Language, Literature & Society 2016 PDF

 LANGUAGE LITERATURE & SOCIETY with an Introductory Note by Sri Mulyani, Ph.D. Editor Harris Hermansyah Setiajid Department of English Letters...

 LANGUAGE LITERATURE & SOCIETY with an Introductory Note by Sri Mulyani, Ph.D. Editor Harris Hermansyah Setiajid Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters Universitas Sanata Dharma 2016 Language, Li ter atu re & Soci ety Copyright © 2016 Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters Universitas Sanata Dharma Published by Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters Universitas Sanata Dharma Jl. Affandi, Mrican Yogyakarta 55281. Telp. (0274) 513301, 515253 Ext.1324 Editor Harris Hermansyah Setiajid Cover Design Dina Febriyani First published 2016 212 pages; 165 x 235 mm. ISBN: 978-602-602-951-5 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 2 | Language, Literature, and Society  Contents Title Page........................................................................................... 1 Copyright Page..................................................................................... 2 Contents............................................................................................ 3 Language, Literature, and Society: An Introductory Note in Honor of Dr. Fr. B. Alip Sri Mulyani......................................................................................... 5 Phonological Features in Rudyard Kipling‘s ―If‖ Arina Isti‘anah..................................................................................... 8 Pak Alip Bekerja dengan Sepenuh Hati: Idiom yang Berstruktur Kata Sifat dan Kata Hati dalam Bahasa Indonesia Praptomo Baryadi Isodarus..................................................................... 18 The Structures of English Words B.B. Dwijatmoko................................................................................. 27 Verb Movements in German Yohana Veniranda................................................................................ 35 Transitivity Analysis of Language in News with Reference to Corby‘s Parole Anna Fitriati...................................................................................... 43 The Use of Metaphors in Indonesian Plant Names I Dewa Putu Wijana.............................................................................. 56 Sita‘s Representation in Sita Sings The Blues: A Semiotic Analysis Scolastica Wedhowerti.......................................................................... 68 Language Styles of Indonesian Teenage Magazines in Gadis and Hai: A Study on Code Switching Dewi Widyastuti and Simon Arsa Manggala................................................... 78 A Critical Discourse Analysis on Tony Abbott‘s Statement about Tsunami Aid in Bali Nine Discourse Fransisca Kristanti............................................................................... 91 Turn-Taking Strategy in the Spoken Discourse of Meetings B. Ria Lestari.................................................................................... 100 Masalah dan Kesulitan dalam Penerjemahan Teks Tulis ke dalam Teks Lisan (Sight Translation) dari Bahasa Indonesia ke Dalam Bahasa Inggris Adventina Putranti.............................................................................. 109 Evaluation in Translation: An Attempt to Develop an Assessment Model Harris Hermansyah Setiajid.................................................................... 123 Developing Task-Based Moodle for Writing Course at the University Level Patricia Angelina Lasut......................................................................... 131 Language, Literature, and Society | 3 Religion Representation in Indonesian E-Textbooks: A Visual Content Analysis Ouda Teda Ena................................................................................... 142 Tennessee Williams‘ Summer And Smoke: The Yearning for the Other Side of Human Life Hirmawan Wijanarka........................................................................... 150 Nigger‘s English of ―The Goophered Grapevine‖ in Chesnutt‘s Tales Of Conjure And The Color Line: Literariness and Ideology Gabriel Fajar Sasmita Aji...................................................................... 154 Marvelous Realism or Critical Realism? Iwan Simatupang‘s Ziarah and the Question Concerning the Perception of Reality Elisabeth Arti Wulandari....................................................................... 166 Umar Kayam‘s Postcolonial Ambivalence Paulus Sarwoto.................................................................................. 175 Voice and Gender in Literature Sri Mulyani....................................................................................... 184 Literary Theories and Literature for Children and Young Adults (LCYA): How Theories Are Applied to LCYA Theresia Enny Anggraini........................................................................ 190 Konstruksi Identitas Kota Yogya dalam Kaos Oblong Dagadu Djogdja Elisa Dwi Wardani............................................................................... 200 Kinanthi to Pak Alip J. Bismoko........................................................................................ 212 4 | Language, Literature, and Society  Language, Literature, and Society: An Introductory Note in Honor of Dr. Fr. B. Alip This book presents a selection of wide-ranging topics on the study of language, literature, and society, compiled on the noteworthy event of Dr. Fr. B. Alip‘s retirement from the English Department, Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. This rich variety of topics in this collection reflects the dynamics and progress of our English Department that Dr. Alip has helped build, nourish, and nurture. In its beginning with exuberant passion and little experience, our young English Department was to some extent ―traditionally‖ Anglo-American centered in its perspective and outlook, heavily relied on the canonized works of Anglo-American literary tradition and language studies. Through its growing pains, our English Department moves forward slowly adjusting to the growth of Western critical and theoretical tradition only to help us look back, reflect and value our own local cultures in the global enterprise of the English studies. The diversity of the topics does indeed fittingly represent our English Department‘s direction that is more inclusive, inter/cross-disciplinary, and global. The submitted articles in this collection cover a wide range of disciplines from linguistics, literature, creative writing, cultural studies, translation studies, and education to film and media studies. Our language scholars have expanded their repertoire of interests to include film and media studies to display their semiotic and discourse analysis expertise. The languages studied also include English and englishes, German, Bahasa Indonesia, and Javanese. Meanwhile, our literary scholars have broadened the literary selection in their research to include literary works from Indonesia in various genres. Broadly, the linguistic articles of this collection present the complete terrain of linguistics from phonology, morphology, syntax to semantics and semiotics. To begin with, Arina Isti‘anah takes up the smallest linguistic units to observe ―Phonological Features in Rudyard Kipling‘s ‗If‘‖, engaging both language and literature in her research. From the study of sound by Isti‘anah, Prof. Praptomo Baryadi continues the discussion with his morphological take on the study of adjective in Bahasa Indonesia in ―Pak Alip Bekerja dengan Sepenuh Hati: Idiom yang Berstruktur Kata Sifat dan Kata Hati‖ dalam Bahasa Indonesia, wittily employs Dr. Alip‘s name in the examples and case. Meanwhile, in the area of syntax, B.B. Dwijatmoko discusses ―The Structures of English Words‖ and Yohana Veniranda on ―Verb Movements in German‖, and Anna Fitriati closely identifies verbal voice in ―Transitivity Analysis of Language in News with Reference to Corby‘s Parole‖. Furthermore, semantically Prof. I Dewa Putu Wijana examines ―The Use of Metaphors in Indonesian Plant Names‖, while Scolastica Wedhowerti employs a film as a text to unveil ―Sita‘s Representation in Sita Sings The Blues: A Semiotic Analysis‖. To complete the rich areas of language studies presented here, Dewi Widyastuti and Simon Arsa Manggala exercise their stylistic expertise to study ―Language Styles of Indonesian Teenage Magazines In Gadis And Hai: A Study on Code Switching‖. In addition to those traditional areas of linguistics, recent concerns of language studies also contribute to our volume list, particularly the area of discourse analysis both in the media and real time contexts. Fransisca Kristanti critically scrutinizes the ―political‖ statement concerning the Indo-Australian relation in ―A Critical Discourse Analysis on Tony Abbott‘s Statement about Tsunami Aid in Bali Nine Discourse‖, while B. Ria Lestari conducts her field study and observation on ―Turn- taking Strategy in Spoken Discourse of Meeting‖. Language, Literature, and Society | 5  Finally, translation studies by Putranti and Setiajid end the linguistic research topics in this selection. Adventina Putranti attempts to deal with the difficulties and problems in translating written to spoken texts in the Indonesian-English contexts in her article ―Masalah dan Kesulitan dalam Penerjemahan Teks Tulis ke dalam Teks Lisan (Sight Translation) dari Bahasa Indonesia ke dalam Bahasa Inggris‖. To conclude, Harris Hermansyah Setiajid ends the discussion with an attempt to propose an asessment method in translation in ―Evaluation in Translation: An Attempt to Develop an Assessment Model‖ In addition to the linguistic articles, two scholars from the English Language Education Study Programme also contribute their classroom-based research in this collection. The first work is by Patricia Angelina Lasut entitled ―Developing Task-Based Moodle for Writing Course at the University Level. The second work is Ouda Teda Ena‘s ―Religion Representation in Indonesian Textbooks: A Visual Content Analysis‖. As voluminous as the linguistic research, our scholars also present diverse selection in the literary studies area. Selecting American literature, Hirmawan Wjanarka‘s ―Tennessee Williams‘ Summer and Smoke: the Yearning for the Other Side of Human Life‖ elucidates the classical thematic ground in literature, that is common yet profoundly insightful, concerning the human portrayal and the absurdity of life. Also selecting the American literary work, particularly the work of the African American writer, Gabriel Fajar Sasmita Aji observes language, readership, and ideology in Nigger‘s English of ―‘The Goophered Grapevine‘ in Chestnutt‘s Tales of Conjure and the Color Line: Literariness and Ideology‖. Extending the literary canon in English/English studies with the inclusion of Indonesian literature, E Arti Wulandari‘s ―Marvelous Realism or Critical Realism? Iwan Simatupang‘s Ziarah and the Question Concerning the Perception of Reality‖ and Paulus Sarwoto‘s ―Umar Kayam‘s Postcolonial Ambivalence‖ investigate the aesthetic and political ideology