to Croteau and Hoynes (2013) is a fundamental sociological concept that affects every level of society and influences our daily lives in countless ways. Because power pervades social life, one must understand its role in various social contexts. \- The word power came from a Latin word "re" which means \"to be able.\" Max Weber defines power as the ability to bring about outcome, even when opposed by others. There are three important purposes to which it is applied: political and cultural. **A. Economic Power** - In any group in a society, power determines who will receive important resources and how it will be used. In a family, the person who controls spending has the power to decide what food or clothes to buy. Business executives have the power to hire, and lay off employees. They also have the power to determine the salaries of their people. The government has the power to allocate resources, generating revenues through collection of taxes and distributing money through public projects which will benefit the citizens. **B. Political Power** - Some people set conditions that others are expected to live with. Parents set house rules for the children to follow. In school or work place, the managers set rules on how the group will work. Congress passes laws and establishes regulations that will organize the people in the society. Those with power set rules and those without power are expected to follow the rules. **C.** **Cultural Power** - Parents usually select books, magazines and games their children play or read. \"Ibis is one way to shape their children\'s understanding and perception towards society. If children internalize their parent\'s beliefs and values, they will opt to follow the rules their parents set. Media is another agent which imposes cultural power to the people/viewers. While the media selects stories, news and sources, they also teach us to view certain topics and people as important and worthy of consideration while marginalizing or ignoring others who are not given proper coverage. Influencing people through stories to read, the ideas they follow and the perspectives is one way to exercise cultural power in society. **2. PRESTIGE**- is a special advantage or benefit that not everyone enjoys? According to the book of Croteau, et.al (2013) heterosexual need not concern themselves with their sexual orientation, since the society\'s norms, laws and practices are designed for them. They can get married, have children, adopt, talk about their relationship freely. These are the privileges that gays and lesbians often do not enjoy because they are aware of the discrimination they might experience from the society. At the same time, a gay might be aware of the discrimination but unaware of his privilege as white and upper-class man. **3. WEALTH** - varies from one society to another. Some view wealth as the number of children they have, some may perceive wealth as a collection of books and some may understand wealth as the number of properties they achieve. In sociology, wealth is associated with property but does it mean that if one has a pair of shoes one is wealthy? There are two kinds of property: a) Consumption property is property that for personal use clothes, cars, family homes and b) Productive property makes money; it is capital and includes factories, farms, stocks and shares. Private productive property provides unearned income and unearned income generates wealth, and wealth is the source of power. Wealth, prestige and power are the source of social and political stratification. **SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION** **CASTE SYSTEM** Caste membership is ascribed status (at birth). Members are expected to be numerous within that caste. There are more than 28(X) castes and sub-castes with all their individualities. A social rank based on economic position who achieved characteristics can influence social mobility. It is far different from other systems since one can move from one stratum or rank to another. Social classes are de facto groups (not legally or religiously defined and sanctioned) they are relatively open, not closed. **Social class** is identified with industrial societies that have emerged since the 17th century. Ogburn and Nimkoff define social class as an aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a given society while Marx defines class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has control over the means of production. Class system manifests inequality in terms of unequal distribution of wealth and power. In the Philippines, during the pre-Spanish period there were only three; Maharlika, Timawa and Alipin. When the Spaniards came there were four: Peninsulares, Insulares, Mestizos and Indio. And during the time of the Americans, they employed the classification similar to their country: Rich, Middleclass and Poor. As time passes, classification also varies, but it does not indicate progress, it is more of a representation of how people live in the so-called progressive world. **SOCIAL MOBILITY** It is a change, shift and movement of an individual or group in social position. It could be a change in wealth, social status, health status, literacy rate, education, or other variables among groups such as classes, ethnic groups, or countries. **Pitirim Sorokin** was the first sociologist to write a book \"Social and Cultural Mobility.\" According to him there is no society which is closed (Caste System in India) and no society which is completely open (Class System). Mobility may be considered in different senses, such as: 1\. A change in occupation that involves a consequent change in status. 