Labubu 🔬🧪🧫 PDF - Biology Lab Activities

ACTIVITY #2: [ MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY ] The plasma membrane is selectively + Methylene blue diffused faster and permeable, allowing after to freely pass covered more distance in the agar gel than through while regulating the movement of methyl red because it had smaller sol...

ACTIVITY #2: [ MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY ] The plasma membrane is selectively + Methylene blue diffused faster and permeable, allowing after to freely pass covered more distance in the agar gel than through while regulating the movement of methyl red because it had smaller solutes. The intracellular and extracellular molecules. environment of the cell are aqueous solutions primarily composed of water and + diffusion rate is faster in higher a variety of dissolved solutes such as temperatures due to higher kinetic energy sugars, amino acids, and ions. and faster molecular movements. The continual movement of molecules + The presence of other substances like among each other in liquids and gasses is sucrose will impact the rate of diffusion of called diffusion. the food coloring in water. Diffusion is defined as the movement of In the experiment, diffusion was slower in molecules from a region of high the beaker with sucrose as the extra concentration to a low concentration particles blocked the movement of the food without the assistance of a transport coloring. protein. Molecules are propelled by kinetic energy (the energy of motion). Robert Brown was the first person to observe the random movement of small particles which is now defined as the Brownian movement. Factors that influence the rate of diffusion: Steepness of the concentration gradient Temperature Size of molecule Molecules will move by diffusion until it reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium, equal movement of molecules in both directions. 1. Diffusion through agar gel -This experiment determines the effect of size (molecular weight) +substances diffuse a greater distance when lesser in molecular weight. ACTIVITY #3: [ DIALYSIS ] Animal membranes, cellophane, and collodion have pores with diameters of 7 angstrom. Molecules with diameters less than that can easily pass through the pores of these substances. Meanwhile, larger molecules like colloids are retained in the semipermeable materials. This is the basic principle of dialysis. Colloids are aggregates of molecules with diameters ranging from 1 micron to 100 microns. These large molecules remain suspended in the solvent indefinitely. This system is known as a colloidal dispersion or colloidal solution. There are two types of colloidal dispersion, the emulsions and the suspensoids. Dialysate: [ NaCl ]: Crystalloid [ Starch ]: Colloid Distillate: [ H2O ] 1. AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate test) -> presence of Cl -> white precipitate 2. Iodine test -> Starch -> Black color In the experiment: Beaker A = Dialysate AgNO3 test (+) I2 test (+) Beaker B = Distillate AgNO3 test (+) (Passed though the membrane as it’s a colloid) I2 test ( - ) (Crystalloid and cannot pass through) Therefore, Starch = colloid NaCl = crystalloid ACTIVITY #4: [ PH DETERMINATION ] All biological processes are greatly affected DETERMINATION OF PH VALUES by the hydronium ion concentration in the USING THE PH METER medium in which they occur. This concentration is commonly expressed in LESS THAN 7 (ACIDIC); terms of pH. CALAMANSI JUICE [PH: 3] COKE [PH: 3] The control of pH is vital to the life of an VINEGAR [PH: 2] organism. Buffers function as the control for pH in enzyme catalyzed reactions. HIGHER THAN 7 (BASIC): ANTACID TABLET [PH: 8] A buffer is a mixture of a weak acid and its 1% Na2CO3 (SODIUM CARBONATE) conjugate base, or a weak base and its [PH:11] conjugate acid. The pH of buffer solutions can be determined by using the Henderson LITMUS PAPER COLOR CHANGE: - Hasselbach equation. BLUE -> RED = ACIDIC BLUE -> BLUE = BASIC DETERMINATION OF PH VALUES USING RED -> RED = ACIDIC CHEMICAL INDICATORS RED -> BLUE = BASIC CALORIMETRIC METHOD + PH METER READING IS MORE EFFICIENT HAN PH PAPER READING [ METHYL RED ] AS IT IS MORE CONCISE, AND IT ACID: PINK / RED GIVES THE ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY BASE; YELOW LEVEL OF A SUBSTANCES. [ BROMOTHYMOL BLUE ] + PH PAPER USES THE TITRATION ACID: YELOW METHOD WHICH CHANGES THE BASE: BLUE TO GREEN COLOR OF THE PH PAPER TO DETERMINE THE PH LEVEL OF A [ PHENOLPHTHALEIN ] SUBSTANCES. ACID: COLORLESS BASE; FUSCHIA ACTIVITY #5: [ NUCLEIC ACIDS AND HEREDITY ] NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE THE MOST + PURPOSE OF DISHWASHING LIQUID: FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUENT OF A TO RUPTURE THE LIPID BILAYER, LIVING CELL. THEY GENERALLY SERVE ALLOWING THE RELEASE OF DNA. AS THE STORE HOUSES AND CARRIERS OF GENETIC INFORMATION. + PURPOSE OF SALT AND SODIUM BICARBONATE: THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC SERVES AS A BUFFER TO PREVENT ACID: DRASTIC CHANGE IN PH 1. RIBONUCLEIC ACID [RNA] + WHY SHOULD YOU AVOID SHAKING 2. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID [DNA] YOUR SAMPLES AFTER THE ADDITION OF DNA BUFFER? ***ALL LIVING ORGANISMS CONTAIN DNA.*** TO AVOID BREAKING THE DNA SOME FRUITS ARE SUITED FOR DNA + WHY IS COLD 70% ETHANOL USED EXTRACTIONS DUE TO THEIR MULTIPLE IN DNA EXTRACTION? SETS OF CHROMOSOMES. FOR EXAMPLE, STRAWBERRIES ARE IT IS UTILIZED TO PRECIPITATE THE OCTOPLOID, WHICH MEANS THEY HAVE DNA. 8 COPIES OF EACH CHROMOSOME. THE POSITIVE TEST FOR DISCHE’S IN CONTRAST, HUMAN BODY CELLS ARE TEST WILL SHOW A BLUE COLOR. DIPLOID; THEY CONTAIN TWO COPIES THIS IS DUE TO THE REACTION OF EACH CHROMOSOME. THEREFORE, DISCHE’S DIPHENYLAMINE REAGENT EXTRACTING DNA FROM CHEEK CELLS TO THE PRESENCE OF DNA. YIELD JUST A VERY SMALL AMOUNT OF