of two renowned ―modern‖ writers. Meanwhile, Sri Mulyani‘s ―Voice and Gender in Literature‖ amplifies race, class, and particularly gender identities politics in literature by employing selected writings by women of diverse ethnicities and other minority writers. Next, Theresia Enny Anggraini‘s ―Literary Theories and Literature for Children and Young Adults (LCYA): How Theories Are Applied to LCYA‖ questions the validity of literary critical theories to LCYA scope and spectrum. To complement the broadening of English studies, Elisa Dwi Wardani offers her cultural analysis, confirming in ―Dagadu as Cultural Phenomenon‖. The cultural studies article serves as an exemplar of an important insight: that although our English Department was and had been ―guilty‖ in one respect of creating an exclusive literary canon and ―elite‖ culture, but today our scholars have been able to be more critical, inclusive, and respectful to other literary canons and cultures outside the English studies. Finally, J. Bismoko dedicates his traditional Javanese song composition in English, in the form of kinanti to Pak Alip in a well-fitting title, ―Kinanthi to Pak Alip‖, and it is also a proper testament to the broadening and inter/cross-disciplinary nature of the English studies. As for the occasion, all contributors of this collection are eager to send their articles to honor Dr. Alip, their generous senior and mentor, beloved friend and colleague, and legendary teacher, a true Guru in every sense. Three prominent qualities distinguish Dr. Fr. B. Alip: his extraordinary dedication, sincere generosity, and grounded modesty. He is so dedicated and committed to his work at Sanata Dharma that he would still work hard for long hours even during the unfortunate passing of some of his family members, stoically managing their funeral arrangements and professionally completing his duties on campus at the same time. His great dedication and hard work have successfully produced the most two outstanding study 6 | Language, Literature, and Society programs at Sanata Dharma: the undergraduate English Department and the graduate English Language Studies department, a labor of love spanning his entire administrative and scholarly career. From his labor of love, we, his colleagues and juniors, have enjoyed his hard work and overflowing generosity. His extraordinary generosity has also been legendary in mentoring his students, advisees, and young scholars. For them, he is not only a fully competent teacher but also an accessible and generous mentor and ―father‖ figure. From his humble family root and beginning in Ganjuran, Bantul, to his academic success of completing his Doctoral degree at State University of New York, at Stony Brook, he has always remained a modest and humble personality, so humble that for those who do not know him well will often take his grounded modesty as a discouragement. Fortunately, most of us, his friends and colleagues, have understood this quality quite well, and not interpret it in its discouraging light. Once, as the dean of the Fakultas Sastra at that time, he advised us, his mentees, the young and new scholars, E. Arti Wulandari and Sri Mulyani, on our scholarly pursuits bluntly stated that ―it is better to win a small battle than losing a big war.‖ Being fresh, young, and ambitious, we courageously begged to differ from his advice. However, working for him and with him through our career, we bear witness that Dr, Alip in the midst of demanding teaching schedules, extensive administrative responsibilities, wide professional commitments, church and community service, incessant travel, and full family life, has indeed not only won small battles but also great wars during his entire scholarly and personal life. People speaking of Dr. Alip will not fail to mention his extremely clever wits and his playful sense of humor, which have delighted and bewildered all who know him. Everyone will have her and his own recollections. Most of his students fondly remember his remark that he is not married to a human but an angel. His admirable and gracious wife, Ibu Th. Nurbardini, has been a constant presence, a rock and strength, in scholarship as in life for him. Dr. Alip might have never received Distinguished Teaching Award but for his students, friends, and colleague, he is indeed a unique individual, an inspiring teacher, a patient and generous mentor, a profound scholar, a devoted husband, father, doting and loving grandfather. His extraordinary dedication, sincere generosity and accessibility, grounded humbleness and modesty have made him, a jack of all trades and a friend for all seasons: no wonder that his students, friends and colleagues have united to honor him with this celebration of his enduring love, unending labor, and remarkable commitment and dedication to us all and Sanata Dharma University. Dr. Fr. B. Alip is a living testament and a true manifestation of Kahlil Gibran‘s famous quotation: ―I slept and I dreamed that life is all joy. I woke and I saw that life is all service. I served and I saw that service is joy.‖ With great gratitude, sincere affection, and deep respect, we are honored to present our beloved Dr. Fr. B. Alip with this collection of Language, Literature, and Society articles. Yogyakarta, 10 October 2016 Sri Mulyani English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters Sanata Dharma University Language, Literature, and Society | 7 Phonological Features in Rudyard Kipling‟s “If” Arina Isti‟anah English Letters Department, Sanata Dharma University Abstract As a branch of linguistics which observes how sounds form patterns, phonology is often conducted on certain communities‘ speech production. Phonological rules can be figured out through the observation of sound changes, such as in assimilation and dissimilation. Studies on those two matters are commonly found in linguistic analyses. What is interesting in studying linguistics, to be particular in phonology, is the type of data to analyze. Instead of observing speech production by certain communities, phonology is also applicable in comprehending literary work, particularly poetry. Poetry is known for its unique language patterns, as defined by Leech (1969:4) that ―poetic language may violate or deviate from the generally observed rules of the language in many different ways‖. This present paper is intended to present phonological features in poetry analysis: supra-segmental features (rhyme and meter) and segmental features (assonance, consonance, and alliteration). The choice of certain sound patterns in a poem reflects the poet‘s intention in choosing such construction. Therefore, meaning interpretation which is based on the linguistic analyses can be attained, which is in line with Leech‘s statement that the significance of a piece of language can be used to figure out meanings in reference to literature (1969: 40). Keywords: phonology, stylistics, poetry Introduction Language cannot be separated from human beings‘ life as it distinguishes them from other creatures. It is used in both written and spoken. The written language is represented in the forms of non-literary and literary works. Non-literary texts are often found in daily life, such as news articles and textbooks used in schools and colleges. Literary texts are also easily found to appreciate, represented in the forms of short stories, novels, plays, and poetry. Simpson (2004) mentions that ―literature offers the chance to explore language that is out of the ordinary, language which is often the preeminent embodiment of the creative spirit‖ (98). In sum, it can be concluded that literary texts are the rich sources to analyze through language study. Scholars interested in literature can spot literary works through various literary criticisms, developed from time to time. The distinctive approaches observing the same literary work as its data can reveal different meanings and interpretations. In language studies, stylistics is used as the method to support the figuring out of the meanings of certain literary texts. Simpson (2004) states that ―Stylistics is interested in what writers do with and through language, and in the raw materials out of which literary discourse is crafted‖ (98). People interested in linguistics can observe different language levels: phonological, graphological, lexical, and grammatical levels. Each observed language level helps us interpret the meaning of certain literary works as it provides concrete data on language choice instead of assumptions, as mentioned 8 | Language, Literature, and Society by Abulbari (2015:492), ―Stylistic analysis provides a commentary which is objective and scientific based on a concrete quantifiable data and applied in a systematic way‖. Stylistics focuses on analyzing the style of text. Verdonk (2002) mentions that stylistics does not only study the expression in language, but also the description of its purpose and effect. It is further stressed by Al Shawa (2015: 125), who defines that ―Stylistics takes a close look at the text and analyzes its significant language forms for the sake of interpretation.‖ In stylistics, different language devices are proposed to observe: graphological, phonological, lexical, and grammatical. To be specific, this article employs the phonological level which covers meter, rhyme, assonance, consonance, and alliteration. Bilal et al. (2012) define that phonological analysis of a text means to analyze sound pattern in it, formation of words and utterances by systematic use of sound in a language. Aboh (2008), as quoted in Ogunsiji et al (2012), states that sound patterning functions linguistically in poetry to project a poet‘s purpose or concern in a work. Literary works are believed to be representations of human life. Many kinds of literary work are produced as a result of the writers‘ personal life experience. For example, Maya Angelou‘s poems are related to her life as an Afro-American single mother who experienced rape and racism. Literary works are also reflections of what happens in certain societies or events. Take an example is a poem by Maya Angelou, entitled ―Caged Birds‖. In that poem, Angelou describes the life of Afro American people who do not have freedom to think and perform. Their life is compared to the life of birds which are caged. Their life is restricted, so they could not reach happiness. The poem reflects racism and inequality experienced by the Afro American people at the time when the poem was written. The illustration on comprehending a poem above is not only based on assumptions. The choice of certain language use in the poem can be employed to infer the meanings. It is proven by some recent researches in stylistics. Ufot (2013) observes phonological features of Gray‘s ―Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard‖. He looks at the syllabification, meter, rhyme, elision, onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, consonance to support the meaning of the poem. He concludes that the poem shows melodic contemplation about the possibilities for virtuous living and greatness among simple, rural people (Ufot, 2013: 125). Mahmood et al (2015) conducts stylistic analysis of Zulfiqar Ghose‘s ―Decomposition‖ with phonological analysis on it, focusing on the sound devices: alliteration, assonance, and consonance. Abulbari et al (2015) also analyze a poem entitled ―Daffodil‖ by William Wordsworth, particularly the structure of its rhyme and meter. From the findings, it is concluded that Wordsworth focuses on the experience at the lake on the first three stanza and the memory of that experience on the last stanza. Al Shawa (2015) observes the employment of alliteration, consonance, assonance, repetition, and rhyme scheme in John Keat‘s ―La Belle Dame Sans Merci‖. He mentions that the use of certain phonological devices in the poem is able to create auditory imagery of the poem. The poem observed in this paper was written by Rudyard Kipling entitled ―If‖. Rudyard Kipling, whose family are English, was born in India on 1865. He spent his childhood there. Rudyard Kipling received Nobel Prize in 1907 for literature and mentioned as the youngest writer ever to receive it. The poem was written in 1909. It talks about the characteristics which should be possessed by a man: self-belief, patience, truthfulness, kindness and modesty (http://www.ool.co.uk/). Dillingham (2005:187) mentions that ―‘If‘ is actually an instructional in nature. It is about an older man who is teaching a younger person, possibly his son, some of the essential aspects of the heroic life. The poem is the heroic attributes of ―Wisdom, Strength, and Courtesy.