2\. A promotion within the same occupational group. 3\. The accumulation of seniority within a given occupation. 4\. A change in occupation from one generation to another, as from father to son. **Today most of the sociologists identify types of social mobility as**: **1**. **Vertical Mobility** is a movement up or down the social strata. The vertical mobility can be in two ways \-\-- individuals and groups. One example of individual mobility is Manny Pacquiao from a simple individual, an unpopular boxer to a multimillionaire, politician and one of the most important figures in sports. Group mobility is when a group of teachers successfully establish an organization, and then a school turns from a simple teacher to administrator. On the other hand, an aristocrat or a member of an upper class may be dispossessed of his wealth and is forced to enter a manual occupation. This is an example of downward mobility. Upward shift in modern society is not easy because resources, services, and programs that might assist people in making such a move are difficult to obtain or afford. Upward mobility is possible if the government and non-government organizations will help and assist the people in the society. Vertical mobility depends both on knowledge of and access to resources such as educational degrees, business grants and loans, job training programs, and even the basic amenities. **A. Inter-Generational Social Mobility** is the change in the status of family members from one generation to the next. It also describes the difference in social status between family members across generations. Example, a farmer\'s son becoming a soldier. If there is very little inter-generational mobility---inequality is clearly built in the society thus people\'s life chances are being determined at the moment of birth. When there is mobility, people can achieve new statuses through their own efforts regardless of the circumstances of their birth. b\. **Intra-Generational Social Mobility** is the advancement in one\'s social level during the course of one\'s lifetime. It is a change in social status which occurs within a person\'s adult career. These changes, either vertical or horizontal, can be ascribed to an individual\'s particular traits or opportunities as well as overall social or economic forces. For example, a person working as a food clerk in a fast-food restaurant becomes a manager after a promotion. **2.** **Horizontal Mobility** is the change of status without a corresponding shift within the social hierarchy. Geographical preference, disinterest in one\'s industry or profession, social networking, health and physical limitations and a person\'s dissatisfaction may push an individual to horizontal mobility. An individual may realize that he/she is no longer happy with teaching so he/ she shifts to another profession which is not far different from teaching--- becoming a social worker. Another example is a rural laborer coming to the city to become an industrial worker or a manager taking a position in another company. **3.** **Structural Mobility** is a kind of vertical mobility. It may be viewed as a vertical movement of a specific group, class or occupation relative to others in the stratification system. It is a movement which is carried by changes in the hierarchy and this change takes place because of the structural Modifications and not because of individual attempts. Example is the migration of Asians in the USA caused the whites to lose their job since Asians agree to a low salary, and most of the companies hire them for labor. Influx of immigrants in one country may also modify class alignments especially if the migrants are highly skilled laborers. **Social mobility can be hindered by the following factors** 1. Educational attainment 2. Childhood poverty with associated psychological and behavioral development 3. The family and all the financial, social and cultural aspects that are formed within it 4. Attitudes, expectations and aspirations 5. Economic barriers. **SOCIAL INEQUALITY-** is defined as the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent Patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments. In this topic gender, minorities and other global inequalities will be discussed. **Economic inequalities** are the experience of discriminated people where they do not have access to goods and services, lack of job opportunities, medical and social care and indecent life. **Ethnic minorities** can be displaced in society due to lack of involvement in political affairs, lack of education, illiteracy, deprivation from social service and recognition from dominant cultures. **Gender Inequality** is the discrimination of other genders labelling them as women, LGBT. It can be caused by gender bias or prejudice in society that highlights a paternalistic system and control. In sociology the word sex is defined as the biological distinction between female and male while gender is the socially constructed cultural expectations with women and men. Biology makes male and female; culture teaches us how to become a man and a woman. **Gender stratification** is a systematic and unequal distribution of power and resources in society between women and men. Discrimination among women Varies from time to time and from culture to culture. In the United States women employees receive a lower salary (salary gap) compared to men. In Saudi Arabia, women are not allowed to drive a car, and to go out without a male company. **Ethnic Minorities and Issues on Inequalities** **Ethnicity** - is defined as shared cultural heritage, often deriving from a common ancestry and homeland. **Cultural heritage** includes common language, traditions, customs, symbols and distinctive food and music. Examples are the Negritos of Zambales and Aurora Province (Agta, Ati, Ayta), Palawan Tribes (Batak, Palawano, Palawefio, Tagbanwa, Tau\'tBato) and Chavacanosin Zamboanga. **Race** is a category of people widely perceived as sharing socially significant Physical characteristics such as skin color. **There are five categories of race:** 1\. **American Indian or Alaska Native**. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America), and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. 2\. **Asian**. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. 3\. **Black or African American** - A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. Terms such as \"Haitian\" or \"Negro\" can be used in addition to \"Black or African American. 4\. **Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander** - A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. 5\. **White** - A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. In every society, people often classify members who are of different races and ethnicity in terms of minority or majority group. A **MINORITY GROUP** is a group of people who suffer disadvantages and have less power because of physical or cultural characteristics. **MAJORITY GROUP** are people who enjoy privileges and have more access to power because of identifiable physical or cultural characteristics. The relationship of minority and majority could be helpful or destructive. In many societies, minorities often experience prejudice and discrimination. **PREJUDICE** means to \"pre-judge\" a person negatively based on inadequate information and often this judgement is based on stereotypes. This is an exaggerated, distorted or untrue generalization. And when prejudices are taken into action this leads to discrimination, unequal treatment which results in the advantage and disadvantage of two groups. Examples are the Dalits and Adivasis of India who do not have political representation, access to education and public sector jobs. Despite the new laws regarding discrimination, most of the Dalits clean public toilets or cook food for the higher class. **LESSON 3: SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES** **Change** is an essential aspect of culture hence dynamic and never static. Not even one culture escapes the occurrence of change for it is inevitable and outright expected. **Social change** is any significant alteration, modification, or transformation in the way social activities and relationships are organized. It includes permutation of the patterns manifested in social institutions, organizations and structures of a society. **Cultural change** is the changes in the culture of the society. It is also the modification or discontinuance of existing \"tried\" and \"tested\" procedures transmitted to us from the culture of the past, as well as the introduction of new procedures. To note, cultural change is broader in scope than social change. All social changes can be considered cultural changes but not all cultural changes are social changes. A new style of writing songs and a trendy gadget are cultural changes but not social changes. Social change involves an existing pattern of interactions or social relationships among members of the society. Social and cultural changes, HOWEVER, can be treated as THE SAME for some sociologists like Dawson and Gettys in which according to them, \"cultural change is social change, since all culture is social in its origin, meaning and usage. **Political change** is the modification or establishment of a new leadership or policies brought about by any significant disruption in a government. It includes formation, reformation and transformation of operations in government to satisfy the call of change voiced by sufficient numbers of people deemed significant. usual outcomes of the society whenever political change occurs are a change in policies and a change in leadership hence the importance of active participation among citizens or members of the society since the government controls many different aspects of people\'s lives. **Why could there be change?** There are sociological theories to explain change in society. Two of which theories are most common viz: Evolutionary theory pioneered by Herbert Spencer, a theoretical perspective in which society-like organisms undergo change in a gradual and natural series of stages based on increasing complexity which equates to a more advanced society as time goes on. Rate of change is expected to increase as society becomes modern. The Marxist Theory (also known as Conflict theory) proposed by Karl Marx, stands conflict as a normal and inevitable cause of change. His notable example is the existence of class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners/ capitalists) and the proletariats (working class) which causes change. Aside from the theoretical perspectives mentioned above to explain the occurrence of change, Joel M. Charon, a sociologist, shares six guiding principles that most sociologists tend to believe about change in the society to wit (Charon 2013:194-206): 1\. Change exists in all social organizations. 4. Change depends on social power. 2\. Change arises from social conflict. 5. Change is most likely when the social situation favors it. 3\. Most lasting change results from social trends. 