DNA. DNA EXTRACTION EXPERIMENT: + OBSERVATION AFTER MIXING THE SAMPLE + DNA BUFFER SOLUTION + COLD ETHYL ALCOHOL: THERE WAS A FORMATION CLOUDY PRECIPITATE IN THE INTERFACE OF THE ROH AND SAMPLE. ACTIVITY #6: [ CARBOHYDRATES: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND GENERAL TESTS ] CARBOHYDRATES ARE THE MOST + POLYSACCHARIDES CANNOT BE ABUNDANT CLASS OF ORGANIC EASILY DISSOLVED IN WATER IN COMPOUNDS FOUND IN LIVING COMPARISON TO DI- AND MONO- ORGANISMS. THEY ORIGINATE AS SACCHARIDES. PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, AND THEY PROVIDE THE BODY WITH ENERGY, + CARBOHYDRATES ARE GENERALLY MOST ESPECIALLY OUR BRAIN AND INSOLUBLE IN NON-POLAR NERVOUS TISSUE. SOLVENTS LIKE ETHER. CARBOHYDRATES ARE ALSO CALLED SACCHARIDES. ITS MOLECULAR GENERAL TESTS FOR COMPOUNDS ARE MADE UP FROM JUST CARBOHYDRATES THREE ELEMENTS: [ MOLISCH TEST ] OXYGEN - ALL CARBOHYDRATES ARE POSITIVE HYDROGEN IN THIS TEST. CARBON - [ + ] = PURPLE RING MONOSACCHARIDES (E.G. GLUCOSE) [ ANTHRONE TEST ] AND DISACCHARIDES (E.G. SUCROSE) - ALL CARBOHYDRATES ARE POSITIVE ARE RELATIVELY SMALL MOLECULES. TO THIS TEST. THEY ARE OFTEN CALLED SUGARS. - [ + ] = BLUE OR GREEN OTHER CARBOHYDRATES LIKE POLYSACCHARIDES SUCH AS STARCH [ IODINE TEST ] AND CELLULOSE ARE VERY LARGE - TEST FOR PRESENCE OF STARCHES, MOLECULES. MAKING IT GENERALLY POSITIVE FOR POLYSACCHARIDES. - [ + ] = VIOLET TO BLACK - [ - ] = YELLOWISH BROWN ACTIVITY #7: [ CARBOHYDRATES: QUALITATIVE SPECIFIC TESTS ] CARBOHYDRATES ARE POLYHYDROXY [ MUCIC ACID TEST ] ALDEHYDES OR POLYHYDROXY - TEST FOR GALACTOSE AND ITS KETONES OR ANY SUBSTANCE THAT DERIVATIVES YIELDS THESE SUBSTANCES UPON - [ + ] = FORMS SANDY CRYSTALS HYDROLYSIS. GLUCOSE [ - ] DIFFERENT CARBS EXIST IN NATURE GALACTOSE [ + ] AND THEY DO NOT OFTEN RESPOND SUCROSE [ - ] IN SIMILAR MANNER TO SOME LACTOSE [ + ] REAGENTS BECAUSE OF SLIGHT DIFFERENCES IN THEIR MOLECULAR GLACTOSE FORMS MUCIC ACID WHILE STRUCTURES. THE OTHERS DO NOT. [ SELIWANOFF’S TEST ] TESTING LACTOSE LEADS TO MUCIC - TEST FOR KETOSE (KETONE ACID FORMATION DUE TO ITS CAPABILITY CONTAINING SUGAR) OF BEING HYDROLYZED INTO GLUCOSE - [ + ] = CHERRY RED AND GALACTOSE, WHICH CAN OXIDIZE O FORM MUCIC ACID. GLUCOSE [ - ] FRUCTOSE [ + ] ONE MAY TEST THE VALIDITY OF THE SUCROSE [ + ] CRYSTALS FORMED BY DISSOLVING IT IN LACTOSE [ - ] WATER AND PERFORMING A PH TEST AS IT WILL TURN BLUE LITMUS PAPER RED. THE FUNCTION OF RESORCINOL IN THE TEST IS TO REACT AND PRODUCE [ BIAL’S TEST ] THE CHERRY RED COLOR. - TEST FOR PETOSES. - [ + ] = GREEN THE AIM OF USING A STRONG ACID IN THE TEST IS FOR IT TO BE A GLUOSE [ - ] DEHYDRATING AGENT. FRUCTOSE [ - ] ARABINOSE [ + ] FRUCTOSE AND SUCROSE FALL RIBOSE [ + ] UNDR THE KETOSE FUNCTIONAL GROUP AS THEY TESTED POSITIVE. ONLY ARABINOSE AND RIBOSE GAVE A BLUE TO GREEN COLOR, TESTING SUCROSE CAN HYDROLYZE INTO POSITIVE. THESE SUGARS ARE GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE, YET IT