‖ Language, Literature, and Society | 9 Rhyme and Meter Rhyme is one of the distinctive features in poetry. The use of repetition in rhymes can attract the listeners‘ or readers‘ attention. Ufot (2013) describes rhyme as ―the repetition of the arrangement of the nucleus (vowel) and coda (final consonant) at the ends of two or more lines of a verse‖. In Rudyard Kipling‘s ―If‖, an interesting use of rhymes is obvious. The poem consists of 4 stanzas, each of which contains 8 lines. The eight-line stanza is called ottava rima. In the first stanza, the rhyme sound /u:/ is repeated in lines 1 until 4, which is represented by the word you and too. The previous lines have a masculine or strong rhyme because both are monosyllabic words, which are stressed. The rhyme is only in a form of Nucleus. Another rhyming sound is /ɪŋ/, which is repeated in lines 5 and 7 by the words waiting and hating. Both words have feminine or weak rhyme because the second syllable which become the rhyme is unstressed. The repeated rhyme consists of a Nucleus and Coda, which is similar in lines and 8, shown by the words lies and wise, which are monosyllabic. Therefore, they are also categorized as masculine rhyme. The sound repeated is /aɪz/. Thus, the end rhyme of the first stanza is AAAABCBC. In the second stanza, Kipling employs four rhyming sounds: /ər/, /eɪm/, /ən/, and /ulz/. The first three rhymes are in the form of Nucleus and a Coda, different from the last rhyme, which is a Nucleus and two consonants in the Coda. The sound /ər/ is repeated in lines 1, and 3, shown by the words master and disaster. Since the last sound is unstressed, the rhyme is feminine. The next sound, /eɪm/ is repeated in lines 2 and 4, by the words aim and same. Both are monosyllabic, thus they are categorized as masculine rhyme. Lines 5 and 7 are represented by the rhyme /ən/ shown in the words spoken and broken. The end rhyme of those words are unstressed, so they are called feminine rhyme. The last rhyme, /ulz/ is repeated in lines 6 and 8 by the words fools and tools, which are monosyllabic. Those two lines also have masculine rhyme. The end rhyme of the second stanza is ABABCDCD. The third stanza has the same end rhyme pattern as the second stanza, ABABCDCD. The rhymes are represented by the sounds /ɪŋz/, /ɒs/, /u:/, and /ɒn/. Lines 1 and 3 have a Nucleus and two consonants in the Coda position, shown in the words winnings and beginnings, whose end rhyme is unstressed. Therefore, lines 1 and 3 have feminine rhyme. Lines 2 and 4 are rhyming, shown by the words toss and loss, whose rhyme contains of a Nucleus and a Coda in monosyllabic words. Consequently, they are involved as masculine rhyme. In the next lines, lines 5 and 7, the rhyme is presented by the words sinew and you, whose rhyme is a Nucleus only. In line 5, /ju/ is in the unstressed syllable, thus it is feminine. It is different from line 7 whose word is monosyllabic, so it is categorized into masculine rhyme. Lines 6 and 8 also have a Nucleus and Coda in the rhyme, shown by the words gone and on. Line 6 has stressed end rhyme, so categorized into masculine, while line 8 has unstressed end rhyme. Therefore, line 8 has feminine rhyme. In the last stanza, Kipling also employs the ABABCDCD end rhyme pattern. Lines 1 and 3 are ended by the sounds /u:/, shown by the words virtue and you. The rhyme is a Nucleus. In lines 2 and 4, the repeated rhyme is represented by the sound /ʌʧ/ as in the words touch and much. The rhyme as a Nucleus and two consonant cluster in the Coda position. Lines 5 and 7 are represented by the same rhyme through the sound /ɪt/, shown in the words minute and it. The last repeated rhyme in stanza 4 is /ʌn/ shown in the words run and son. The rhyme has a Nucleus and Coda. Lines 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 have monosyllabic end rhymes, so they are categorized into masculine rhymes. Lines 1 and 8 have unstressed end rhyme, therefore, they are included as feminine rhymes. The elaboration of rhyme in the poem above shows that Kipling uses a different rhyme pattern in the first stanza and employs the same pattern in the following three 10 | Language, Literature, and Society stanzas. The same end rhyme in the first four lines in the first stanza reveals that Kipling is in an attempt to attract the audiences to enjoy the rhyme of his poem. The following lines are also rhyming, even though realized in different sounds. The use of the same rhymes in the following three stanzas also reveal that Kipling is a careful poet. He pays attention to the detailed choice of sounds in the rest stanzas. Instead of rhyme, meter is another supra-segmental feature which can be observed through a poetry. Haynes in Carter and Simpson (2005:233) defines that ―There is a temptation to see meter wholly in terms of phonological schemes, i.e. as a matter of how many stresses and syllables are permitted in a line of verse‖. Haynes in Carter and Simpson (2005:236) further explains that meter focuses on the foot, a pulse or stress falling on one syllable in words which are important from the view point of content (236). In observing meter, the existence of foot in a line become prominent to decide the type of meter. Leech (1969:112) mentions that the ‗foot‘ is actually the unit or span of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern. Simpson (2004: 15) defines that the ―foot is the basic unit of analysis and it refers to the span of stressed and unstressed syllables that forms a rhythmical pattern‖ (15). The metrical feet is determined according to the number of their constituent stressed and stressed syllable. There are some types of foot in poem analyses. An iambic foot has two syllables, of which the first is less heavily stressed than the second, represented in ―X /‖ to show the stressed and unstressed syllable. Other types of foot, as suggested by Leech, are trochee ( / X), anapaest (X X / ) and dactyl ( / X X). Ufot (2013) summarizes the types of meter in English are monometer (one foot), dimeter (two feet), trimester (three feet), tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five feet), hexameter (six feet), heptameter/septenarius (seven feet), and octameter (eight feet). The example is as shown below. The plough | man home | ward plods | his wea | ry way X / X / X / X / X / The example above has the structure of iambic pentameter as the line begins with the less stressed syllable followed by the stressed one and consists of five feet. From the analysis, the poem employs the same type of meter, iambic meter. In stanza 1, there are iambic pentameter in lines 2, 4, 6 and 8 and iambic hexameter in line 6. Here are the examples of the lines. Are lo | sing theirs | and bla | ming it | on you; line 2 X / X / X / X / X / If you | can wait | and not | be ti | red by | wai ting, line 6 X / X / X / X / X / X / Line 2 has five feet, thus the line is called pentameter line. It begins with an unstressed syllable are and followed by the stressed one, losing. Therefore, it is called iambic. Line 6 has eight feet, called hexameter. It begins with an unstressed syllable in the form of conjunction if and followed by the stressed one in the form of monosyllabic word you. Thus, line 6 is categorized as iambic hexameter. In the poem, the iambic pentameter lines are all in masculine end rhyme, while the iambic hexameter is in feminine end rhyme. Language, Literature, and Society | 11  In the second stanza, lines 2, 4, and 6 are in the forms of iambic pentameter, whose end rhymes are masculine. Below are the examples. And treat | those two | impo | stors just | the same: line 4 X / X / X / X / X / And stoop | and build | ‗em up | with worn | out tools line 8 X / X / X / X / X / Both lines above consist of five feet and end in masculine rhymes, realized by the monosyllabic words same and tools. The lines begin with unstressed syllables in the form of conjunction and. They are followed by the stressed ones in the form of monosyllabic words treat and stoop. Therefore, both are called iambic pentameter. Similar to the previous two stanzas, stanzas 3 and 4 also consist of iambic pentameter, whose end rhymes are masculine. The following lines are taken from stanza 3. And risk | it on | one turn | of pitch- | and-toss, line 2 X / X / X / X / X / To serve | your turn | long af | ter they | are gone line 6 X / X / X / X / X / Line 2 above begins with a conjunction and which is unstressed. It is followed the monosyllabic word risk which is stress. The line has five feet, thus it is pentameter. Therefore, the line is iambic pentameter. Line 6 is also an iambic pentameter line. It begins with a preposition to which is unstressed and followed by a monosyllabic word serve. The line also has five feet. Therefore, the line is iambic pentameter. Both lines also end in masculine rhymes, represented by the monosyllabic words toss and gone. In the last stanza, iambic pentameter lines are also found in lines 2, 4, 6 and 8. Below are the examples. If all | men count | with you, | but none | too much: line 2 X / X / X / X / X / With six | ty sec | onds' worth | of di | stance run, line 6 X / X / X / X / X / Line 2 above begins with a conjunction if, which is unstressed, and is followed by a determiner all, but stressed. The use of stressed determiner above is to emphasize on the number rather than the noun it modifies. The line has five feet, so it is called pentameter. Line 6 begins with a preposition with and is followed by a stressed syllable in the word sixty. The line also consists of five feet. It is also iambic pentameter. Both lines also end in masculine rhymes, recognized in the monosyllabic words much and