L1 Basic of Sociology Final PDF

GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Index Unit I Page No. The meaning. definition and 01 -23 significance.Sociological perspective and relationship with law. UNIT II...

GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Index Unit I Page No. The meaning. definition and 01 -23 significance.Sociological perspective and relationship with law. UNIT II 24 -116 Society, Community, Institution, 27 -37 Association Culture 38 -46 Status & Role 47 -56 Social norms 57 -68 Marriage 69 -82 Family 83 -94 Religion 95 -101 Kinship 102 -111 Education 112 -116 Social Process 117 -126 Socialization 127 -137 Social Mobility 138 -140 Social Control 141 -152 Social Stratification 153 -165 Social Change 166 -196 Social Integration 197 -203 Law & Social Change 204 -208 Social Engineering 209 -218 B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester S0CIOLOGY Page 1  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW UNIT I (Sociology) Unit Structure : 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition 1.3 Nature of Sociology 1.4 Subject –Matter and Scope of Sociology 1.5 Use of Sociology 1.6 Perspectives in sociology 1.6.1 Fuctionalist perspective 1.6.2 Conflict perspective 1.6.3 Interactionist perspective 1.6.4 Critical perspective 1.0 OBJECTIVES:-  To give a basic understanding of sociology.  To know the meaning and subject matter of sociology  To understand the nature of scientific study  To know the nature and scope of sociology  To study the contribution of early thinkers towards the development of sociology  To familiarize the students with various sociological perspectives B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 2  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW 1.1. INTRODUCTION: In the family of social sciences, Sociology is comparatively a new entrant. But because of its dealing with social problems, social relationships and social interactions the importance of the study of this subject has considerably increased. It has considerably developed in methodology, scope and approach. Attempts are now being made to study every social problem scientifically and objectively, eliminating subjectivity to the extent possible a distinctive way of examining human interactions. Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses primarily on the influence of social relationships upon people‟s attitudes and behavior and on how societies are established and change. As a field of study sociology has a very broad scope. It deals with families, gangs, business firms, computer networks, political parties, schools, religions, and labor unions. It is concerned with love, poverty, conformity, technology, discrimination, illness,alienation, overpopulation and community. 1.3 Defination of Sociology:- „Sociology‟ which had once been treated as social philosophy, or the philosophy of history, emerged as an independent social science in the 19th century. Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, is traditionally considered to be the father of sociology. Comte is accredited with the coining of the term sociology (in 1839). “Sociology” is composed of two words: socius, meaning companion or associate; and „logos‟, meaning science or study. The etymological meaning of “sociology” is thus the science of society. John Stuart Mill, another social thinker and philosopher of the 19th century, proposed the word ethology for the new science. Herbert Spencer developed his systematic study of society and adopted the word “sociology” in his works. With the contributions of Spencer and others it (sociology) became the Permanent name of the new science. The question „what is sociology‟ is, indeed, a question pertaining to the definition of sociology. NO student can rightfully be expected to enter on a field of study which is totally undefined or unbounded. At the same time, it is not an easy task to set some fixed limits to a field of study. It is true in the case of sociology. Hence it is difficult to give a brief and a comprehensive definition of sociology. Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by different sociologists. No single definition has yet been accepted as completely satisfactory. In fact, there are B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 3  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW as many definitions of sociology as there are sociologists. For our purpose of study a few definitions may be cited here. 1. Auguste Comte, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social phenomena “subject to nature and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation”. 2. Kingsley Davis says that “sociology is a general science of society”. 3. Harry M. Johnson opines that “sociology is the science that deals with social groups”. 4. Emile Durkheim defines sociology as the “science of social institutions”. 5. Park regards sociology as “the science of collective behavior”. 6. Small defines sociology as “the science of social relations”. 7. Marshal Jones defines sociology as “the study of man-in-relationship-to- men”. 8. Ogburn and Nimkoff define sociology as “the scientific study of social life”. 9. Franklin Henry Giddings defines sociology as “the science of social phenomena”. 10.Henry Fairchild defines sociology as “the study of man and human environment in their relations to each other”. 11. Max Weber defines sociology as “the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects”. 12.Alex Inkeles says, “Sociology is the study of system of social action and of their inter-relations”. 13. Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack define sociology as “the scientific study of the social aspects of human life”. 14. Morris Ginsberg: Of the various definitions of sociology the one given by Morris Ginsberg seems to be more satisfactory and comprehensive. He defines sociology in the following way: “In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relations, their conditions and consequences”. A careful examination of various definitions cited above, makes it evident that sociologists differ in their opinion about the definition of sociology. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 4  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Their divergent views about the definition of sociology only reveal their distinct approaches to its study. However, the common idea underlying all the definitions mentioned above is that sociology is concerned with man, his social relations and his society. 1.3. NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology, as a branch of knowledge, has its own unique characteristics. It is different from other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of its internal logical characteristics helps one to understand what kind of science it is. The following are the main characteristics of sociology as enlisted by Robert Bierstadt in his book “The Social Order”. 1. Sociology is an Independent Science Sociology has now emerged into an independent science. It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy or political philosophy or history. As an independent science it has its own field of study, boundary and method. 2. Sociology is a Social Science and not a Physical Science Sociology belongs to the family of social science and not to the family of physical sciences. As a social science it concentrates its attention on man, his social behavior, social activities and social life. As a member of the family of social sciences it is intimately related to other social sciences like history, political science, economics, psychology, anthropology etc. The fact that sociology deals with the Social universe distinguishes it from astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, mathematics and other physical sciences. 3. Sociology is a Categorical and not a Normative Discipline Sociology “confines itself to statements about what is, not what should be or ought to be”. “As sciences, sociology is necessarily silent about questions of value. It does not make any kind of value-judgments. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which sociology ought to go. It makes no recommendations on matters of social policy or legislation or programmed. But it does not mean that sociological knowledge is useless and serves no purpose. It only means that sociology as a discipline cannot B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 5  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW deal with problems of good and evil, right and wrong, and moral or immoral. 4. Sociology is a Pure Science and not an Applied Science A distinction is often made between pure sciences and applied sciences. The main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use. On the other hand, the aim of applied science is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it to use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example, physics is a pure science and engineering is its applied field like business, politics, and journalism respectively. Sociology as a pure science has its applied field such as administration, diplomacy, social work etc. Each pure science may have more than one application. Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repealed. But the Knowledge acquired by sociologists is of great help to the administrator, the legislator, the diplomat, the teacher, the foreman, the supervisor, the social worker and the citizen. But sociologists themselves do not apply the knowledge to life and use, as a matter of their duty and profession. 5. Sociology is Relatively an Abstract Science and not a Concrete Science This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a science. Nor does it Mean, it is unnecessarily complicated and unduly difficult. It only means that sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and their patterns. For example, sociology is not concerned with particular wars and revolution but with war and revolution in general, as social phenomena, as types of social conflicts. Similarly, sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society or that particular society or social organization, or marriage, or religion, or group and so on. It is in this simple sense that sociology is an abstract not a concrete science. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 6  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW 6. Sociology is a Generalising and not a Particularising or Individualising Science Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and association, about the nature, from, content and structure of human groups and societies, it does not study each and every event that takes place in society, It is not possible, also. It tries to makes generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a sociologist makes generalisations about the nature of secondary groups. He may conclude that secondary groups are comparatively bigger in size, less stable, not necessarily spatially limited, more specialized, and so on. This, he does, not by examining all the secondary groups but by observing and studying a few. 7. Sociology is a General Science and not a Special Social Science The area of inquiry of sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human interaction and human life in general. Other social sciences like political science, history, economics etc., also study man and human interaction, but not all about human interaction. They concentrate their attention on certain aspects of human interaction and activities and specialize themselves in those fields. Accordingly, economics specializes itself in the study odd economic activities, political science concentrates on political activities and so on. Sociology, of course, does not investigate economic, religious, political, legal, moral or any other special kind of phenomena in relation to human life and activities as such. It only studies human activities in a general way. This does not, however, mean that sociology is the basic social science nor does it imply sociology is the general social science. Anthropology and social psychology often claim themselves to be general social sciences. 8. Finally, Sociology is Both a Rational and an Empirical Science There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge. One, known as empiricism, is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result from observation and experimentation. The other, known as rationalism, stresses reason and the theories that result from logical inference. The empiricist collects facts; the rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. Theories and facts are required in the construction of B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 7  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW knowledge. In sociological inquiry both are significant. A theory unsubstantiated by hard, solid facts is nothing more than an opinion. Facts, by themselves, in their isolated character, are meaningless and useless. As Immanuel Kent said, “Theories without facts are empty and facts without theories are blind”. All modern sciences, therefore, avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources. Sociology is not an exception. It is clear from the above that sociology is an independent, a social, a categorical, a pure, an abstract, a generalizing, both a rational and empirical and a general social science. 1.4 SUBJECT-MATTER AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY Major Concerns of Sociology (Subject-Matter of Sociology) Ever since the beginning of sociology, sociologists have shown a great concern in man and in the dynamics of society. The emphasis has been oscillating between man and society. “Sometimes the emphasis was on man in society, at other times, it was on man in society. But at no stage of its development, man as an individual was its focus of attention. On the contrary, sociology concentrated heavily on society and its major units and their dynamics. It has been striving to analyse the dynamics of society in terms of organized patterns of social relations. It may be said that sociology seeks to find explanations for three basic questions: How and why societies emerge? How and why societies persist? How and why societies change? An all-embracive and expanding science like sociology is growing at a fast rate no doubt. It is quite natural that sociologists have developed different approaches from time to time in their attempts to enrich its study. Still it is possible to identify some topics which constitute the subject-matter of sociology on which there is little disagreement among the sociologists. Such topics and areas broadly constitute the field of sociology. A general outline of the field of sociology on which there is considerable agreement among sociologists could be given here. Firstly, the major concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means the sociologist seeks to provide an analysis of human society and B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 8  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW culture with a sociological perspective. He evinces his interest in the evolution of society and tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary process. An attempt is also made “to analyse the factors and forces underlying historical transformations of society”. Due importance is given to the scientific method that is adopted in the sociological analysis. Secondary, sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life. In this area, it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities (urban, rural and tribal), associations, organizations and populations. Thirdly, sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and function of a wide variety of basic social institutions such as the family and kinship, religion and property, economics, political, legal, educational and scientific, recreational and welfare, aesthetic and expressive institutions. Fourthly, no sociologist can afford to ignore the fundamental social processes that play a vital role. The social processes such as co- operation and competition, accommodation and assimilation, social conflict including war and revolution; communication including opinion formation, expression and change; social differentiation and stratification, socialization and indoctrination, social control and deviance including crime, suicide, social integration and social change assume prominence in sociological studies. Fifthly, sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also. Contemporary sociology has tended to become more and more rational and empirical rather than philosophical and idealistic. Sociologists have sought the application of scientific method in social researches. Like a natural scientist, a sociologist senses a problem for investigation. He then tries to formulate it into a researchable proposition. After collecting the data he tries to establish connections between them. Sixthly, sociologists are concerned with the task of “formulating concepts, propositions and theories”. “Concepts are abstracted from concrete experience to represent a class of phenomena”. For example, B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 9  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW terms such as social stratification, differentiation, conformity, deviance etc., represent concepts. A proposition “seeks to reflect a relationship between different categories of data or concepts”. For example “lower- class youths are more likely to commit crimes than middle-class youths”. This proposition is debatable. It may be proved to be false. To take another example, it could be said that “taking advantage of opportunities of higher education and occupation sounds debatable; it has been established after careful observations, inquiry and collection of relevant data. Theories go beyond concepts and propositions. “Theories represent systematically related propositions that explain sociological perspective becomes more meaningful and fruitful when one tries to derive insight from concepts, propositions and theories. Finally, in the present era of explosion of knowledge sociologists have ventured to make specializations also. Thus, today good numbers of specialized fields of inquiry are emerging out. Sociology of knowledge, sociology of history, sociology of literature, sociology of culture, sociology of religion, sociology of family etc., represent such specialized fields., This field of sociological inquiry is so vast that any student of sociology equipped with genius and rich sociological imagination can add new dimensions to the discipline of sociology as a whole. SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY Every science has its own areas of study or fields of inquiry. It becomes difficult for anyone to study a science systematically unless its boundaries are demarcated and scope determined precisely. Unfortunately, there is no consensus on the part of sociologist with regard to the scope of sociology. V.F. Calberton comments. “Since sociology is so elastic a science, it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and end, where sociology becomes social psychology and where social psychology becomes sociological theory something, which is impossible to decide”. However, there are two main schools of thought regarding the scope of sociology: (1) The specialistic or formalistic school and (2) the synthetic school. (1) The Specialistic or Formalistic school B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 10  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW This school of thought is led by the German sociologist George Simmel. The other main advocates of this school are Vierkandt, Max Weber, Small, Von Wiese and Tonnies. Simmel and others are of the opinion that sociology is a pure and an independent science. As a pure science it has a limited scope. Sociology should confine itself to the study of certain aspects of human relationship only. Further, it should study only the „forms‟ of social