Psychology PDF

Counseling psychology - uses interviews and tests to define client’s Chapter 1 problems (not as serious as clinical) ○ Ex: dealing with academic PSYCHOLOGY stu...

Counseling psychology - uses interviews and tests to define client’s Chapter 1 problems (not as serious as clinical) ○ Ex: dealing with academic PSYCHOLOGY study of the soul decisions - Scientific study of behavior and mental processes School psychologists - assist - “Psyche” - soul; “Logos” - study students who have problems that - Behavioral science interfere with learning - Objective and fact-based - Systematic and empirical Educational psychologists - course - How heredity and other factors planning and instructional methods affect behavior (wider scope) - Theories - propose reasons for relationships; derive explanations Developmental psychologists - study and predictions the changes that occur throughout - Predicts behavior the lifespan ○ Physical, cognitive, social, Fundamental grounds of psychology emotional - Behavior happens in an orderly Personality psychologists - identify pattern (something happens prior to and measure human traits and see a behavior) influences on human behavior and - Knowledge is derived from thought processes experience ○ Gender roles, aggression, anxiety Pure research - done out of personal ○ Identifies within the person interest - No application to personal or social Social psychologists - concerned problems with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and Applied research - finding solutions to behavior in social situations specific personal or social problems ○ Focus on social influences FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Environmental psychologists - how people and the environment Clinical psychology - helps people influence one another with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life Human factors psychologists - make ○ Helps w anxiety, depression technical systems and technology more human-friendly  Experimental psychologists - ○ Relationship between stimuli specialize in basic processes and responses ○ nervous system, sensation ○ B.F. SKINNER - and perception, learning and reinforcement memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. Gestalt psychology - PERCEPTION ○ Wholes that gave meaning to HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS parts Aristotle - human behavior is subject to rules and laws Sigmund Freud - Democritus - behavior is influenced PSYCHOANALYSIS by external stimulation ○ Our lives are governed by Socrates - INTROSPECTION unconscious ideas that ○ Careful examination of one’s originate from childhood own thoughts and emotions PERSPECTIVES Wilhelm Wundt - STRUCTURALISM Biological - relationship between ○ Break conscious experience the brain, hormones, etc., and into objective sensations behavior and mental processes and subjective feelings Cognitive - understand human ○ Believes that the mind nature, the mind functions by combining Humanistic-existential - human objective and subjective capacity for self-fulfillment and the elements of experience freedom to choose is existentialism ○ What are the pieces that Psychodynamic - focused less on make up thinking and unconscious processes and more on experience? conscious choice and self-direction. William James - FUNCTIONALISM PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING ○ How our experience helps us Sociocultural - how people differ function better in our from one another (profile, age, environment gender) ○ How do behavior and ○ Ethnicity mental processes help ○ Gender people adapt to their lives? John Watson - BEHAVIORISM SCIENTIFIC METHOD ○ Learning observable Formulating a research question behavior (can be measured)  Hypothesis - a statement about Independent variable - manipulated behavior that is tested through variable research Dependent variable - effect or Test the hypothesis - controlled outcome methods Experimental groups - groups who Results get the treatment ○ Correlation - Control group - those that remain association/relationship constant, or no treatment among variables (ex: grades and study habits) ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ○ Selection factor - source of RESEARCH bias that may occur in research findings Informed consent - participant’s (participants are allowed to agreement to participate in research choose for themselves) after knowing what it is about Debriefing - explain the purposes of SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS a completed procedure to the Sample - segment of a population participant (after) Random sample - equal chances for everyone in a population CRITICAL THINKING - examination of Stratified sample - subgroups are evidence with skepticism to evaluate claims represented appropriately and comments of people Volunteer bias - people who volunteer differ systematically from Principles