run. 12 | Language, Literature, and Society  From the observation, all iambic pentameter lines have masculine end rhymes, while the iambic hexameter has feminine end rhyme. This finding reveals that Kipling strengthens the message to the listeners or readers through consistent metrical pattern in the poem. The use of careful words to create rhythm in every stanza makes the poem easy to listen and read. It is also a proof that Kipling is a poet who cares about the number of meter in his poem and pays attention to the detailed choice of foot number he employs in the poem. Segmental Sound Features Segmental sound features refer to the employment of assonance, consonance, and alliteration. Simpson mentions that assonance is the vowel harmony which consolidates points of equivalence across the poetic lines (2004: 52). Bradford (2005) elaborates that assonance is the repetition of clusters of similar vowel within individual lines and across sequences of lines (15). It is a half rhyme realized by repeated the same (stressed) vowel but with different final consonant in a sequence of nearby words (Agemo, 2011: 21). The vowel /ɪ/ always appears in every stanza. This vowel is repeated through the words losing, blaming, it, hated, hating, if, with, disaster, risk, pitch, Will, which, fill, unforgiving, minute, with, sixty, distance, everything, and in. This lax front vowel is repeated in every stanza which is in line with the vowel of the title of the poem if. Here, Kipling tries to be consistent to emphasize his title of the poem which has the same vowel as the dominating vowel in every stanza. It is to remind the listeners about the vowel used in the title. It stresses the previous finding that Kipling is a poet who pays attention to the sound choice. Consonance is the repetition of consonants found within a line. It is a half rhyme in which final consonants are repeated but with different preceding vowels (Agemo, 2011: 21). In the poem, voiceless oral stop /t/ is repeated in every stanza. The repetition of the consonant appears in either monosyllabic or polysyllabic words. In the poem, /t/ is repeated in monosyllabic words trust-doubt, whose repeated consonant is in the Onset and Coda positions. In the words meet-disaster-Triumph, the consonant is repeated in different positions: Coda in the word meet, Onset of the third syllable in the word disaster, and Onset in the word Triumph. It is also similar in the words it-toss and turn-after in the third stanza. In the fourth stanza, the consonant /t/ is repeated through the words that‘s and it. In the first word, /t/ is in the first consonant in the Coda position, followed by the consonant /s/. The other segmental sound feature found in the poem is alliteration. Simpson defines that alliteration is a type of scheme which is based on similarities between consonants (2004: 16). Alliteration is the repetition of clusters of similar consonant sounds within individual lines and across sequences of lines (Bradford, 2005: 15). It is generally taken to be the repetition of the initial consonant in two or more adjacent words (Agemo, 2011: 21). The consonant /j/ is the dominating alliteration in the poem. It is represented in the words you, yourself, and your. The word is addressed to my son, which is put in the last word in the poem. It shows the way Kipling gives suggestion to his son on how to be a man. Conclusion The poem has regular pattern in terms of its phonological features. The poem is an ottava rima as each stanza contains eight lines. The first stanza has AAAABCBC end rhyme, while the second until fourth stanzas have the same end rhyme pattern, ABABCDCD. The poem also contains iambic pentameter, five feet in line which begins with unstressed followed by stressed syllable. In iambic pentameter lines, the end rhymes are masculine, meaning that they are in the forms of monosyllabic words. Language, Literature, and Society | 13 There is only one line containing iambic hexameter, meaning the line has six feet and begins with unstressed followed by the stressed syllable in every foot. In terms of assonance, the poem is dominated by the vowel /ɪ/, which is the same as the vowel found in the title, ―If‖. The consonant /t/ is mostly repeated in every stanza, while the consonant /j/ is also mostly repeated in the beginning of the words. References Abulbari; Azis, Romana; Malik, Muhammad Zeeshan Akram; Manzoor, Sobia; Asif, Muhammad Kamran. (2015). Stylistic Analysis of ―Daffodil‖ by William Wordsworth. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, 2(9), 491-494. Agemo, Oluwatosin Stella. A Stylistic Analysis of Some Selected Poems of Wole Soyinka. Undergraduate Thesis. University of Ilorin. Al Shawa, Wisam. (2015). John Keats‘s ―La Belle Dame Sans Merci‖: A Stylistic Analysis. International Journal of English Language, Literature, and Translation, 2(1), 27-41. Arp, Thomas R and Johnson, Greg. (2006) Perrine‘s Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense 9th ed. Boston: Thomson Higher Education. Batool, Sumera; Khan, Abdul Bari; Iqbal, Anser; Ali, Khurram; Rafiq, Rana Muhammad Haris. (2014). Stylistic Analysis of Robert Frost‘s ―The Road Not Taken‖. Journal of ELT and Applied Linguistics, 2(4), 52-64. Barry, Peter. (1995). Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. New York: Manchester University Press. Bradford, Richard. (2005). Stylistics. New York: Routledge. Carter, Ronald and Simpson, Paul. (2005). Language, Discourse, and Literature. New York: Routledge. Dillingham, William B. (2005). Rudyard Kipling: Hell and Heroism. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Hanif, Sidra; Amhed, Muntaz; Aftab, Maria. (2015). A Stylistic Analysis of William Henry Davie‘s Leisure. Journal of Literature, Languages and Linguistics, 7, 30-36. Leech, Geoffrey N. (1969). A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. New York: Longman. Mahmood et al (2015). Stylistic Analysis of ―Decomposition‖ by Zulfiqar Ghose. International Journal of English and Education, 4(1), 476-482. Simpson, Paul. Stylistics. (2004). London: Routledge. Ufot, Bassey Garvey. (2013). Phonology and Stylistics: A Phonoastethic Study of Gray‘s ―Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard‖. English Linguistic Research, 2(2), 110- 125. Verdonk, Peter. (2002). Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Anthology Worksheet. ―If‖ by Rudyard Kipling. http://www.ool.co.uk/. Accessed on August 14, 2016. 14 | Language, Literature, and Society Appendices Appendix 1. The Poem If If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too: If you can wait and not be tired by waiting, Or, being lied about, don't deal in lies, Or being hated don't give way to hating, And yet don't look too good, nor talk too wise; If you can dream---and not make dreams your master; If you can think---and not make thoughts your aim, If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same:. If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken, And stoop and build'em up with worn-out tools; If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings, And never breathe a word about your loss: If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them: "Hold on!" If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with Kings---nor lose the common touch, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, If all men count with you, but none too much: If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, Yours is the Earth and everything that's in it, And---which is more---you'll be a Man, my son! Rudyard Kipling Language, Literature, and Society | 15 Appendix 2. Summary of Meters in the Poem No. of Stanza The Line Type of Meter Line 2 Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; Iambic pentameter But make allowance for their doubting 4 Iambic pentameter too: If you can wait and not be tired by 1 5 Iambic hexameter waiting, 6 Or, being lied about, don't deal in lies, Iambic pentameter And yet don't look too good, nor talk 8 Iambic pentameter too wise; If you can think---and not make 2 Iambic pentameter thoughts your aim, And treat those two impostors just the 2 4 Iambic pentameter same: And stoop and build'em up with worn- 8 Iambic pentameter out tools; And risk it on one turn of pitch-and- 2 Iambic pentameter toss, And never breathe a word about your 3 4 Iambic pentameter loss: To serve your turn long after they are 6 Iambic pentameter gone, Or walk with Kings---nor lose the 2 Iambic pentameter common touch, If all men count with you, but none too 4 Iambic pentameter 4 much: 6 With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, Iambic pentameter And---which is more---you'll be a Man, 8 Iambic pentameter my son! Appendix 3. Summary of Segmental Sound Features in the Poem Summary of Assonance in the Poem Stanza Words Vowels you-you, losing-blaming-it, you-you, wait-waiting, /u:/, ɪ/, /aɪ/, 1 lied-lies, hated-hating, look-good, too-too /eɪ/, and /ʊ/. dream-dreams, make-aim, if-with-disaster, you-you, /i:/, /eɪ/, /ɪ/, and 2 stoop-tools /u:/. risk-it-pitch, on-toss, and-and-at, a-about, can-and- /ɪ/, /ə/, and /æ/. 3 and, long-gone, Will-which if-with, foes-you, if-fill-unforgiving-minute, with- /ɪ/, /u:/, and /i:/ 4 sixty-distance, everything-in-it, is-be 16 | Language, Literature, and Society Summary of Consonance in the Poem Stanza Words Consonants Losing-blaming, trust-doubt, yourself-all, but- /ŋ/, /t/, /l/ 1 doubting-too, wait-not-tired-waiting, being-hating, hated-don‘t-hating Can-make, make-aim, meet-disaster-Triumph, /k/, /m/, /t/, /r/ 2 impostors-two, bear-hear, stoop-tools On-one-turn, it-toss, and-and, again-beginnings, /n/, /t/, /d/, /b/, 3 breathe-about, and-and, serve-your-turn-after, on- /r/ when-nothing-in Count-none, if-fill-unforgiving, distance-run, earth- /n/, /f/, /n/, /ɵ/, 4 everything, that‘s-it /t/ Summary of Alliteration in the Poem Stanza Words Consonants You-your-you, you-yourself-you, lied-lies, don‘t- /j/, /l/, /d/, /h/, 1 deal, hated-hating, took-talk-too /t/ You-your, dream-dreams, make-master, you-your, /j/, /d/, /m/, /t/, 2 think-thoughts, treat-two, you-you‘ve, twisted-to- /f/, /w/ trap, for-fools, you-your, with-word 3 You-your, you-your, Will-which /j/, /w/ You-your, King-common, foes-friends, men-much, /j/, /k/, /f/, /m/, 4 sixty-seconds, more-Man-my /s/, /m/ Language, Literature, and Society | 17 Pak Alip Bekerja dengan Sepenuh Hati: Idiom yang Berstruktur Kata Sifat dan Kata Hati dalam Bahasa Indonesia Praptomo Baryadi Isodarus Program Studi Sastra Indonesia, Universitas Sanata Dharma Watak dan keadaan manusia terletak pada hatinya. Abstrak Tulisan ini menyajikan hasil penelitian tentang idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia. Melalui penelitian ini, ditemukan 83 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati. Dari 83 idiom tersebut, berhasil diungkap berbagai watak dan keadaan jiwa yang baik dan yang tidak baik pada manusia. Dari 83 idiom tersebut, 25 idiom menyatakan watak yang baik, 16 idiom menunjuk watak yang tidak baik, 14 idiom melambangkan keadaan jiwa yang baik, dan 28 idiom menunjuk keadaan jiwa yang tidak baik. Kata Kunci: idiom, kata sifat, hati, referen, kata majemuk