relationships but not their contents. Social relationship such as competition, sub-ordination, division of labour etc., are expressed in different fields of social life such as economic, political, religious, moral, artistic etc. Sociology should disentangle the forms of social relationships and study them in abstraction. Sociology as a specific social science describes, classifies and analyses the forms of social relationships. Vierkandt says that sociology concerns itself with the ultimate form of social relationship which links men to one another in society. He maintains that in dealing with culture, sociology should not concern itself with the actual contents of culture evolution but it should confine itself to only the discovery of the fundamental forces of change and persistence. It should refrain itself from making a historical study of concrete societies. Max Weber opines that the aim of sociology is to interpret or understand social behavior. But social behavior does not cover the whole field of human relations. He further says that sociology should make an analysis and classification of types of social relationships. Small insisted that sociology has only a limited field. Von Wiese and Tonnies expressed more or less the same opinion. CRITICISM: The views of the Formalistic School are widely criticized. Some critical remarks may be cited here: Firstly, the formalistic school has unreasonably narrowed the field of sociology. Sociology should study not only the general forms of social relationships but also their concrete contents. Secondly, the distinction between the forms of social relations and their contents is not work-able. Social forms cannot be abstracted from the content at all, since social forms keep on changing B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 11  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW when the contents change. Sorokin writes, we may fill a glass with wine, water or sugar without changing its form, but I cannot conceive of a social institution whose form would not change when its members change”. Thirdly, sociology is not the only science that studies the forms of social relationships. Other sciences also do that. The study of international law, for example, includes social relations like conflict, war, opposition, agreement, contract etc. Political Science, Economics also study social relationships. Finally, the establishment of pure sociology is impractical. NO sociologist has been able to develop a pure sociology so far. No science can be studied in complete isolation from the other sciences. In fact, today more emphasis is laid on inter-disciplinary approach. 2. The Synthetic School The synthetic school of thought conceives of sociology as a synthesis of the social sciences. It wants to make sociology a general social science and not a pure or special social science. In fact, this school has made sociology synoptic or encyclopaedic in character. Durkheim, Hob House, Ginsberg and Sorokin have been the chief exponents of this school. The main argument of this school is that all parts of social life are intimately inter-related. Hence the study of one aspect is not sufficient to understand the entire phenomenon. Hence sociology should study social life as a whole. This opinion has contributed to the creation of a general and systematic sociology. The Views of Email Durkheim Durkheim, one of the stalwarts of this school of thought, says that sociology has three main divisions or fields of inquiry. They are as follows: Social Morphology, Social Physiology and General Sociology. (i) Social Morphology: - Social morphology studies the territorial basis of the life of people and also the problems of population such as volume and density, local distribution etc. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 12  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW (ii) Social Physiology: - Social physiology has different branches such as sociology of religion, of morals, of law, of economic life and of language etc. (iii) General Sociology: - General Sociology can be regarded as the philosophical part of sociology. It deals with the general character of the social facts. Its function is the formulation of general social laws. The Views of Morris Ginsberg Ginsberg, another advocate of the synthetic school, says that the main task of sociology can be categorized into four branches: Social Morphology, Social Control, Social Processes and Social Pathology. (i) Social Morphology: - „Social Morphology‟ deals with the quantity and quality of population. It studies the social structure, social groups and institutions. (ii) Social Control :- „Social Control‟ studies-formal as well as informal-means of social control such as custom, tradition, morals, religion, convention, and also law, court, legislation etc. It deals with the regulating agencies of society. (iii) Social Processes :- „Social Processes ‟ tries to make a study of different modes of interaction such as cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation, assimilation, isolation, integration, differentiation, development, arrest and decay. (iv) Social Pathology: - „Social Pathology‟ studies social mal-adjustment and disturbances. It also includes studies on various social problems like poverty, beggary, unemployment, over-population, prostitution, crime etc. Ginsberg has summed up the chief function of sociology as follows:- (i) Sociology seeks to provide a classification of types and forms of social relationships. (ii) It tries to determine the relation between different factors of social life. For example, the economic and political, the moral and the religious, the moral and the legal, the intellectual and the social elements. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 13  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW (iii) It tries to disentangle the fundamental conditions of social change and persistence and to discover sociological principles governing social life. The scope of sociology is, indeed, very vast. It studies all the social aspects of society such as social processes, social control, social change, social stratification, social system, social groups, social pathology etc. Actually, it is neither possible nor essential to delimit the scope of sociology, because, it would be, as Sprott puts it, “A brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of slippery material into a relatively simple of pigeonholes”. 1.5 USES OF SOCIOLOFGY Of the various social sciences, sociology seems to be the youngest. It is gradually developing Still it has made remarkable progress. Its uses are recognized widely today. In modern times, there is a growing realization of the importance of the scientific study of social phenomena and the means of promoting what Prof. Giddings calls human adequacy (Human Welfare). The study of sociology has a great value especially in modern complex society. Some of the uses of sociology are as follows: (i) Sociology studies society in a scientific way. Before the emergence of sociology, there was no systematic and scientific attempt to study human society with all its complexities. Sociology has made it possible to study society in a scientific manner. This scientific knowledge about human society is needed in order to achieve progress in various fields. (ii) Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man. Sociology delves deep into the social nature of man. It tells us why man is a social animal, why he lives in groups, communities and societies. It examines the relationship between individual and society, the impact of society on man and other matters. (iii) Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of social action. The science of society assists an individual to understand himself, his capacities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust himself to the environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, social institutions, their functions etc., helps us to lead an effective social life. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 14  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW (iv) The study of sociology helps us to know not only our society and men but also others, their motives, aspirations, status, occupations, traditions, customs, institutions, culture etc. in a huge industrialized society our experience is comparatively limited. We can hardly have a comprehensive knowledge of our society and rarely have an idea regarding other societies. But we must have some insight into an appreciation of the motives by which others live and the conditions under which they exist. Such an insight we derive from the study of sociology. (v) The contribution of sociology is not less significant in enriching culture. Sociology has given training to us to have rational approach to questions concerning ourselves, our religion, customs, mores, institutions, values, ideologies, etc. It has made us to become more objective, rational critical and dispassionate. The study of societies has made people to become more broad minded. It has impressed upon its students to overcome their prejudices, misconceptions, egoistic ambitions and class and religious hatreds. It has made our life richer, fuller and meaningful. (vi) Another aspect of the practical side of sociology is the study of great social institutions and the relations of individuals of each one of them. The home and family, the school and education, the state and government, industry and work, religion and morality, marriage and family, law and legislation, property and government, etc. are some of the main institutions, through which our society functions. More than that, they condition our life in countless ways. Knowledge of sociology may help to strengthen them to serve man better. (vii) Sociology is useful as a teaching subject too. Sociology is a profession in which technical competence brings its own rewards. Sociologists, especially those trained in research procedures are in increasing demand in