of critical thinking people who do not (affects results) Be skeptical - keep an open mind Insist on evidence METHODS OF RESEARCH Examine the definition of terms - definitions may vary, so check the Methods of observation meanings of the words first Case study - collect information Examine the assumptions or about individuals and small groups premise of arguments - context or Survey - investigation wherein a assumption of facts large sample of people answer Be cautious in drawing conclusions questions about attitudes or from evidence - evidence may have behaviors changed over time Naturalistic observation - observing Be especially skeptical of anecdotes people in their natural environment - very subjective at times Correlation Consider alternative interpretations Correlational method - sees if of research evidence observed behavior is related with Do not oversimplify another Do not overgeneralize Experimental method Apply critical thinking in all areas of life Chapter 2 Polarization - readies a neuron for firing, creates an internal negative BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY charge relative to the body fluid outside the cell Neurons - specialized cells in the nervous ○ resting potential about -70 system that conduct impulses millivolts Glial cells - removes dead neurons and waste products in the nervous system Depolarization - the permeability of Dendrites - root-like part from the cell body the cell membrane allows positively that RECEIVES incoming messages from charged sodium ions to enter different neurons (positively charged area of entry) Axon - thin, cord-like part that carries messages from the toes to the spinal cord All-or-none principle - when a Axon terminals/terminal buttons - neuron fires, it transmits an impulse bulb-shaped structures found at the of the same strength end of axons ○ a neuron either fires or it Myelin - white, fatty substance that look like doesn't sausages that: insulates the axon from electrically ○ frequent firing if stimulated by charged atoms larger numbers of other minimizes leakage of the electrical neurons current carried along the axon myelination is a maturation process Synapse - junction of axon terminal that allow a child to walk and crawl from a neuron and dendrites/cell body of another neuron ○ synaptic cleft - fluid-filled gap Afferent transmits messages: neurons NEUROTRANSMITTERS sensory receptors -> spinal sensory cord & brain neurons Neurotransmitters can fit into a receptor site on a dendrite Efferent transmits messages: neurons brain & spinal cord -> 1. Acetylcholine (ACh) - controls motor muscles and glands muscle contractions neurons ○ causes paralysis if one lacks this remember SAME - sensory afferent; ○ prevalent in the motor efferent HIPPOCAMPUS - involved in the formation of memories Neural impulses - electrochemical ○ affects memory discharge of a nerve cell or neuron  **nerves are a bundle of axons from many Dopamine - perceives pleasure, voluntary neurons** movement, and learning and memory ○ nicotine and other drugs are CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - pleasurable because of high the brain and the spinal cord dopamine levels ○ the CPU of the body ○ low dopamine - Parkinson's disease (no control over Spinal cord - information muscles, jerky) superhighway ○ schizophrenia - many receptor sites for dopamine ○ transmits messages from in the brain area that is sensory receptors to the involved in emotional brain and vice versa responding ○ column of nerves ○ spinal reflex - response to a Norepinephrine - excitatory to the heart stimulus that only needs and other body processes in arousal, sensory and motor neurons learning, and memory ○ gray matter - non-myelinated ○ produced in the brain stem neurons - spinal reflex (a hormone & a (outside) neurotransmitter) ○ white matter - long, ○ excess and deficiency = myelinated axons, carries mood disorders messages to and from the brain (inside) Serotonin - emotional arousal and sleep ○ deficiencies - ED, ○ involved in reflexes - alcoholism, depression, urinating, defecating, knee aggression, and insomnia jerk Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - Brain - no pain receptors helps calm anxiety reactions ○ Electroencephalograph ○ low GABA - depression (EEG) - study the current ○ inhibitory, not excitatory waves in the brain ○ Computerized axial Endorphins - inhibitory neurotransmitters tomography (CAT/CT scan) that acts as morphine that BLOCKS PAIN - passes x-rays through the ○ blocks out pain and head and sees the structure increases competence, that reflect the beams immune system function reveals blood clots, tumors, etc. DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ Positron emission tomography (PET scan) -  traces the amount of glucose motivation, and emotion (pleasure metabolized by parts of the center) brain (uses radioactive ○ beneath the thalamus