6. Societies change, but social patterns persist. It is also believed that socio-cultural and even political change exist because of the economic aspect --- with its state, nature and structure, clinched to be a barometer of the rate of change the society may experience. **Factors or sources which trigger change:** **1. Innovation** It is drawing new creative ideas which results to a change whether manifest or latent form. It is the invention or discovery of something such as a new idea, process, practice, device, or tool. Then and now, change demands innovation and vice versa. Innovation on immaterial culture like the \"accidental discovery\" of aldub phenomenon (of actor Alden Richards and Dubsmash queen Maine Mendoza a.k.a Yaya Dub) of Eat Bulaga which brought to the Filipinos\' awareness a sense cultural revival (e.g. to revive the traditional practice of courtship and the belief of true love which mirrors the popular line \"..sa tamang panahon\" hence paradigm shifting on attitude and values possible be expected especially for those who are hooked). It can be viewed as positive or negative depending on space and time. But most perhaps would agree that innovation that makes work or life easier engages oneself to be more productive and offers economic development. will always be a positive catalyst of change. the downside however of innovation on countries subscribing to a specific \"model culture- is culture loss. **2. Diffusion** The process where one group or society borrows elements of culture from another group or society and incorporates it as their own is called diffusion. According to many sociologists, is selective instead of automatic since \"receiving group or society\* chooses only the cultural elements being borrowed and eventually modifies to suit their favor or comfort. The Philippines for example adopts a clothing apparel influenced by the Saris of India, embraced Pop fashion by Koreans, whilst Hip-hop dance, Heavy metal music, planking, rapping among others are introduced and popularized by the \"role model\" of many Filipinos, the Americans. **3. Acculturation** Incorporation of cultural elements by one group or society derived from \"others\" or \"outsiders\" is acculturation. Two parties are involved: the society or group deemed to be powerful and the group or society considered less powerful. Latter adopts the elements or traits of culture of the former integrating it with the original culture practiced by them. The public instruction or public-school system was introduced among the Filipinos by the Americans when the Philippines were under American sovereignty. Acculturation is the education (usually selective) by foreign culture to the local culture. Process comes into bad light if structures or institutions are imposed to be practiced to the \"weakling group\" like the years of colonization of Spaniards, Americans and Japanese in the Philippines. Tributo or tax, a system imposed among the Filipinos a long time ago, is used until today. Even the use of the English language in the Philippines is something essential in Philippine culture. **4. Assimilation** It is a process of accepting the minority groups by the majority or dominant population in which the new group subscribes to mainstream culture. Another definition of assimilation includes the process of combination of two cultures into one culture with comprising cultural traits (Farooq 2013). Kornblum (2012:45-46) delineates it as a process where culturally distinct groups within a larger civilization adopt the language, values, and norms of the host civilization and their acculturation enables them to assume equal statuses in the social groups and institutions of that civilization. Ferrante, on the other hand, has his Absorption Assimilation (Ferrante 2015:185-186) describing it as the process by which racial and ethnic minorities adapt to the point where they are completely \"absorbed\" into the dominant culture. **SOCIAL CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS** **A society** - Experiencing social contradictions and tensions mirrors the kind of political and economic structure. \"The weakening of the government to implement laws governing such social instability gives an opportunity for groups---with the intent to destabilize social order---strengthened, and worst, if the government is behind the conflicts as a conspiracy to serve the nature of their interest. Allegations about the Philippine government selling armaments to fundamentalist or militant groups to government officials as masterminds of abduction or alterations among others cast doubt on the country\'s political institution, structure and operation to overcome situations such as inter-ethnic conflicts, class struggle, armed conflict, terrorism, protests and gender issues. Due to a certain rise of conflict, a change in the society is unavoidable whether social, cultural, political and economic. - Contradictions are thus constraint-generating, inhibitory situations; they provide satisfaction of one alternative at the cost of losing the alternative or some part of it. Furthermore, all courses of action entail costs; those undertaken in the face of contradictions entail further costs implicated in the alternatives foregone. Thus, courses of action limit compromises between several courses. It entails the inhibition of one course as the price of opting for another. **Forms of Social Contradictions and Tensions** 1. **Inter-ethnic Conflict** - Refers to any tension or altercation between or among involving members of two or more ethnic groups. It may also refer to armed conflict between or among ethnic groups using forms of violence as a means to an end resulting in looting, death, homelessness and the flight of large populations to neighboring communities. Refugees are people who flee to a foreign land or country to escape or seek refuge from war, political oppression, religious persecution, economic reasons or natural disaster. 