idiomatis Pendahuluan Pak Alip (Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.Pd., M.A.) bekerja dengan sepenuh hati. Pak Alip selalu bekerja dengan sungguh-sungguh. Pak Alip itu orangnya baik hati. Pak Alip dengan senang hati bersedia menolong siapa pun yang membutuhkan bantuan kepadanya tentang bermacam hal, misalnya akreditasi, kurikulum, bahasa Inggris, penerjemahan. Pak Alip itu orangnya juga lurus hati. Pak Alip orangnya jujur. Itu antara lain kesan penulis terhadap Pak Alip selama penulis bertahun-tahun bekerja sama dan bergaul dengan beliau. Masih banyak kesan terhadap Pak Alip yang penulis alami yang mungkin juga dialami oleh orang lain (dosen, karyawan, dan mahasiswa). Hal yang menarik adalah bahwa kesan-kesan penulis terhadap Pak Alip cenderung terungkap dalam bentuk idiom dan idiom itu berstruktur kata sifat (sepenuh, baik, senang, lurus) dan kata hati. Hal inilah yang membangkitkan hasrat penulis untuk meneliti idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia. Kata hati ternyata merupakan salah satu unsur pembentuk idiom yang sangat produktif dalam bahasa Indonesia. Dalam Kamus Ungkapan Bahasa Indonesia karya Badudu (1981) kata hati sekurang-kurangnya dipakai untuk membentuk 78 idiom. Dari penyimakan terhadap idiom dalam Kamus Idiom Bahasa Indonesia karya Chaer (1984), kata hati dipakai untuk menciptakan sekurang-kurangnya 296 idiom. Sekarang pembentukan idiom yang berunsur kata hati semakin produktif. Kita sering mendengar ungkapan seperti mengajar dengan hati, memimpin dengan hati, bekerja dengan hati, dan sebagainya. Dilihat dari segi bentuknya, idiom yang dibentuk dengan kata hati terdiri atas idiom yang berbentuk kata, frasa, klausa, dan kalimat. Idiom yang berbentuk kata mencakup kata berimbuhan (misalnya memperhatikan), kata ulang (misalnya hati-hati), dan kata majemuk (misalnya rendah hati ‗tidak sombong, tidak menonjolkan kehebatan diri‘ 18 | Language, Literature, and Society (Chaer 1984: 148)). Idiom yang berbentuk frasa contohnya adalah dari hati ke hati ‗berbicara antarpribadi dengan jujur‘ (Chaer 1984: 53). Idiom yang berbentuk klausa misalnya mengambil hati ‗mempersenang hati orang supaya disukai‘ (Chaer 1984: 17). Idiom yang berbentuk kalimat misalnya Tertusuk hatinya ‗dia merasa sakit hati, perasaannya menjadi tidak enak‘ (Chaer 1984: 64). Dalam tulisan ini khusus dibahas tentang idiom yang berbentuk kata majemuk. Idiom yang berupa kata majemuk disebut pula kata majemuk idiomatis. Dari 296 idiom yang berunsur kata hati yang terdapat dalam Kamus Idiom Bahasa Indonesia karya Chaer (1984), kata hati digunakan untuk membentuk sekurang-kurangnya 134 kata majemuk idiomatis. Ada berbagai kategori kata yang dapat bergabung dengan kata hati sehingga membentuk kata majemuk idiomatis. Kata hati dapat bergabung dengan kata sifat (misalnya tinggi hati ‗angkuh, sombong‘ (Chaer 1984: 179), kata kerja (misalnya memberi hati ‗memanjakan, menurutkan kemauan (keinginan, kehendak, dsb); memnggembirakan; memberanikan ‗(Chaer 1984: 33)), dan kata benda (misalnya buah hati ‗kekasih, yang disayangi‘ (Chaer 1984: 36). Dalam tulisan ini dikhususkan lagi pembicaraannya pada idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati. Ada dua hal yang dibahas dalam tulisan ini. Pertama, idiom yang mana saja yang berstruktur kata sifat yang diikuti kata hati. Hal kedua adalah referen yang ditunjuk oleh idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati. Sebagai contoh idiom rendah hati, murah hati, dan lurus hati ‗jujur‘ (Chaer 1984: 109) menunjuk watak yang baik. Contoh yang lain adalah tinggi hati, busuk hati ‗jahat, pendengki‘ (Chaer 1984: 42), dan kecil hati ‗penakut‘ (Chaer 1984: 86) lebih menunjuk referen watak yang kurang baik. Jadi, masalah kedua yang dijawab dalam pembicaraan ini adalah referen apa saja yang ditunjuk oleh kata mejemuk idiomatis yang berunsur kata hati. Kedua hal ini diuraikan secara terintegrasi. Landasan Teori Dalam bagian ini diuraikan pengertian istilah-istilah pokok yang dipergunakan sebagai landasan konseptual untuk membahas idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia. Konsep-konsep pokok yang dimaksud adalah idiom, kata sifat, kata hati, dan referen. Yang dimaksud dengan idiom adalah ―satuan-satuan bahasa (bisa berupa kata, frasa, dan kalimat) yang maknanya tidak dapat ―diramalkan‖ dari makna leksikal unsur-unsurnya maupun makna gramatikal satuan-satuan tersebut‖ (Chaer 1990: 76). Makna idiom murah hati ‗suka memberi‘ (Chaer 1984: 123), misalnya, tidak dapat diramalkan dari makna leksikal dan makna gramatikal kata murah dan kata hati. Contoh yang lain adalah makna idiom mencuri hati ‗berbuat baik sehingga orang lain menjadi cinta‘ (Chaer 1984: 49-50) juga tidak dapat diramalkan dari makna leksikal dan makna gramatikal gabungan kata mencuri dan kata hati. Ada rumus yang dapat digunakan untuk membedakan konstruksi idiom dan bukan idiom. Rumus idiom adalah A + B menimbulkan makna C, sedangkan rumus konstruksi bukan idiom adalah A + B menimbulkan makna AB (Alwi 2003: 151) Makna idiom tercipta berdasarkan ―kesepakatan diam‖ (tacit agreement) masyarakat pemakai bahasa. Kata sifat atau adjektiva merupakan kata yang menerangkan kata benda. Dalam bahasa Indonesia, kata sifat mempunyai ciri dapat bergabung dengan kata tidak dan partikel seperti lebih, sangat, dan agak (Kridalaksana 1986: 57). Sebagai contoh kata berat dalam berat hati ‗merasa segan; enggan; kurang suka‘ (Chaer 1984: 32) merupakan kata sifat karena dapat bergabung dengan kata tidak, lebih, dan sangat sehingga menjadi tidak berat, lebih berat, sangat berat, dan agak berat. Dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa Edisi Keempat (2008:486-487) dikemukkaan sekurang-kurangnya tujuh arti kata hati. Pertama, sebagai istilah dalam Language, Literature, and Society | 19 bidang anatomi, kata hati berarti organ tubuh yang berwarna kemerah-merahan di bagian kanan atas rongga perut, gunanya untuk mengambil sari-sari makanan di dalam darah dan menghasilkan empedu. Kedua, kata hati berarti daging dari hati sebagai bahan makanan (terutama dari hati binatang sembelihan. Ketiga, kata hati mengandung arti jantung. Keempat, kata hati menunjuk arti sesuatu yang ada di tubuh manusia yang dianggap sebagai tempat segala perasaan batin dan tempat menyimpan pengertian (perasaan dsb). Kelima, kata hati berarti bagian yang di dalam sekali (tentang buah, batang, tumbuhan, dsb). Keenam, kata hati mengandung arti sifat (tabiat) batin manusia. Ketujuh, kata hati berarti apa yang terasa di dalam batin. Dari ketujuh arti kata hati tersebut, arti yang relevan dengan objek kajian ini adalah arti keempat, keenam, dan ketujuh. Referen (Referent) adalah sesuatu yang ditunjuk oleh satuan bahasa. Sebagaimana dijelaskan oleh Ogden dan Richards (1989: 11), proses pembentukan makna melibatkan pikiran, simbol, dan referen. Simbol melambangkan pikiran dan karena itu di antara keduanya terdapat hubungan kausal. Pikiran dan simbol memiliki hubungan langsung yang ditunjukkan dengan garis lurus. Pikiran menunjuk referen dan karena itu di antara keduanya terdapat hubungan kausal juga. Antara simbol dan referen terdapat hubungan tidak langsung (karena harus melalui pikiran), tetapi hubungan kedua hal tersebut merupakan hubungan yang benar. Supaya terbentuk makna, hubungan simbol dan referen harus melalui pikiran atau referensi (Baryadi 2013: 49). Metode Penelitian Penelitian ini dilaksanakan melalui pengumpulan data, analisis data, dan penyajian hasil analisis data. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan metode simak, yaitu menyimak idiom-idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dengan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia pada sumber data. Metode simak itu kemudian dilakukan dengan teknik catat, yaitu mencatat idiom-idiom yang berunsur kata kerja dalam bahasa Indonesia pada kartu data. Adapun sumber data yang digunakan adalah Kamus Idiom dalam Bahasa Indonesia karya Abdul Chaer (1984). Setelah dikumpulkan, data diklasifikasikan menurut kesamaan referennya. Data yang sudah diklasifikasikan kemudian dianalisis dengan menggunakan metode agih dan metode padan. Metode agih adalah metode analisis data yang alat penentunya adalah bagian dari bahasa yang bersangkutan itu sendiri (Sudaryanto 20015: 15). Metode agih dalam penelitian ini diterapkan dengan teknik bagi unsur langsung (BUL), yaitu teknik dasar metode agih yang membagi satuan lingual datanya menjadi beberapa bagian atau unsur dan unsur yang bersangkutan dipandang sebagai bagian yang langsung membentuk satuan lingual yang dimaksud (Sudaryanto 2015: 37). Dalam hal ini yang dibagi menurut unsur langsungnya adalah idiom yang berstrtuktur kata sifat dan kata hati. Teknik lanjutan metode agih ini adalah teknik perluas yang digunakan untuk membuktikan apakah kata yang mendampingi kata hati merupakan kata sifat atau bukan. Alat yang dipakai untuk memperluas adalah kata tidak, lebih, sangat, dan agak. Jika kata yang mendapingi kata hati itu dapat diperluas dengan kata tidak, sangat, dan agak, kata tersebut termasuk kata sifat. Teknik perluas ini juga digunakan untuk membuktikan keidiomatisan kata majemuk (Wijana 2016: 34). Keidiomatisan kata majemuk tidak memungkinkan kata itu diperluas dengan atribut, misalnya makan hati ‘bersedih‘ tidak dapat diperluas menjadi makan hati ayam karena maknanya akan berubah menjadi tidak idiomatis lagi. Metode padan adalah metode yang alat penentunya di luar, terlepas, dan tidak menjadi bagian dari bahasa (langue) yang bersangkutan (Sudaryanto 2015: 15). Metode padan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode padan referensial, yaitu metode padan yang alat penentuanya adalah referen atau kenyataan yang ditunjukkan oleh bahasa atau referen bahasa (Sudaryanto 2015: 15). Dalam penelitian ini metode 20 | Language, Literature, and Society padan digunakan untuk membuktikan referen yang ditunjuk oleh idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati. Misalnya idiom lurus hati ‗jujur; terus terang barang katanya; dapat dipercaya‘ (Chaer 1984: 108) menunjuk watak yang baik, sedangkan idiom tinggi hati ‗angkuh, sombong‘ (Chaer 1984: 179) merujuk pada watak yang tidak baik. Analisis data menghasilkan daftar idiom yang berunsur kata sifat dan kata hati dan referen yang ditunjuknya. Daftar idiom dan referennya disajikan dalam bentuk tabel. Metode penyajian hasil analisis data ini disebut metode formal (Sudaryanto 2015: 241). Hasil Kajian Melalui penelitian ini, ditemukan 83 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia. Referen yang ditunjuk oleh idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati adalah watak dan keadaan jiwa manusia. Dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa Edisi Keempat (2008: 1558, 6), watak atau karakter adalah sifat batin manusia yang mempengaruhi segenap pikiran dan tingkah laku, sedangkan keadaan adalah suasana; situasi yang sedang berlaku. Watak merupakan sifat batin manusia, sedangkan keadaan jiwa manusia merupakan suasana batin manusia. Watak dibedakan menjadi watak baik dan watak yang tidak baik. Demikian pula kedaan jiwa dibedakan menjadi keadaan jiwa yang baik dan keadaan jiwa yang tidak baik. Dengan deminikian, berdasarkan referen yang ditunjuknya itu, 83 idiom tersebut dapat dibedakan menjadi empat kelompok, yaitu (i) idiom yang menyatakan watak yang baik, (ii) idiom yang menunjuk watak yang tidak baik, (iii) idiom yang menyatakan keadaan jiwa yang baik, dan (iv) idiom yang menyatakan kedaan jiwa yang tidak baik. Idiom yang Menunjuk Watak yang Baik Terdapat 25 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati yang menunjuk watak yang baik. Berikut ini dipaparkan idiom yang dimaksud dalam tabel 1. Tabel 1 Idiom yang Menunjuk Watak yang Baik Idiom Kata No Sifat + Kata Makna Hati bertabiat baik (seperti pemurah, suka menolong, sopan, 1 baik hati dsb) (Chaer 1984: 24) suci; murni; tiada bercacat; tiada punya kehendak atau niat 2 bersih hati yang tidak baik (Chaer 1984: 33) 1. bangga; girang; gembira; 2. tidak picik; mau menerima 3 besar hati kritik; 3. angkuh; sombong (Chaer 1984: 34). 