and tracers) above the pituitary gland ○ Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - person is Limbic system - includes the exposed to radio waves that amygdala, hippocampus, and parts cause the brain to emit of the hypothalamus signals, detects tumor ○ memory, emotion, and drive throughout the whole body (hunger, sex, and ○ Functional MRI - person is aggression) awake, brain is working to amygdala - facilitates show parts of the brain used aggressive responses when doing specific activities Cerebrum - thinking and language PARTS OF THE BRAIN Medulla - regulates heart rate, BP, CEREBRAL CORTEX respiration, sleeping, coughing, sneezing has 2 hemispheres - left and right, each divided into 4 lobes Pons - BRIDGE for body Frontal lobe - motor cortex - if movements, attention, sleep, arousal damaged, cannot move body and respiration Parietal lobe - sensory cortex - ○ in the hindbrain, forward of somatosensory cortex to feel the medulla sensations in the skin Cerebellum - balance and muscle Temporal lobe - language function - control Broca's and Wernicke's area ○ behind the pons damage = aphasia which is the disruption of the ability to understand Reticular formation - attention, or produce language sleep, and arousal ○ Wernicke's aphasia - ○ in the hindbrain impairs abilities to comprehend speech and Thalamus - sensory relay station think of the proper words (when you see something, it is ○ Broca's aphasia - people processed here) talks slowly in simple ○ regulates sleep and attention sentences Hypothalamus - regulates body Occipital lobe - vision - back part temp, concentration of fluids,  PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ductless systems release hormones - - has sensory and motor neurons affects growth, metabolism, and behavior that transmit messages to the CNS (peripherals - keyboards, mouse) Pituitary gland and hypothalamus Somatic nervous system - - master gland and commander transmits messages about sights, (hypothalamus) sounds, smells, temperature, body ○ pituitary gland is below the positions, etc. to the CNS hypothalamus ○ messages from the CNS to ○ growth hormones the somatic nervous system ○ oxytocin for pleasure, controls body movements prolactin for milk production, like raising a hand, running, vasopressin for paternal winking behavior ○ contains afferent and efferent neurons Pineal gland - secretes melatonin for sleep-wake cycle Autonomic nervous system - Thyroid gland - produces thyroxin controls activities such as heartbeat, that affects metabolism respiration, digestion, and dilation of ○ hyperthyroidism - fast pupils (automatic processes) metabolism, very thin ○ hypothyroidism - slow Sympathetic division - active in metabolism, fat processes that involve SPENDING body energy from stored reserves Adrenal gland - secretes (ex: fear and anxiety) corticosteroids that regulate ○ more on excitement and heartbeat, resistance to stress, acceleration muscle development Parasympathetic division - active ○ manufactures epinephrine in processes that REPLENISH (adrenaline) energy (ex: digestion) ○ more on relaxation and Testes and ovaries - produce deceleration steroids (testosterone and estrogen) ○ primary and secondary sex ENDOCRINE SYSTEM characteristics body has 2 types of glands - glands w/ EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY ducts (secretion) and without ducts (endocrine system, releases hormones into the bloodstream) Charles Darwin - descent of man (apes->humans) SUBLIMINAL STIMULATION Evolutionary psychology - ways of Sensory stimulation that is BELOW adaptation and natural selection a person's absolute threshold mental processes and behavior Ex: visual stimuli flashed too briefly for us to process them Heredity - natural biologic process Genetics - behavioral contribution of genes DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD to behavior Minimum difference in magnitude of Genes - building blocks of heredity, specific two stimuli required for us to detect a traits CHANGE Environment - nurtures behavior Weber’s constant - 1/60th for light, Kinship studies - compare traits and 1/333 for pitch behavior patterns in people biologically Just noticeable difference - related or not minimum difference in stimuli that a Adoption studies - similar environments person can detect SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY Perceptions of sensory stimuli have physical, biological, and psychological factors Chapter 3 SENSORY ADAPTATION SENSATION AND PERCEPTION We become more sensitive to stimuli of low magnitude and less sensitive Sensation - stimulation of sensory to those that remain constant receptors ○ Sensitization (positive Transmission of sensory information adaptation) - becoming to the central nervous system more sensitive to stimulation (ex: being sensitive to things Perception - making sense of the in the dark cinema after a sensations