business, government, industry, city planning, race relations, social work, social welfare, supervision, advertising, communications, administration, and many other areas of community life. A few years ago, sociologists could only teach sociology in schools and colleges. But sociology has now become practical enough to be practiced outside of academic halls careers apart from teaching B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 15  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW are now possible in sociology. The various areas of applied sociology are coming more and more into prominence in local, state, national and international levels. (viii) The need for the study of sociology is greater especially in underdeveloped countries. Sociologists have now drawn the attention of economists regarding the social factors that have contributed to the economic backwardness of a few countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological knowledge in analyzing the economic affairs of a country. (ix) The study of sociology is of paramount importance in solving social problems. The present world is beset with several social problems of great magnitude like poverty, beggary, unemployment, prostitution, over-population, family disorganization, community disorganization, racial problems, crime, juvenile delinquency, gambling, alcoholism, youth unrest, untouchability etc. A careful analysis of these problems is necessary in order to solve them. Sociology provides such an analysis. (x) Sociological knowledge is necessary for understanding and planning of society. Social planning has been made easier by sociology. Sociology is often considered a vehicle of social reform and social reorganization. It plays an important role in the reconstruction of society. (xi) The practical utility of sociological techniques: The techniques developed by the sociologists and other social scientists are adopted by others. Let us think the example of social survey. Developed and used mainly by sociologists and statisticians, it has become an essential tool of market research and political polling. In the same way, sociologists provide a great deal of information that is helpful in making decisions on social policy. (xii) Study of society has helped several governments to promote the welfare of the tribal people. Not only the civilized societies, but even the tribal societies are faced with several socio-economic and cultural problems. Studies conducted by sociologists and anthropologists regarding tribal societies and problems have helped many government in undertaking various social welfare measures to promote the welfare of the tribal people. Efforts are now being made to treat the tribal on par with the rest of the civilized people. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 16  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW (xiii) Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man. Sociology has been greatly responsible in changing our attitudes towards fellow beings. It has helped people to become catholic in outlook and broadminded in spirit. It has made people to become tolerant and patient towards others. It has minimized the mental distance and reduced the gap between different peoples and communities. (xiv) Sociology is of great practical help in the sense; it keeps us up-to-date on modern social situations and developments. Sociology makes us to become more alert towards the changes and developments that take place around us. As a result, we come to know about our changed roles and expectations and responsibilities. (xv) Finally, as Prof. Giddings has pointed out “Sociology tells us how to become what we want to be”. In conclusion, it can be said that the question of „value of sociology‟ is not a question whether or not we should study a subject. But it is a simple question of how it is actually to be used. Sociology, in short, has both individual and social advantages. 1.6 THE THREE MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIOLOGY THE Concept of “theoretical Perspective” Sociologists view society differently. They have their own way of understanding society and its dynamics in a theoretical manner. For example: (i) Some see the social world basically as a stable and an ongoing unity. They are impressed with the endurance of the family, organized religion and other social institutions. [This represents the “functionalist perspective”] (ii) Some other sociologists see society as composed of many groups in conflict, competing for scarce resources. [This denotes the “conflict perspective”.] B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 17  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW (iii) To other sociologists, the most interesting aspects of the social world are the everyday life, routine interactions among individuals that we sometimes take for granted. [This signifies the “interactionist perspective”.] It is clear from the above, that the same society or social phenomenon can be approached or viewed or studied from different theoretical perspectives”. The theoretical perspectives refer to “broad assumptions about society and social behavior that provide a point of view for the study of specific problems”. [Ian Robertson – Page: 16.] Types of Major perspective in Sociology: Our sociological imagination may help us to employ any of a number of theoretical perspectives or approaches in order to study human behavior. From these approaches sociologists develop theories to explain specific types of behavior. There are three of these general perspectives in modern sociology. They are (i) the functionalist, (ii) the conflict, and (iii) the inter-actionist perspectives. Let us look at each in turn. (i) The Functionalist Perspective The functionalist perspective draws its original inspiration from the work of Herbert Spencer and Durkheim. In the view of functionalists, society is like living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. Therefore, the functionalist perspective emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structure to maintain its stability. Spencer compared societies to living organism. Any organism has a structure, that is, it consists of number of interrelated parts, such as a head, limbs, heart, blood veins, nervous system, and so on. Each of these parts has a function to play in the life of the total organism. Spencer further argued that in the same way, a society has a structure – it also further argued that in the same way, a society has a structure, it also consists of interrelated parts, such as the family, religion, state, education, economy, and so on. Each of these components also has a function B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 18  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW that contributes to the overall stability of the social system. Modern structural functionalism [which is usually referred to as functionalism] does not insist much on the analogy between a society and an organism. However, the general idea of society as a system of interrelated parts persists even now. Emile Durkheim‟s analysis of religion represented a critical contribution to the development of functionalism. Durkheim‟s focused on the role of religion in reinforcing feelings of solidarity and unity within group life. The work of Durkheim, Max Weber and other European sociologists greatly influenced Talcott Persons (1902-1979), a Harvard University sociologist. For over four decades, Parsons dominated American sociology with his advocacy of functionalism. He saw society as a network of connected parts, each of which contributes to the maintenance of the system as a whole. “Under the functionalist approach, if an aspect of social life does not serve some identifiable useful function or promote value consensus among members of a society – it will not be passed on from one generation to the next. The functionalist theory assumes that society tends to be an organized, stable, well – integrated system, in which most members agree on basic values. In the functionalist view, a society has an underlying tendency to be in equilibrium or balance. Social change is therefore, believed to be disruptive unless it takes place in a slow and gradual manner. Because changes in one part of the system normally brings about changes elsewhere in the system. Functionalism presumes that a given element in the social system may have its own functions or dysfunctions. The proper „functions‟ add to the stability of the order, whereas the dysfunctions may disrupt the social equilibrium. Functionalism makes a distinction between „manifest functions‟, that is, those that are obvious and intended, and “latent functions”, that is, those that are unrecognized unintended. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 19  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW An important criticism of the functional perspective is that it tends to be inherently conservative. This theory, it is said, fails to pay sufficient importance to the system. Further, it is commented that this perspective ignores the element of conflict and its role in the social system. (ii) The Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective derives its strength and support from the work of Karl Mark, who saw the struggle between the social classes as the major fact of history. In contrast to functionalists‟ emphasis on stability and consensus, conflict sociologists see the social world in continual struggle. The conflict theorists assume that societies are in a constant state of change, in which conflict is a permanent feature. Conflict does not necessarily imply outright violence. It includes tension, hostility, severe competition, and disagreement over goals and values. Conflict is not deemed here as occasional event that disturbs the smooth functioning of the system. It is regarded as a constant process and an inevitable part of social life. Karl Marx viewed struggle between social classes as inevitable because of the exploitation of workers under capitalism. Expanding on Marx‟s work sociologists and other social scientists has come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all societies. Thus in studying any culture, organization, or social group, sociologists want to know “who benefits, who suffers, and who dominates at the expense of others”. They are concerned with conflicts between women and men, parents and children, cities and villages, rich and poor, upper castes and the lower castes and so on. In studying such questions conflict theorists are interested in how society‟s institutions – including the family, government, religion, education, and the media, may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient position. The conflict perspective dominated the Western European sociology and was largely neglected in American sociology until the sixties. Modern conflict theory, which is associated with such B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 20  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW sociologists as C. Wright mills (1956) and Lewis Coser (1956), does not focus, as Marx did, on class conflict. It sees conflict between many other groups such as the Whites and Negroes, Asians and the Europeans, and so on. Conflict theorists are primarily concerned with the kinds of changes that conflict can bring about, whereas functionalists look for stability and consensus. The conflict perspective is viewed as more “radical” and “activist”. This is because of its emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources. The functionalist perspective, on the other hand, because of its focus on the stability of society, is generally seen as more “conservative”. At present, the conflict perspective is accepted within the discipline of sociology as one valid way to gain insight into a society. One important contribution of conflict theory is that it has encouraged sociologists to view society through the eyes of those people who rarely influence decision – making. Example, the Blacks in America and South Africa, the untouchables in India, the Hindu minorities in Pakistan, and so on. Similarly, feminist scholarship in sociology has helped us to have a better understanding of social behavior. Thus a family‟s social standing is also now considered from the woman‟s point of view and not solely from the husband‟s position or income. Feminist scholars have also argued for a gender – balanced study of society in which women‟s experiences and contributions are visible as those of men. The conflict perspective has its own limitations. It is also criticized. “By focusing so narrowly on issues of competition and change, it fails to come to grips with the more orderly, stable, and less politically controversial aspects of social reality”. (Ian Robertson. Page 19) (iii) Interactionist Perspective The Functionalist and conflict perspectives both analyse society at the macro – level. These approaches attempt to explain society – wide patterns of behavior. However, many contemporary B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 21  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW sociologists are more interested in understanding society as a whole through an examination of social interactions at the micro – level small groups, two friends casually talking with one another, a family, and so forth. This is the interactionist perspective. This perspective generalizes about fundamental or everyday forms of social interaction. From these generalizations, interactionists seek to explain both micro and macro – level behavior. The interactionist perspective in sociology was initially influenced by Max Weber. He had emphasized the importance of understanding the social world from the viewpoint of the individuals who act within it. Later developments in this theory have been strongly influenced by social psychology and by the work of early leaders in the Chicago School of Sociology, particularly George Herbert Mead. “The interactionist perspective focuses on social behavior in everyday life. It tries to understand how people create and interpret the situations they experience, and it emphasizes how countless instances of social interaction produce the structure of society – government, the economy and other institutions”. This perspective presumes that it is only through these social behaviors of the people that society can come into being. Society is ultimately created, maintained, and changed by the social interaction of its An Evaluation of these Three Perspectives These three perspectives - functionalist, conflict and the interactionist – represent three different ways of understanding the same reality that is social phenomenon. Each of these perspectives starts from different assumptions, each leads the investigator to ask different kinds of questions, and each viewpoint is therefore likely to produce different types of conclusions. These perspectives seem to be contradictory also. But we cannot say that one is “better” than the other two, or even that they are always incompatible. Each of these perspectives focuses on a different aspect of reality: (i) functionalism, primarily on social order and stability, (ii) conflict theory, primarily on tension and change, and (iii) interactionsim, primarily on ordinary experiences B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 22  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW of everyday life. Each of the perspectives has a part to play in the analysis of society. All these three perspectives could be applied, for example, to the study of education, although each would focus on a different aspect of the institution. A functionalist approach would emphasis the functions that education plays in maintaining the social system as a whole. A conflict approach would emphasis that education is believed to be an important avenue to social and financial success in life. It stresses on the social class background of the pupil affecting his academic achievement. An interactionist approach would emphasis the daily activities within school. It would point to the forms of interaction between teachers and pupils, the influence of the student peer group over its individual members. None of these approaches can claim itself to be the only “true” one. Because, taken together they provide a broader and deeper understanding of the entire institution of education. Sociology makes use of all the three perspectives since each offers unique insights into the same problem being studied. These perspectives overlap as their interests overlap. ____________________________XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX_____________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 23  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW UNIT-II (Basic Concepts)  Society  Community  Institution  Association  Culture  Status and Role  Social Norms. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 24  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 25  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 26  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 27  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 28  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 29  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 30  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 1.2:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 31  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 1.3: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 32  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 33  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 34  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 1.4:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 35  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 36  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW 2. 1.a 2.b 3.b&c 3- a)iii &iv b)(ii) c)(ii) d)(i) 4) – 1.(iv) 2.(i) 3.Yes 4.iv B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 37  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 38  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 39  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 40  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 41  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 1: CHARACTERISTIC OF CULTURE :- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 42  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 2:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 43  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 3:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 44  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 4:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 45  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW ________________________xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx__________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 46  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW SOCIAL POSITION:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 47  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW STATUS AND ROLE:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 48  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW SOCIAL STATUS:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 49  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 50  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW NTEXT QUESTION :01 B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 51  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW SOCIAL ROLE:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 52  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 53  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW TYPE OF ROLE : B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 54  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 02 :- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 55  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW __________________________xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx_______________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 56  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 57  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 58  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 59  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW IMPORTANCE OF NORMS: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 60  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW TYPE OF NORMS: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 61  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW NORMLESSNESS:- INTEXT QUESTION 2:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 62  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW VALUES:- IMPORTANCE OF VALUE:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 63  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW ARACTERISTIC OF VALUES:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 64  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW KIND OF VALUES:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 65  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 66  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION 3: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 67  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW ________________________xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx_____________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 68  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 69  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION :-1 B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 70  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 71  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW INTEXT QUESTION :-2 B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) 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Ist Semester , Sociology Page 108  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 109  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 110  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW ____________________XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX_______________________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 111  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION INTRODUCTION:- The importance of aims and objectives of education is recognised by all the educational, professional, political, nonpolitical and religious associations, organisations and groups at various levels in their memoranda, letters and brouchures. It is said that education without clear cut aims is like a rudderless ship. The following comparisons emphasise this point fully well. Every pilot has a route-chart and set timing of landing at predetermined destination. There is constitution or set of Principles and traditions through which a country is governed Similarly, there should be properly defined and declared principles, aims and objectives of education or the basis of which policies and programmes of education nave to be formulated to achieve the set goals wit out wasting scarce energies and resources in chasing the wild goose. It is generally felt that our educational system has not followed the desired aims as a result that it does not produce ideal citizens in the country. It has followed, rather a narrow aim of preparing individuals for livelihood, as mentioned in one of the documents received from an organisation. The main reason of failure of educational system is that it basically stands or, pre-independence system. The main Objective of its products was how to take degree and to earn money and to be careerist without consideration of ethical values and national spirit. On the other hand, it has also been pointed out that it is unressonable to criticise educational system alone because it is based on the other subsystems accepted by us. On the one hand we are developing and cultivating the British given economy, judicial system and system of administration and parliament, and on the other we are decrying and Criticising the education system which merely fulfils the needs of the British systems that we are propagating. As pointed out in a memorandum of an association, "the main defect of the old. education policy.is that it had completely ignored the Indian culture and the interest of the masses of India and have left them economically too backward and socially too fragmented to articulate their miseries...." The aims and objectives of education, suggested in the documents, include individual as well as social aimds, with emphasis of social transformation aiming at reconstructing society to make it modernised, productive, partidipative, and value oriented nation committed to its constitutional obligations. 2. Individual Development:- Development of an individual - physically, mentally and spritually is well known aim of education. Objectives related to this aim of individual development have been expressed in various ways in the memoranda: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 112  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW - Developing physical and mental faculties - Acquiring the capacities of understanding, appreciation and expression through word and act, are the fundamental aims of education - Aim of education should be to make children self- confident and self dependent, and to make them strong physically and mentally - Education is meant to develop every child's character, personality and culture and as much knowledge as the child can assimilate not merely memorize. The best expression of complete development of an individual and the harmonious development of personality, however, is found in the following paragraph. The policy should be directed to the aim of enlightenment of head and heart; illumination of consciousness for allround development of individual personality. Education should enable a human being to attain the greatest possible harmony, internal and external, spiritual and material, for the fullest possible development of human potentialities and capacities. 3. Social and National Development:- Social, aim of education in equally important because an individual lives in society and has his obligations towards his nation. There is a realisation that, "The present education system does riot yield required results mainly because it is divorced from the real social content and social goals". It has, therefore, been suggested that education should be able, to discharge its natural functions and must correspond to its structure, goals and content in the interest of national development and social progress. It has also been suggested in this connection that students from young age should be made aware of the social responsibility cast on them. At the same time, there are certain constitutional commitments, which are intimately related to this aim.. We as the citizens of the republic, are constitutionally Committed to democracy, social justice, equality of opportunity, secularisum and above all to a welfare state. It has, therefore, been suggested that, "Educational policy and educational programme should clearly reflect these commitments". The objectives of developing a sense of national identity, unity and patriotism are advocated by many associations. It is pointed out that the national objectives of planning and programmes and development with special emphasis on popular participation and the national problems that we face in different fields should. be taught at relevant stages. Individual and social aims of education area not contrary to one another. In fact they are complementary to one another. The following view strikes a balance between individual and social aims of education. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 113  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW The purpose of education should be the development of the fullest possible capacities and potentialities physical and spiritual of a `total man'. It should make a man capable of earning his livelihood reasonably well to enjoy a happy and secure life while making effective contributions to the society and national effort of making India strong# advanced and prosperous. 4. Social Transformation:- Education should not merely equip an individual to adjust with society to its customs and conventions, but it should enable him to bring desirable changes in the society. It has been, therefore, suggested that, "Every educational institution from secondary school to university college should be developed to become an agency of change...." However, it is essential that we should be quite clear about the purpose of change. It is, therefore, natural to ask the, question, "Reform and change to achieve what"? What type of society we aim at and what type of citizens we wish to produce? The following ideas give an indication of the kind of changes education is expected to bring about. 4.1 Modernisation:- Modernisation of society in terms of scientific and technological advancement is a view which seems to be quite popular. It is though that education should enable us to move with times and attain excellence in, science and technology. To quote an expression of this kind. Scientific and technological advances are, gaining momentum and conscious efforts are made to incorporate them into the development sectors. This calls for modernisation of education in order to make. it in conformity with the modern times and to keep pace, with the advances in the world. Modernisation, however, is not interpreted and equated with westernisation. In fact, lot of emphasis is given to `Indianness' while talking about modernisation. One of the suggestions explicitly points out that, hour education should integrate and unite the people of India, modernise society while preserving what is authentically Indian in our cultural and spiritual heritage". The following suggestion beautifully reconciles the twin objectives of modern technical sophistication and the ancient spirituality. "New education policy of India should be built on the foundation of ancient spirituality and modern culture and technical sophistication. It should develop scientific temper and spirit of enquiry in the students". 