CLASSIFIED AS PENTOSES AS THEY RESULTED IN A LIGHT PINK IN CONTAIN FIVE CARBONS. COMPARISON TO FRUCTOSE. RNA WOULD PRODUCE A GREEN COLOR, WHILE DNA PRODUCES BLUE WHEN TESTED. ACTIVITY #8: [ HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES ] SUCROSE IS ONE OF THE SWEETEST [ WORD EQUATION FOR THE HYDROLYSIS OF SUGARS. IT IS SOLUBLE IN WATER, SUCROSE: ] DEXTROROTATORY AND DOES NOT REDUCE MILD OXIDIZING AENTS. SUCROSE + H20 —HCL—> GLUCOSE +FUCTOSE WHEN HYDROLYZED IT BECOMES LEVOROTATORY DUE TO THE FACT THAT FRUCTOSE HAS GREATER [ WHAT TEST/S CAN YOU USE TO DETECT LEVOROTATION THAN GLUCOSE HAS THE PRESENCE OF HYDROLYSIS DEXTRO-ROTATION. PRODUCTS? ] ***THE HYDROLYSIS OF SUCROSE IS + BENEDICT’S TEST AND SELIWANOFF’S KNOWN AS INVERSION. THE PRODUCT TEST. WE CAN USE BENEDICT’S TEST FOR OF SUCROSE HYDROLYSIS IS CALLED GLUCOSE AS IT IDNTIFIES REDUCING INVERT SUGAR*** SUGARS (LIKE GLUCOSE). MEANWHILE, SELINOFF’S TEST CAN BE USED TO DETECT IN PLANTS, GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE FRUCTOSE AS IT DIFFERENTIATES BETWEEN ARE INVOLVED IN SIGNALING ALDOSES AND KETOSES. PATHWAYS IN WHCH SUCROSE CONCENTRATION FUNCTIONS AS A KEY [ BENEDICT’S TEST ] SENSOR OF THE NUTRITIONAL STATUS TEST FOR: GLUCOSE OF PLANTS. [ + ] = BRICK RED COLOR HUMANS USE THE ENZYME [ SELIWANOFF’S TEST ] SUCROSE-GLUCOSIDASE TO TEST FOR: FRUCTOSE HYDROLYZE SUCROSE. [ + ] = RED COLOR STARCH IS A POLYSACCHARIDE [ CONCLUSION ] CONSTRUCTED FROM ALPHA D GLUCOSE THAT IS LINKED BY THE HYDROLYSIS OF DISACCHARIDES GLYCOSIDIC BONDS. YIELDS TWO MONOSACCHARIDES. MUCH LIKE HOW SUCROSE YIELDS GLUCOSE AND POLYMERS OF GLUCOSE ARE CALLED FRUCTOSE AFTER BEING HYDROLYZED. GLUCANES. HYDROLYSIS OF DISACCHARIDES ALLOWS THE BREAKDOWN INTO SIMPLER SUGAR. THE STARCH MOLECULE IS MADE UP OF AMYLOSE AND AMYLOPECTIN MOLECULES. AMYLOSE MOLECULES CONTAIN MAINLY -1, 4 GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES. AMYLOPECTIN IS CHARACTERIZED BY BRANCHINGS, HE BRANCHES ARE VIA A -1, 6 GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES. [ WORD EQUATION FOR THE HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH, A POLYSACCHARIDE: ] STARCH + H20 —HCL—> GLUCOSE WHY IS THERE A NEED TO NEUTRLIZE YOUR HYDROLYSATE BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE OTHER TESTS? + NEUTRALIZING THE HYDROLYSATE STOPS THE REACTION AND PREVENTS THE ACID FROM AFFECTING TESTS FOR HYDROLYSIS PRODUCTS LIKE GLUCOSE. **BASED ON THE EQUATION ON THE HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH, THE BEST TEST TO USE TO DETECT THE PRESENCE OF GLUCOSE IS BENEDICT’S TEST.** [ BENEDICT’S TEST ] BRICK RED PRECIPITATE, RED SOLUTION [ BARFOED’S TEST ] ***ALSO A TEST FOR REDUCING SUGARS OR MONOSACCARIDES** BRICK RED PRECIPITATE, BLUE SOLUTION [ CONCLUSION ] + ACID HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF GLUCOSE, DEMONSTRATING HOW POLYSACCHARIDES CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO SIMPLER SUGARS.