we experience while) Interpretation and organization of ○ Desensitization (negative sensations adaptation) - becoming less Not mechanical sensitive to constant stimuli Reflection of our experiences and (ex: living in the city makes expectation you less bothered about car noises) ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD VISION The weakest level of a stimulus that can produce a sensation Visual acuity - sharpness of vision Ex: minimum brightness  ○ Connected to the shape of ○ Can be interpreted differently the eye Presbyopia - difficulty perceiving Gestalt rules for organization nearby visual stimuli (usually in old people) Proximity - how close or far objects are from each other, causing us to perceive them as GROUPS OR SUBGROUPS Theories of color vision Similarity - we perceive similar Trichromatic theory - cones are objects as belonging together sensitive to red, green, and blue Continuity - series of points or a ○ When we see other colors broken line are seen as having unity aside from red, green, and Closure - perceiving a complete blue, these cones are firing whole despite gaps in the sensory at the SAME TIME (ex: we input see yellow when red and Common fate - elements seen green are firing) moving together are perceived as belonging together Opponent-process theory - cones are sensitive to red-green, Top-down processing (general-specific) blue-yellow, and brightness Knowing a pattern or knowing what to find before organizing its parts Color blindness ○ ex: knowing the image of the puzzle before arranging the Trichromats - normal color vision pieces ○ Sensitive to red-green, blue-yellow, and light-dark Bottom-up processing Monochromats - totally colorblind Uses bits and pieces to assemble a ○ Sensitive to only light-dark big picture Dichromat - partially colorblind ○ Forming a puzzle without ○ Can only discriminate knowing the final output between two colors, red-green or blue-yellow Depth Perception ○ Cannot discriminate Monocular cues - can be perceived green-blue, or red-yellow by one eye ○ Perspective Perceptual Organization ○ Motion parallax - nearby how we integrate bits and pieces into objects appear to move meaningful wholes rapidly in relation to our own motion Figure-ground perception ○ Clearness ○ Figure-ground relationships ○ Relative size are ambiguous  Binocular cues - involves both eyes ○ Organ of Corti has hair cells ○ Retinal disparity - difference that dance in response to the of projected images in each vibrations of the basilar eye due to different angles membrane ○ Convergence - cross-eyed due to trying to focus on a Frequency theory - for us to single image in between our perceive lower pitches, we need to eyes, causing tension in eyes match the frequency of the sound Perceptual Constancies waves with our neural impulses (frequency of neural impulses = pitch Size constancy - we have prior of sound) knowledge of what size objects are ○ Volley principle - groups of ○ We do not perceive objects neurons take turns firing as we see them at present if ○ 20-20,000 cycles/sec they differ from the norm Color constancy - we perceive Place theory - pitch of sound is objects as retaining their color sensed according to the PLACE despite a difference in lighting along the basilar membrane that conditions vibrates in response to it Brightness constancy ○ Higher the pitch = neurons Shape constancy are closer to the oval window PITCH AND LOUDNESS Deafness Pitch - frequency; hertz (Hz) in Conductive deafness - damage to cycles the middle ear (eardrum or bones Loudness - amplitude, height of that amplify sound waves from outer soundwaves in decibels (dB) to inner ear) ○ Often found among older The ear people Outer ear - funnels sound waves to Sensorineural deafness - inner the eardrum ear Middle ear - contains the eardrum ○ Loss of hair cells and the malleus, incus, and stapes ○ Due to loud sounds (hammer, anvil, stirrup) ○ Amplifier SKIN SENSES ○ Oval window - transmits vibrations to the inner ear; Touch and pressure - sensory receptors in the cochlea the skin fire when touched Inner ear Active touching - continuously moving Cochlea your hand along the surface of an object Contains the basilar membrane Pain - pain messages are facilitated by the release of chemicals ○ Prostaglandins ○ Bradykinin Chapter 4 ○ P (pain) CONSCIOUSNESS definitions Phantom limb pain - feeling pain in sensory awareness of the missing limbs environment Gate theory of pain - the nervous system can only process a limited Direct inner awareness - knowing amount of stimulation at a time one's thoughts, images, emotions, ○ Rubbing the painful site and memories (you can imagine grabs the attention of the vivid things) neurons (competing) and waking state divides the processing of consciousness is SELF pain selective attention - focusing one's KINESTHESIS - informs you about the consciousness on a specific stimulus