2. **Class Struggle or class conflict** - **by Karl Marx**, the father of Communism, - Is the continuous conflict between the capitalist class and working class for economic and political gains or power; a conflict between the employer employee relationships. - According to Marxist perspective, class struggle or class conflicts are inevitable in societies utilizing a capitalist system because the economic goals of these two parties are contrasting. Owners or capitalists accumulate wealth through workers being exploited whilst workers gain economic stability and advancement without the exploitation of owners or capitalists. - Marx upholds the call of revolution if capitalists ignore the rights of the workers. When revolution is staged, a major if not complete change will happen. 3. **Armed Conflict** - Refers to armed resistance of non-governmental armed group/s against governmental forces. - According to the United Nations, armed conflicts within States are political in nature involving citizens fighting for internal change. Some of which are secessionist groups like in the case of the Philippines - the existence of Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF), to which initiated by a small group usually considered minority group within a community who take up arms to fight for self-determination or for the establishment of either an autonomous entity within an existing state or an entirely new and independent state of their own. MNLF spearheaded the existence of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) and may come to an end if the Bangsamoro Basic Law (BBL) --- initiated by MILF, be approved by the Congress. - Manifests the inability of the government to provide good governance and basic social services and protection among the population. A weak government invites and strengthens armed conflict. **Terrorism** - Is an organized crime to create fear in order to pressure authorities for political change. Martha Crenshaw on the other hand who is a leading expert on terrorism argues that defining terrorism is difficult because the concept is a social construct relative to time and place (Payne 2011:101). According to her, acts of terrorism occur within a political context; hence terrorism is a political label. Philippines in its Republic Act No. 10168 define a terrorist as any natural person who: Commits, attempts, or conspires to commit terrorist acts by any means. It is either directly or indirectly, unlawfully and willfully. As a principal or as an accomplice in terrorist acts, it organizes or directs others to commit terrorist attacks. - On the other hand, it contributes to the commission of terrorist acts by a group of persons acting with a common purpose where the contribution is made intentionally and with the aim of furthering the act or with the knowledge of the intention of the group to commit. - The group Al-Qaeda can be considered the most popular and dreaded terrorist in the world especially when Osama Bin Laden appeared in the scene. - Locally, the Abu Sayyaf is perhaps the most popular group. In addition, Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB) Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and the Pentagon gang are also active lurking in the western parts of Mindanao specifically in Sulu islands and South-Central Mindanao or ARMM region. An excerpt from the literature written by Payne (2011) says "All acts of terrorisms are designed to create fear, to cause people to tremble". - Hostage taking in Iraq is another element of terrorism. By using the most advanced technologies of global communication, terrorists seek to frighten people in distant places in order to exert pressure on the government. Terrorism is essentially a form of psychological warfare. **LESSON 4: How the society adapts/ responds to social, political and cultural changes.** - Human societies should adapt to social, political and cultural change by embracing flexibility, inclusivity and proactive approaches 1. Education awareness: Societies must promote education that fosters critical thinking and adaptability. 2. Inclusivity and equity: Ensuring marginalized groups are included in decision making processes is essential. 3. Collaborative governance: Political systems should encourage collaboration between governments, civil society and citizens. 4. Sustainable policies: Political and social institutions need to adopt long-term planning particularly around economic 5. Cultural dialogue and exchange: Promoting cultural exchange and dialogue helps reduce tensions and misunderstanding between different groups. 6. Technology and innovation: Embracing technological innovations can aid in solving many of the challenges that arise from rapid changes 7. Adaptive leadership: Political and community leaders must exhibit adaptive leadership, where they respond to challenges by being open to new ideas, fostering collaboration and encouraging resilience. 8. Social safety nets: Building robust social safety nets can help individuals and communities cope with economic, social or cultural disruptions. Welfare programs, healthcare and unemployment benefits are vital for stability during times of change.