4.2 Productivity:- B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 114  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Some documents have insisted on linking education with productivity and thus making individuals as productivie citizens to build a productive society. One of the suggestions, in a memorandum, for example, says. "It should bring about a social transformation, and enhance greater efficiency and productivity in all sectors : agri- cultural, industrial and service". It is in this context that Mahatma Gandhi's system of basic education is still considered as a basically sound system and a suggestion has been made that with necessary modification elements of basic education may form part of education not only at the primary stage but at all stages in our national system of education. These elements are: 1. Productive activity in education. 2. Correlation of the curriculum with productive activity and physical and social environment. 3. Intimate contact between the school and the local community. 4.3 Community Participation:- In a democracy education without community participation is barren. This aim of education is, therefore voiced by a number of groups and organisations. The change that is envisaged on this front is that of Integrating education with community in all respects. To quote a suggestion in this regard: The education system in all its branches and sectors should get itself involved in activities related to problems of local Community life and shall thus endeavour through the desirable community participation community involvement in the educational field to bring all education of its rightful place in community life. 5. Acquisition of Values:- moral, cultural and spiritual values in education have been given immense importance in the Memoranda documents. One of the expressions emphatically point out that, "certain basic values as respect for others, responsibility, solidarity, creativity and integrity must be fostered in our children". It is interesting that a number of specific values have been suggested in the documents. The values which are considered important are mentioned below: Emphasis should be given in cultivating good qualities like cooperation, good will, forgiveness, tolerance, honesty, patience etc. in order to encourage universal brother-hood and to prepare students worthy citizens of the country. Values of optimism and secularism, and service to the poor should be stressed on the young minds. 6. Summing up It is worth reproducing what a document mentions about the aims of education: B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 115  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW The aim of education is two-fold (i) Development of the individual in society and (ii) Consequent development of the society. The aim of education in relation to individual may be spelt out as follows: i) to produce full human personality with courage, conviction, vitality, sensitivity and intelligence so that men and women may life in harmony with the universe; ii) to bring out the fullest potential of child and prepare him. for life and its varied situations so that he becomes a cultured and responsible citizen dedicated in the service of community. In relation to the society, the aim of education is to create: i) a sane and learning society where made of material production will be such that no section of the society remains unemployed. In the Indian context such a made of production will be necessarily based on a decentralised economy utilising all available manpower; ii) a society. where the conditions of work and general environment will offer psychic satisfactions and effective motivations to its members. iii) a society reconciling technological and scientific advancement with general well-being and securit of its members, enhancing joy of life and eliminating all forms of exploitation. The broad objective of education should, therefore, be to look beyond the existing society and to develop men and. women amenable to the advent of a sane and healthier society of tomorrow. While summing up, it may be pointed out that various dimensions individual and social development, social transformation, value- acquisition etc. have been well identified in the memoranda documents. The following words briefly summarise the various dimensions which are considered important indeed for marching into the 21st century: We are of the opinion that Indian education should aim at producing men and women of knowledge, character and cultural values and trained skills to achieve excellence in their career and life. Let us make it clear that we wish to prepare youth to march into the 21st century on the ideals of truth and non-voilence as shown to us by our great leaders. ____________________XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX_________________________ B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 116  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW UNIT-III (Social Processes)  Socialization: Process, Stages, Agencies.  Social Mobility: Meaning, Forms, Factors.  Social Control: Forms, Agencies.  Social Stratification: Meaning, Forms, Theories. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 117  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW SOCIAL PROCESS Society is a dynamic network of social relationships between individuals. People are always engaged in actions of one type or the other. The characteristic ways in which these actions are designed is called social process. Social processes form the basis of society. Without social interactions, it would be impossible to establish social relationships. Thus to understand social relationships in more detail, an analysis of social processes is necessary. Definitions:- According to Mac Iver, social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character. Ginsberg defines social processes as the various modes of interaction between individuals or groups including co-operation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay. According to Horton and Hunt, social processes refer to the repetitive forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life. Associative and Dissociative Social Processes Social processes may be generally classified into associative and dissociative. Associative processes unite or associate people together by harmonious relationships towards a common end.Some of the associative social processes are co-operation, assimilation, accommodation etc.Dissociative processes are those social processes that hamper harmonious relationships and may result in social disorganization. Some examples of dissociative social processes are competition,conflict and contravention. Associative Social Processes Social Interaction The concept of Social Interaction is crucial to the study of society and social relationships.Interaction is the basic social process. It represents the dynamic element in society. Definitions:- Dawson and Gettys define social interaction as a social process whereby men interpenetrate the minds of each other.According to Elredge and Merrill, Social interaction is a general process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact as a result of which their behavior is modified however slightly. Conditions of Interaction B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 118  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW The two main conditions of interaction are i) contact and ii) communication. Contact is the first stage of interaction. It means the coming together of individuals. It involves a mutual response and an adjustment of behaviour to the action of others. Contact is of two types, a) contact in time and b) contact in space. Contact in time is the contact between generations. Contact in space occurs between individuals within a particular area. Communication is the medium of interaction. In communication, the feelings or ideas of other persons are inferred from their behaviour. It takes place through senses, emotions and ideas and sentiments.Language is an important medium which aids communication. Co-operation Co-operation generally means working together for a common goal. The term co- operation is derived from two Latin words, ‘Co’ meaning together and ‘operari’ meaning to work. Literally the term means working together. Definitions According to Elredge and Merrill, Co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end. According to A.W.Green Co-operation is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished. Co-operation requires sympathy and identification. It is possible only when there is a similarity of thoughts and purpose, mutual awareness, understanding and selflessness. Co-operation takes place under certain conditions. It requires a motivation and a favourable attitude towards sharing the work and rewards. Also there should be a knowledge of the benefits of co-operative activity and people should equip themselves with the skills necessary for co-operation. Types of Co-operation Co-operation may be classified into direct and indirect or primary, secondary and tertiary. Direct co-operation is when people are involved in an identical function. They do the same activity together. It gives them social satisfaction. E.g. playing together, worshipping together etc. Indirect co-operation is when people work individually for the attainment of a common end. People do different tasks which ultimately results in the achievement of a common goal. It is based on the principle of specialisation and division of labour, E.g. Spinners, weavers dyers and tailors do different work which ultimately results in the making of clothes. Primary co-operation is found in primary groups like family, neighbourhood etc. In such type of co-operation, every member works for the betterment of all. Every one