4 betul hati lurus; jujur; dapat dipercaya (Chaer 1984: 34) 1. jujur (dapat dipercaya); 2. tetap dan sungguh hati; 3. 5 bulat hati seia sekata (Chaer 1984: 40). 6 kaya hati pemurah; dermawan (Chaer 1984: 85) 7 keras hati kemauan yang tetap dan teguh (Chaer 1984: 89) 1. teguh; kokoh pendiriannya; 2. tega; sampai hati (Chaer 8 kuat hati 1984: 92) 1. sabar; tidak pemarah; 2. senang; gembira (Chaer 1984: 9 lapang hati 98) baik tingkah laku dan perkataannya; tidak pemarah (Chaer 10 lembut hati 1984: 101) 11 lempang hati jujur; dapat dipercaya (Chaer 1984: 102) mudah atau mau mendengar nasihat (petunjuk, dsb) (Chaer 12 lunak hati 1984: 108) Language, Literature, and Society | 21  jujur; terus terang barang katanya; dapat dipercaya (Chaer 13 lurus hati 1984: 109) 14 putih hati jujur; ikhlas; suka menolong (Chaer 1984: 144) 1. tidak sombong; tidak menonjolkan kehebatan diri; 2. 15 rendah hati Ikhlas (Chaer 1984: 148) 16 ringan hati merasa puas; senang (Chaer 1984: 149) 17 sepenuh hati dengan sungguh-sungguh (Chaer 1984: 137) tetap dan kuat hati (dalam menghadapi bahaya, dsb); 18 tahan hati berani 19 tegap hati tetap atau teguh hati (Chaer 1984: 163) 20 teguh hati tidak mudah menyerah atau putus asa (Chaer 1984: 172) 21 tenggang hati mengingat perasaan (hati) orang lain (Chaer 1984: 174) 22 terang hati mudah mengerti; mudah belajar (Chaer 1984: 174) 23 tetap hati tabah; tidak tergiur atau tergoda (Chaer 1984: 175) 24 tulus hati benar-benar; jujur; tidak berpura-pura (Chaer 1984: 182) sepenuh hati; tetap hati; tanpa keraguan di dalam hati 25 tunggal hati (Chaer 1984: 183) Jika dikelompokkan lebih lanjut, idiom yang menunjuk watak yang baik itu cenderung ke arah watak (i) sabar dan pemurah (baik hati, besar hati, kaya hati, lapang hati, lembut hati, tulus hati, ringan hati, rendah hati), (ii) jujur (bersih hati, betul hati, lempang hati, lurus hati, putih hati), (iii) kuat atau tahan (keras hati, kuat hati, tahan hati, tetap hati, teguh hati), (iv) sungguh-sungguh (tunggal hati,sepenuh hati), (v) penuh pengertian atau tenggang rasa (lunak hati, terang hati, tenggang hati). Idiom yang Menunjuk Watak yang Tidak Baik Ada 16 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati yang menyatakan watak tidak baik. Keenam belas idiom tersebut dipaparkan dalam tabel 2. Tabel 2 Idiom yang Menunjuk Referen yang Tidak Baik Idiom Kata Sifat No Makna + Hati 1 beku hati 1. kurang senang; 2. tidak bergairah; tidak menaruh minat (Chaer 1984: 30) 2 bengkok hati tidak jujur; apa yang dikatakan tidak sesuai dengan yang ada di hati (Chaer 1984: 32) 3 berat hati 1 merasa segan; enggan; kurang suka; 2. tidak sampai hati; tidak tega; 3. keras dugaan bahwa.... 4 buruk hati tidak punya perasaan (Chaer 1984: 41) 5 busuk hati jahat (pendengki, culas, suka mencelakakan orang, dsb) (Chaer 1984: 42) 6 buta hati jahat; pendengki (Chaer 1984: 42) 7 cepat hati 1. tidak berperasaan; bengis; 2. Tidak insyaf (Chaer 1984: 42) 8 kecil hati hilang keberanian; takut (Chaer 1984: 44) 9 kurang hati tidak bersemangat (Chaer 1984: 94) 10 lemah hati 1.kurang teguh pendiriannya (imannya); mudah terpengaruh; mudah merasa kasihan; pengiba (Chaer 1984: 101) 11 muda hati sudah tua tapi tingkah lakunya masih seperti orang muda (Chaer 1984: 121) 22 | Language, Literature, and Society  12 rapuh hati 1. mudah tersinggung; 2. lemah; tidak takut menghadapi sesuatu yang berat; cepat merasa iba, dsb (Chaer 1984: 147) 13 setengah hati tidak sungguh-sungguh (Chaer 1984: 174) 14 tebal hati bengis; tidak menaruh belas kasih (Chaer 1984: 171) 15 tegar hati tidak mau menurut nasihat atau kata orang; keras kepala (Chaer 1984: 172) 16 tinggi hati angkuh; sombong (Chaer 1984: 179) Idiom (1) sampai dengan (16) dapat dikelompokkan lagi menjadi idiom yang cenderung menyatakan (i) mudah patah semangat (beku hati, rapuh hati, lemah hati, kurang hati, kecil hati, rapuh hati), (ii) tidak jujur (bengkok hati), (iii) keras kepala (tegar hati), (iv) sombong (tinggi hati), (v) tidak punya tenggang rasa, kejam (buruk hati, buta hati, cepat hati, tebal hati), (vi) tidak sungguh-sungguh (setengah hati), (vii) tidak suka (berat hati), dan (viii) tidak merasa diri (muda hati). Idiom yang Menunjuk Keadaan Jiwa yang Baik Ditemukan 14 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati yang mengungkapkan keadaan jiwa yang baik. Berikut ini dikemukakan keempat belas idiom tersebut dalam tabel 3. Tabel 3 Idiom yang Menunjuk Keadaan Jiwa yang Baik Idiom Kata Sifat No Makna + Hati 1 aman hati tidak khawatir (curiga, waswas, dsb) (Chaer 1984: 16) 2 berahi hati menaruhi cinta kasih (Chaer 1984: 32) 3 cenderung hati menaruh kasih; kepada; suka akan; berpihak kepada (Chaer 1984: 47) 4 condong hati menaruh kasih; kepada; suka akan; berpihak kepada (Chaer 1984: 47) 5 enak hati senang; gembira; tenang pikiran; gelisah (Chaer 1984: 58) 6 geli hati merasa hendak tertawa (Chaer 1984: 63) 7 hangat hati merasa suka (senang, cinta, dsb) (Chaer 1984: 68) 8 lega hati merasa senang; tidak khawatir lagi; tidak bingung lagi (Chaer 1984: 100) 9 lekat hati 1. karib; intim (tentang persahabatan); 2. cinta; kasih (Chaer 1984: 100) 10 nyaman hati senang; gembira; tidak merasa khawatir (Chaer 1984: 127) 11 sedap hati merasa suka atau suka (Chaer 1984: 155) 12 sejuk hati merasa suka atau suka (Chaer 1984: 155) 13 senang hati merasa senang (tenang, tidak jengkel) (Chaer 1984: 156) 14 suka hati bembira di dalam hati (Chaer 1984: 156) Keadaan jiwa yang baik yang dinyatakan oleh idiom (1) sampai dengan (14) mencakup keadaan (i) senang atau gembira (aman hati,enak hati, geli hati, lega hati, nyaman hati, sedap hati, sejuk hati, senang hati, suka hati) dan (ii) merasa cinta (berahi hati, condong hati, cenderung hati, hangat hati, lekat hati). Language, Literature, and Society | 23 Idiom yang Menunjuk Keadaan Jiwa yang Tidak Baik Dalam penelitian ini ditemukan 28 idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati yang menunjuk keadaan jiwa yang tidak baik. Kedua puluh delapan idiom tersebut dipaparkan dalam tabel 4. Tabel 4 Idiom yang Menunjuk Keadaan Jiwa yang Tidak Baik Idiom Kata Sifat No Makna + Hati 1 angus hati 1. marah; 2. sangat rindu (Chaer 1984: 21) 2 buntu hati tidak punya perasaan (Chaer 1984: 41) 3 cabar hati hilang keberanian; takut (Chaer 1984: 44) 4 cemas hati merasa gelisah (takut; khawatir, dsb) 5 dingin hati tidak gembira; tidak bersemangat; tidak menaruh perhatian (Chaer 1984: 54). 6 gaduh hati selalu gelisah; tidak dapat tenang karena hati rusuh (Chaer 1984: 60). 7 gelap hati sesat ke dalam tindakan yang penuh dosa (Chaer 1984: 63) 8 gelisah hati sedih (Chaer 1984: 65) 9 gobar hati sedih (Chaer 1984: 65) 10 jauh hati merasa tersinggung (Chaer 1984: 79) 11 kecut hati merasa gentar (Chaer 1984: 86) 12 keruh hati perasaan kurang enak (kesal, agak jengkel, dsb) 13 kusut hati perasaan kurang enak (kesal, agak jengkel, dsb) 14 larat hati iba; sedih; pilu (Chaer 1984: 99) 16 patah hati 1. kecewa karena putus percintaan; 2. hilang keberanian; 3. tidak punya kemauan untuk berusaga lagi (Chaer 1984: 134) 17 pegal hati kesal; jengkel (Chaer 1984: 135) 18 pilu hati merasa sedih (Chaer 1984: 138) 19 rengat hati gelisah; tidak tenteram; rusuh hati (Chaer 1984: 142) 20 rentan hati mudah sekali merasa tersinggung (iba, kasihan, dsb) (Chaer 1984: 148) 21 retak hati hilang kemauan (keinginan, kegairahan) (Chaer 1984: 148) 22 risau hati perasaan gelisah (resah, rusuh, sedih, dsb) 23 sakit hati merasa tidak senang (dendam, benci, dsb) karena dihinakan, dsb (Chaer 1984: 151) 24 sebal hati merasa jengkel dan kesal (Chaer 1984: 155) 25 sedu hati merasa sedih atau susah (Chaer 1984: 155) 26 silap hati terlupa; tidak ingat apa-apa lagi (karena marah, kalah berjudi (Chaer 1984: 158) 27 tawar hati hilang keberanian (Chaer 1984: 170) 28 wawas hati ingat-ingatan buruk yang timbul dalam hati (seperti curiga, khawatir, dsb) Bila dikelompokkan lagi berdasarkan kesamaan referennya, keadaan jiwa tidak baik yang diungkapkan oleh idiom (1) sampai dengan (28) terdiri atas (i) gelisah (angus hati, buntu hati, cemas hati, gaduh hati, gelisah hati, rengat hati, rentan hati, waswas hati), (ii) takut (cabar hati, kecut hati, tawar hati), (iii) sedih, tidak senang, atau kecewa (dingin hati, gobar hati, keruh hati, kusut hati, larat hati, pilu hati, sedu hati), (iv) mudah marah atau jengkel (jauh hati,panas hati, pegal hati, rentan hati, 24 | Language, Literature, and Society sakit hati, sebal hati), (v) tidak semangat (patah hati, retak hati), dan (vi) sesat (gelap hati). Penutup Melalui penelitian ini, berhasil ditemukan berbagai idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati dalam bahasa Indonesia. Lewat penelitian ini, juga berhasil digali berbagai watak dan keadaan jiwa manusia yang diungkapkan oleh idiom-idiom tersebut. Dalam penelitian ini ditemukan 83 idiom tersebut terdiri atas 41 idiom yang menunjuk watak manusia dan 42 idiom yang menyatakan keadaan jiwa manusia. Empat puluh satu idiom yang menunjuk watak terdiri dari 25 idiom yang melambangkan watak yang baik dan 16 idiom menyatakan watak yang tidak baik. Watak baik yang ditunjuk oleh 25 idiom itu adalah (i) sabar dan pemurah (baik hati, besar hati, kaya hati, lapang hati, lembut hati, tulus hati, ringan hati, rendah hati), (ii) jujur (bersih hati, betul hati, lempang hati, lurus hati,putih hati), (iii) kuat atau tahan uji (keras hati, kuat hati, tahan hati, tetap hati, teguh hati), (iv) sungguh- sungguh (tunggal hati,sepenuh hati), dan (v) penuh pengertian atau tenggang rasa (lunak hati, terang hati, tenggang hati). Watak tidak baik yang ditunjuk 16 idiom tersebut meliputi (i) mudah patah semangat (beku hati, rapuh hati, lemah hati, kurang hati, kecil hati, rapuh hati), (ii) tidak jujur (bengkok hati), (iii) keras kepala (tegar hati), (iv) sombong (tinggi hati), (v) tidak punya tenggang rasa, kejam (buruk hati, buta hati, cepat hati, tebal hati), (vi) tidak sungguh-sungguh (setengah hati), (vii) tidak suka (berat hati), dan (viii) tidak merasa diri (muda hati). Empat puluh dua idiom yang menunjuk keadaan jiwa manusia terdiri atas 14 idiom yang menunjuk keadaan jiwa yang baik dan 28 idiom mengungkapkan keadaan jiwa tidak baik. Keadaan jiwa yang baik mencakup (i) senang atau gembira (aman hati,enak hati, geli hati, lega hati, nyaman hati, sedap hati, sejuk hati, senang hati, suka hati) dan (ii) merasa cinta atau penuh perhatian (berahi hati, condong hati, cenderung hati, hangat hati, lekat hati). Keadaan tidak baik pada jiwa manusia meliputi (i) gelisah (angus hati, buntu hati, cemas hati, gaduh hati, gelisah hati, rengat hati, rentan hati, waswas hati), (ii) takut (cabar hati, kecut hati, tawar hati), (iii) sedih, tidak senang, atau kecewa (dingin hati, gobar hati, keruh hati, kusut hati, larat hati, pilu hati, sedu hati), (iv) mudah marah atau jengkel (jauh hati,panas hati, pegal hati, rentan hati, sakit hati, sebal hati), (v) tidak semangat (patah hati, retak hati), dan (vi) sesat (gelap hati). Idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati merekam berbagai watak dan keadaan jiwa manusia. Selain itu, idiom yang berstruktur kata sifat dan kata hati juga menunjukkan bahwa watak dan keadaan jiwa manusia itu terletak di hati. Hati menjadi tempat watak dan keadaan jiwa manusia. Oleh sebab itu, hati (heart) sangat mempengaruhi pikiran (head) dan tingkah laku manusia (hand). Sekarang ini kata hati semakin berkonotasi positif, yaitu segala watak yang baik (sungguh-sungguh, jujur, sabar) dan keadaan jiwa yang baik (gembira, semangat, penuh perhatian). Hal ini tercermin dari ungkapan mengajar dengan hati, memimpin dengan hati, dan bekerja dengan hati yang berarti mengajar, memimpin, dan bekerja yang didasarkan pada segala watak yang baik (sungguh-sungguh, jujur, sabar) dan keadaan jiwa yang baik (gembira, semangat, penuh perhatian). Pak Alip telah mengajar dengan hati, memimpin dengan hati, dan bekerja dengan hati. Selamat memasuki masa purnakarya Pak Alip. Semoga Pak Alip selalu sehat. Daftar Pustaka Alwi, Hasan dkk. 2003. Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia. Edisi Ketiga. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. Language, Literature, and Society | 25 Badudu, J.S. 1981. Kamus Ungkapan Bahasa Indonesia. Cetakan ke-9. Bandung: CV Pustaka Prima dan PT Harapan. Chaer, Abdul. 1984. Kamus Idiom dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Ende-Flores: Penerbit Nusa Indah. ------. 1990. Pengantar Semantik Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit Rineka Cipta. Kridalaksana, Harimurti. 1986. Kelas Kata dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Gramedia. Ogden, C.K. dan I.A. Richards. 1989. The Meaning of Meaning. San Diego: Harcort Brace Javanovich, Inc. Sudaryanto. 2015. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa: Pengantar Penelitian Wahana Kebudayaan secara Linguistis. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Universitas Sanata Dharma. Tim Redaksi. 2008. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa Edisi Keempat. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Wijana, I Dewa Putu. 2016. Metode Linguistik: Identifikasi Satuan-satuan Lingual. Yogyakarta: A.com Press. 26 | Language, Literature, and Society  The Structures of English Words B.B. Dwijatmoko English Language Studies, Graduate Program Sanata Dharma University Abstract English words may consist of a root with one or more affixes, either prefixes or suffixes added concatenatively to the root. The concatenative addition of the affixes constitute the structures of the polymorphemic words. This study reveals that English polymorphemic words have 14 (fourteen) possible word structures with 1 to 4 affixes. Out of the 4849 polymorphemic English words studied, 3393 words have one suffix, 459 words have one prefix, 477 words have 2 suffixes, 252 words have one suffix1 and one prefix2, and 173 words have one prefix1 and one suffix2. The number of words with other suffixes and prefixes combinations are below 100. A. Introduction As many of its words consist of more than one morpheme, English can be considered as a polymorphemic words (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002b). Polymorphemic English words consist a root and one or more affixes, which can be prefixes and suffixes added concatenatively (Bauer, 1988, Szymanek, 1989, Anderson, 1992). The affixes are added either to the beginnings or ends of the stems (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002a). The concatenative addition of prefixes and suffixes to a root in the formation of a word constitutes the structure of the word (Lieber, 2009). The structure of a word reflects the process of the formation of a word as it shows the stems with the first affix until the last one. This paper is a research report on the structures of English words. The aim of the study was to find out the patterns of the combination of the word stems and the affixes which form the words successively. The data of the study were written works available in the internet. The works contained 157434 words and a total of 10984 different words. From the 10984 different words, 6045 were mono-morphemic words and 4849 poly-morphemic words B. Word Structure As has been discussed in the previous section, English polymorphemic words can formed by adding one affix, two affixes, three affixes, or four affixes. If a derived word consists of a root and two or more affixes, the affixes are not added simultaneously but are added one by one. Furthermore, the affixes which are added can be either a prefix and a suffix. Every addition of an affix to a stem forms a word, which in turn can become the stem of another a derived word. The step-by-step addition of affixes to form poly-morphemic words and the types of affixes which are added result in different word structures. In this research, nine word structures are identified. Language, Literature, and Society | 27  Table 1: English Word Pattern Number No Pattern Examples of Occ. 1. Stem 1 abandonment, ability, absolutely 3393 2. 1 Stem abnormal, autobiography, biochemical 459 3. Stem 1 2 accountability, actualization, adaptational, 477 4. 2 Stem 1 beloved, deacidify, deactivate 252 abnormality, autobiographical, 5. 1 Stem 2 173 decomposition 6. 2 1 Stem disembody, undiscourage 2 7. 2 Stem 1 3 demobilization, disheartened, disorganized 40 additionally, centralization, 8. Stem 1 2 3 29 constitutionalize 9. 1 Stem 2 3 disapprovingly, disarmingly, disconcertingly 6 10. 2 1 Stem 3 disembodiment, undiscouraged 2 11. 3 Stem 1 2 bidirectional, decaffeinated, dechristianize 16 12. 3 1 Stem 2 irreplaceable, unforeseen 2 13. Stem 1 2 3 4 operationalization 1 14. 4 Stem 1 2 3 undifferentiated 1 T o t a l 4849 The first word structure, which has the number of occurrence 3393, is stem + suffix1. The words in (3) has a stem-1 structure. (3) a. simplify, realize, whiten b. denial, placement, writer, kingdom c. dangerous, beautiful, sandy, cyclic The words in (3a) are verbs, the words in (3b) are nouns, and the words in (3c) are adjectives. They are formed by adding a suffix to the stem. The structure of the words in this pattern can be represented in the following diagram. (4) The second word pattern, which has the number of occurrence of 459, is prefix + stem. The words in (5) have the pattern. (5) a. redefine, endanger, unzip b. bicycle, disorder, misfortune c. dishonest, unhappy, incorrect The words in (5a), (5b), and (5c) are verbs, nouns, and adjectives. The structure of the words can be represented in the following diagram. 28 | Language, Literature, and Society (6) Most of the words formed in this pattern are adjectives and verbs because the prefixes mostly function to form the negative forms of the already existing verbs and adjectives. Only a few nouns which have a negative meaning are formed from the nouns. The third word pattern, which has the number of occurrences 477, is stem + suffix1 + suffix2. The words in this pattern are formed by adding a suffix to monomorphmeic words and by adding the second suffix to the derived words. The words in (7) are in this pattern. (7) a. centralize, industrialize, Americanize b. actualization, productivity, originality c. educational, truthful, generalizable d. carefully, emotionally, enquiringly The words in (7a), (7b), and (7c), and (7d) are verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs respectively. (8) Most of the words in this pattern are nouns and adverbs, which are formed by adding the suffix –ly to adjectives. The nouns are formed from adjectives using the the suffix like –ity, -ness, and –ation. The adjectives in this pattern are formed with the suffix – al, -ic, -ical, -able, or –ful. The number of verbs is very small, only 14, and the verbs are formed with the suffix –ize. The fourth word pattern, with the number of occurrence 253, is prefix2 + stem + suffix1. The words in this pattern are formed by adding a suffix to the monomorphmeic words and then by adding a prefix to the derived words. The words in (9) are in the pattern. (9) a. dirorganize, devitalize, embrighten b. maladjustment, unemployment, nonexisten c. dissatisfied, unmarried, inarguable The words in (9a), (9b), and (9c) are verbs, nouns, and adjectives respectively. The structure of the words in this pattern can be shown in the following diagram. (10) Language, Literature, and Society | 29 Most of the words in this patten have a negative meaning, they are mostly adjectives. The adjectives are formed by adding a negative prefix like dis-, in-, non-, or un- to already existing adjectives. The verbs are mostly formed with the prefix dis- or de- to verbs which are formed with –ize and with the prefix em-, and the nouns, which are only 6, are formed with prefix mal-, un-, non, pre- and over-. The fifth word pattern, which has the number of occurrence of 173, is prefix1 + stem + suffix2. The words in this pattern are first formed by adding a prefix to monomorphemic words and then adding a suffix to the derived words. The words in (11) are in this pattern. (11) a. disagreable, replaceable, distrustful b. immorality, uncertainty, disintegration The words in (11a) are adjectives, and the words in (11b) are nouns. The following is the structure of the words in this pattern. (12) No verbs are formed in this pattern. The reason for this is that most English prefixes form a negative meaning (like dis-, de-, in- and un-), repetition (re-), space (like pre- and post-). When such prefixes added to a monomorphemic words, they form verbs or adjectives, and when a suffix is added, the addition produces either adjectives like in (11a) or nouns like in (11b). The sixth word pattern is prefix2 + prefix1 + stem. The number of words which are formed in this pattern is 2, and the words are disembody and undiscourge. The structure of the word disembody can be represented as follows: (13) The words disembody is formed, first, by adding the prefix em- to form the word embody and then by adding the prefix dis- to the derived word. The word undiscourage is formed by adding the prefix dis- to form the word discourage and then adding the prefix un- to form the word undiscourage. The seven word pattern is prefix2 + stem + suffix1 + suffix3. The number of words which are formed in this pattern is 40, and the derived words are adverbs, nouns, or adjectives like in (14). (14) a. unlawfully, independently, immovably b. independence, uninterruptability, unimaginitiveness c. disheartened, disorganized, enlightened 30 | Language, Literature, and Society The words in (14a), (14b), and (14c) are adverbs, nouns, and adjectives respectively. The adverbs and nouns are formed in the same way. First, the first suffix is added to monomorphemic words (either nouns or verbs) to form adjectives. Then a negative prefix is added to form new adjectives, and finally the adverb suffix –ly to form adverbs or the nominalization suffix –ence, -ity, or –ness added to form nouns. The adjectives in (14c), the only adjectives in this pattern, are formed by adding the suffix –ed to verbs which are formed by adding the suffix dis- or em-. The stems of the derived verbs also have the category of verb, hearten, organize, and lighten, and these later verbs are formed from nouns by adding the suffix –en or –ize. The following is the structure of the words in this pattern. (15) The eighth pattern, which has the number of occurrence of 29, is stem + suffix1 + suffix 2 + suffix3. The words in (16) have the pattern. (16) a. constitutionalize, operationalize b. generalizability, industrialization c. additionally, healthily The verbs constitutionalize and operationalize in (16a) are formed by adding the suffixes –ion, -al, and –ize successively to form the words constitution, constitutional, and constitutionalize, operation, operational, and operationalize. The nouns generalizability is formed by adding the suffixes –ize, -able,and –ity successively to the word general to form the words generalize, generalizable, and generalizability, and the noun industrialization is formed by adding the suffixes –al, ize, and –ation successfully to form the words industrial, industrialize, and industrialization. The adverbs additionally and healthily in (16b) are formed in the same way, namely by adding the suffixes successively. The structure of the words in this pattern be represented as follows. (17) The ninth word pattern, which only comprises 6 words, is prefix1 + stem + suffix2 + suffix3. The words which belong to this pattern are disapprovingly, disarmingly, disconcertingly, and discreditably. The words are all adverbs which are formed by adding –ly to –ing or –able adjectives, which are in turn formed from verbs. The following is the structure of the words in this pattern. Language, Literature, and Society | 31 (18) The tenth word pattern is prefix2 + prefix1 + stem + suffix3. This pattern only comprises of 2 words, the noun disembodiment and the adjective undiscouraged. These two words are formed from the only two words which have word pattern 6 (prefix2 + prefix1 + stem), by adding a suffix, namyly –ment and –ed respectively. The following is the structure of the words in this pattern. (19) The eleventh pattern, which comprises 16 words, is prefix3 + stem + suffix1 + suffix2. The words in (20) are in this pattern. (20) a. denationalize, depersonalize, despiritualize b. unbusinesslike, unexceptional, unhealthy Almost all the words in this pattern are either verbs like in (20a) or adjectives like in (20b). With the exception of bidirectional and prerevolutionay, all the verbs and adjectives are formed with a negative prefix de- or un-. Besides the verbs and adjectives, there is one noun which belong to this pattern, namely noun subvocalization. The structure of the words in this pattern can be shown in the following pattern. (21) The twelveth word pattern is prefix3 + prefix1 +stem + suffix2. This pattern only comprises 2 words, namely irreplaceable and unforeseen. The word irreplaceable is formed by adding the prefix re- to the word place to forming replace, adding the suffix 32 | Language, Literature, and Society –able to forming replaceable, and finally adding the negative prefix ir-. Similarly, the word unforeseen is formed by adding the prefix fore to form foresee, adding the suffix –en to form foreseen, and finally adding the prefix un- to form unforeseen. The following is the structure of the word pattern. (22) The thirteenth and fourteenth word patterns are similar in that they contain four affixes, namely stem + suffix1 + suffix2 + suffix3 + suffix4 and prefix4 + stem + suffix1 + suffix2 + suffix3. The two patterns are only different in the last affix, namely a suffix in patten thirteen and a prefix in pattern fourteen. The structures of word pattern thirteen and fourteen can be represented with diagram (23) and (24) respectively. (23) (24) The last two patterns each only comprise one word, namely operationalization and undifferentiated respectively. The word operationalization is formed by adding the suffixes –ion, -al, -ize, and –ation successively to the word operate form the words operation, operational, operationalize, and operationalization. The word undifferentiated is formed by adding the suffes –ent, -ate, and –ed successively to the word differ to form the words different, differentiate, differentiated, and finally adding the prefix un-. Language, Literature, and Society | 33  The fourteen word patterns discussed above can be displayed in table 4. In the table the word prefix and suffix are not written, and only their number is given. A number before stem shows a prefix, and a number stem shows a suffix. From the discussion above, it can be concluded that most of English derived words are formed with a suffix. The number of derived words which are formed by adding a suffix is 4121, and the number of derived words which are formed by adding a suffix is 728. C. Conclusion After the analysis of the data, some conclusions can be made. 1. Of 10,984 studied in this research, 54.3% are mono-morphemic words, and the rest are polymorphemic words which are formed with one affix (35.2%), two affixes (8.2%), three affixes and four affixes smaller than 1%. 2. Most of the derived words are formed with suffixes (4121 or 85%), and only 728 15 %) are formed with prefixes. Most of the suffixes form new words with a different category or a completely different meaning, and most of the prefix only add a new meaning like a negative meaning (dis-, un-, and a-) or locational meaning (sub, over, and under). 3. English has 14 (fourteen) word structure for its derived words, namely S1 (happiness, commitment, and health, 1S (unhappy, discotinuie, and pretest), S12 (acceptability, healthy, and industrialize), 2S1 (unacceptable, illogical, and mismanament), 1S2 (beloved, deacidify, and deactivate), 21S (disembody and undiscourage), 2S13 (demobilization, disheartened, and disheartenment), S123 (additionally, centralization, and conceptualization), 1S23 (disapprovingly, disarmingly, and disconcertingly), 21S3 (disembodiment and undiscouraged) 31S2 (bidirectional, decaffeinated, and dechristianize), S1234 (operationalization), 4S123 (undifferentiated). Bibliography Anderson, S.R. (1992) A-Morphous Morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bauer, L. (1988) Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press. Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2002a) Current Morphology. London: Routledge. ______ (2002b) Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Pr ess. Lieber, R. 2009. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Spencer, A. (1991) Morphological Theory. Cambridge, Massachussets: Basil Blackwell, Inc. Szymanek, B. (1989) Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa: Panstowowe Wydawnictwo naukowe. 34 | Language, Literature, and Society  Verb Movements in German Yohana Veniranda English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University Introduction German is an SOV language. The data of German sentences show that there are differences of the syntactic argument order on the surface structure between the embedded clauses and the matrix clauses. In the embedded positions, a clause is SOV. The clausal argument is assumed to be originally in the object position, sister to the verb, and then obligatorily extra-posed, moved to the right, a position adjoined to V. From the following data set, the structure of the embedded clause in German can have a Complementizer, the Subject, the Object and the main verb. (CSOV), and the order of the verb following the object shows that if all of them are present: main verb precedes the Auxiliary verb, and the Auxiliary verb precedes the Modal. Different from English, the I or Inf is on the right side. When the Complementizer is absent in the embedded clause, a verb can move to the C. The analysis shows that the syntactic patterns of German sentences are different from English in several aspects. In German, the main verb can raise not only to I, but also to C, in wh-questions or declaratives. In English, a modal or an auxiliary raises to C in questions, and main verbs do not raise to I or C. In German, the embedded clauses with an overt C ―that‖ is followed by SOV pattern, and the V is in the order: main verb, Auxiliary verb, and Modal. In English the verb phrase is in the order: Modal, Auxiliary verb, main verb. In German, when the embedded clause does not have an overt C, any maximal projections can raise to [spec, CP], it can be the object NP, the subject NP, or the AdvP, as long as the finite verb surfaces as the second constituent in the clause. Ungrammaticality is the result of movements that have the surface order where the finite V is not at the second position. All the movements in the sentences follow the like-moves-to-like principle, where a head can only move to a position where heads may be generated by the phrase structure rules (head positions), and maximal projections can only move to a position where maximal projections may be generated by the phrase structure rules (specifier or complement positions). The Phrase Structure Rules in German are: (a) XP → (YP) X‘ (b) X‘ → X (ZP) However, for VP and IP, the phrase structure rules are: (c) VP → (NP) V‘ (d) V‘ → (ZP) V (e) IP → NP I‘ (f) I‘ → VP I The Embedded Clauses: SOV From the sentences in (1), the syntactic structure of the embedded clauses with the overt C ―that‖ are SOV. From the examples, we see that the syntactic arguments and elements of the verbs can be categorized as follows: Language, Literature, and Society | 35 Table (1) the possible word order of the embedded clauses with an overt Complementizer: 1 C S O main verb: sahen ‗saw‘ main verb: gesehen Auxiliary verb: 2 C S O ‗seen‘ haben ‗have‘ main verb: gesehen auxiliary verb: Modal: müssen 3 C S O ‗seen‘ haben ‗have‘ ‗must‘. The examples of sentences are as follows: (1) a. Er sagt, daß die Kinder diesen Film sahen. He says, that the children this film saw. ‗He says that the children saw this film.‘ b. Er sagt, daß die Kinder diesen Film gesehen haben. he says, that the children this film seen have. ‗He says that the children have seen this film.‘ c. Er sagt, daß die Kinder diesen Film gesehen haben müssen. he says, that the children this film seen have must. ‗He says that the children must have seen this film.‘ The NP subject is originally on VP-internal, the [Spec, VP], then raised to the higher [Spec, VP] and ends up in the [spec, IP] of the lower clause. The Modal müssen ‗must‘ is on the Infl of the lower or embedded clause. The tree- structure of 1c is as follows. (1c) Er sagt, daß die Kinder diesen Film gesehen haben müssen. he says, that the children this film seen have must. 36 | L