position and motion of parts of the body key to self-control Sensory information is fed back to cocktail party effect the brain from joints, muscles, and tendons Ex: being able to touch your nose preconscious not currently in instantly (you know where your nose awareness but readily is) available for you to retrieve VESTIBULAR SENSE - helps your brain unconscious unavailable to awareness know if you are physically upright or not under most (relative to gravity) circumstances ESP (extrasensory perception) - nonconscious bodily processes, parapsychological; standing alongside uncontrollable psychology but not part of it Telepathy and clairvoyance repression involuntarily ejecting bad File-drawer problem - reporting only memories from awareness successes and not failures, which to avoid bad feelings makes it invalid suppression voluntarily stop thinking about unacceptable ideas or distractions SLEEP REPEAT 4,3,2,1 THEN REM (rapid eye movement) SLEEP recommended hours is 7-9 hours PARADOXICAL SLEEP difficult to be awakened CIRCADIAN RHYTHM - cycle connected people often VIVIDLY dream in this with the 24-hour period of the earth's state rotation 5 sleep cycles = 5 REM sleep sun activates proteins in the retina nightmares occur here proteins signal the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus SLEEP pineal gland lowers melatonin Helps us rejuvenate hormone release to wake us up Recover from stress Consolidate learning STAGES OF SLEEP Develops infants’ brains waking state - low amplitude, high DREAMS frequency residue of the day sleeping - high amplitude, low frequency ○ continuity hypothesis - if FIRST FOUR STAGES OF SLEEP - NREM we are preoccupied with (non-rapid eye movement) SLEEP something in real life, we are likely to dream about them before stage 1, drowsy stage alpha waves- low amplitude; 8-13 expression of unconscious cycles desires - dreams reflect unconscious wishes and urges stage 1 - theta waves, low frequency, and amplitude activation-synthesis model - ○ slow, rolling eye movement ○ activation of the reticular ○ lightest stage formation that stimulates the cortex stage 2 - after 30-40 minutes of stage 1 ○ cortex synthesizes ○ sleep spindles (12-16 stimulation and produces cycles/sec) dreams ○ Medium amplitude (4-7 cycles/sec) SLEEP DISORDERS stage 3 and 4 ○ slow delta waves, high Insomnia - difficulty falling asleep amplitude ○ stage 4 is the deepest stage can be caused by trying too hard to of sleep fall asleep Narcolepsy - falling asleep suddenly tolerance - habituation to a may last 15 minutes substance; more usage = higher accompanied by sleep paralysis tolerance = higher doses stimulants and anti-depressants help abstinence syndrome - withdrawal symptoms, when the level of usage Sleep apnea - air passages are obstructed is dropped off people stop breathing during sleep DEPRESSANTS - slows the activity of associated with obesity the nervous system anatomical deformities like a thick palate that clogs the air ALCOHOL - low doses are stimulating but high doses are depressants HYPNOSIS - an altered state of consciousness where people are ○ women cannot process suggestible alcohol as fast as men due to the lack of aldehyde role theory - people can act as dehydrogenase though they were hypnotized ○ Susceptibility of the person to be hypnotized OPIATES AND OPIOIDS response set theory - expectations ○ opiates are narcotics from play a role in hypnosis the opium poppy (plant of joy), stop the production of MEDITATION - thinking deeply about the neurotransmitters similar to universe (spiritual) opiates (pain-relieving endorphins) transcendental meditation - mantra repetition morphine mindfulness meditation - mantras heroin - euphoric for the present moment rather than rush, used as a cure thinking about problems for morphine addiction BIOFEEDBACK - learning how to codeine voluntarily gain control of their bodily Demerol functions like heart rate ○ opioids are similar but laboratory-made PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES - aka drugs BARBITURATES - relieves anxiety, insomnia substance use disorder - loss of control over one's use of substances STIMULANTS - increases the activity of the nervous system AMPHETAMINES - treats ADHD, narcolepsy ○ Ritalin and adderall ○ increases attention span COCAINE - from coca leaves ○ euphoria ○ reduces hunger ○ deadens pain ○ boosts self-confidence ○ binds to sites on neurons that are meant for neurotransmitters like norepinephrine NICOTINE - stimulant in tobacco smoke ○ stimulates the discharge of adrenaline and neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, GABA, endorphins, and dopamine ○ depresses appetite ○ hydrocarbons in cigarettes lead to lung cancer HALLUCINOGENICS MARIJUANA - sharpens perceptions, creative thinking, empathy for others, and self-insight ○ produces mild hallucinations ○ disorientation ○ impairs motor coordination