works together and the rewards are shared between all the members. Means and goals are one in primary co-operation. Secondary co-operation is found in secondary groups. It is B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 119  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW highly formalised and specialised. It is a feature of modern society. Each person performs his task in co-operation with others so as to enjoy the reward separately. Co- operation found between bigger groups is called tertiary co-operation. The two groups may work together for common goals or even antagonistic goals. Significance of Co-operation As a form of social process, co-operation is universal and continuous. It is so important for a person that survival is almost impossible without it. Co-operation helps a society to progress. It gives strength to a society. Also it provides solution to many international problems and disputes. Accommodation Human life is full of conflicts. People have to encounter conflicting situations and deal with them accordingly to move on in life. One of the basic social processes that help in dealing with conflicts is accommodation. Individuals make adjustments to avoid as well as deal with conflicts.Such adjustments that people make to get on with others is called accommodation. It is the process of getting along in spite of differences. Definitions The psychologist J.M.Baldwin who was the first to use the concept defined accommodation as changes in the behaviour of individuals which help them to adjust to their environment. According to Mac Iver, accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, Accommodation is a term used by sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups Characteristics Following are the characteristics of accommodation. i. Accomodation is the natural result of conflict ii. It maybe a conscious or unconscious activity iii. It is a universal process iv. It is a continuous process v. The effect of accommodation varies with circumstances Methods of Accommodation There are different forms in which accommodation takes place. According to Gillin and Gillin, there are seven methods of accommodation. They are a) Yielding to co-ercion: It takes place between parties with unequal strength. The stronger party uses force or threat of force to make the weaker party accept the conditions of agreement. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 120  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW b) Compromise: When the opposing parties are almost equal in power, each party makes some concessions and yield to some demands of the other. This is called Compromise. c) Role of third party in Compromise: This type of accommodation involves a third party in Compromise. It may be of three types – Arbitration, Mediation and Conciliation. In arbitration, a third party tries to bring about an end to a conflict through compromise. The decision of the third party is binding in this case. In mediation, a neutral agent is involved to create a peaceful settlement but his decisions are not binding as in the case of arbitration. The function of the mediator is mere advisory. In Conciliation, the conflicting parties are persuaded to develop friendship and come to an agreement. d) Toleration: In this strategy, conflicts are avoided rather than settled or resolved. In toleration,overt conflict is avoided and the conflicting groups bear their differences and co-exist. e) Conversion: It involves a sudden rejection of one’s beliefs, convictions and loyalties and the adoption of others. This is commonly found in religious contexts. f) Sublimation: Sublimation means the substitution of aggressive attitudes by non aggressive ones. It may occur at both individual and group level. g) Rationalisation: This involves providing explanations for one’s behaviour. Individuals and group try to justify their actions by blaming it on others or other reasons. This is called rationalisation. Significance of Accommodation Without accommodation social life would be hard. Accommodation controls conflict and helps people to maintain co-operation. It helps people to adjust to the changing conditions. It is a means of resolving conflict and maintaining co-ordination between individuals and groups with opposing interests. Assimilation Assimilation is also a type of social adjustment like accommodation, but it is more permanent.Assimilation is the fusion of groups and their cultures. It requires more fundamental changes as it involves the absorption and incorporation of one culture by another. Definitions According to Young and Mack, Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously distinct groups into one. Ogburn and Nimkoff define assimilation as the process whereby individuals or groups one dissimilar become similar and identified in their interest and outlook. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 121  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Bogardus defines assimilation as the social process whereby attitudes of many persons are united and thus develop into a united group. Characteristics The major characteristics of assimilation are listed below i. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. ii. It is not confined to a single field iii. It is an unconscious process iv. It is a two-way process Factors influencing Assimilation Assimilation is a process which is influenced by a lot of factors that relate with the involved groups. The major factors that favour assimilation are: i. Toleration ii. Intimate social relationships iii. Intermarriages iv. Cultural similarity v. Education vi. Equal social and economic opportunity The major factors that hinder assimilation are: i. Isolation ii. Racial or physical differences iii. Cultural differences iv. Prejudice v. Dominance and subordination relation between the involved groups. Differences between accommodation and assimilation Accommodation Assimilation 1. Accommodation is a sudden process 1. Assimilation is a slow and gradual Process 2. It may or may not provide permanent solution to group differences and disputes 2. It provides permanent solution to group differences and disputes 3. It may be a conscious or unconscious process 3. It is an unconscious process Dissociative Social Processes Competition B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 122  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Competition is a social process which is ever present in society. It is a type of opposition where the focus is on the attainment of rewards. It is a fundamental form of social struggle. Whenever there is an insufficient supply of things that people commonly desire, there will be competition. Definition According to Park and Burgess, Competition is an interaction without social contact. Horton and Hunt define Competition as the struggle for possession of rewards which are limited in supply, goods, status, power, love- anything. Characteristics of Competition Competition is a social process with its own unique characteristics. Some of the major characteristics of competition are, i. Whenever there is scarcity, there is competition ii. Competition is continuous iii. Competition is universal iv. It is dynamic v. It is a cause of social change vi. Competition may be personal or impersonal vii. Competition may be constructive or destructive viii. It is always governed by norms Types of Competition Competition may generally be classified into social, economic, political and cultural. In social competition, people always compete with each other to attain higher status and position. It is usually found in open societies where individual’s talents and capacities are recognised. Economic competition is found in the process of production, distribution and consumption. People compete with each other for economic rewards. Political competition is always to secure power. Cultural competition is the competition that takes place between two cultural groups. Significance of Competition Competition plays an important role in social life. It has certain functions in society.The important social functions of competition are i. Assigns status to individuals ii. It is a source of motivation iii. It provides for social mobility iv. It contributes to socio economic progress v. It may result in discoveries and innovations Differences between competition and co-operation Competition Co operation 1. Social interaction where individuals 1. Social interaction where two or more B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 123  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW try to monopolise rewards by persons work together to gain a common surpassing all individuals. end 2. Takes place at the individual as well as 2. Based on joint efforts of people group level 3. May bring about both positive and 3. Brings about positive results negative results 4. It is limited by social norms 4. Co-operation has no limits Conflict Conflict is a form of struggle between individuals or groups. Unlike competition, the focus in conflict is not on the reward, but on eliminating the opponent. It is more negative than competition. Definition Horton and Hunt define conflict as a process of seeking to monopolise rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. In the words of A.W.Green, Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others. According to Gillin and Gillin, Conflict is the social process in which individuals seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence. Characteristics of Conflict Conflict may be identified as having the following characteristics. i. Conflict is universal ii. Conflict is a conscious action iii. Conflict is not continuous, but intermittent iv. Conflict maybe personal or impersonal Types of Conflict Georg Simmel has distinguished between four types of conflict: i) war ii) feud iii) litigation iv) conflict of impersonal ideals. War is a deep seated antagonistic impulse to gain material objective.Feud is an intra-group conflict which arises out of the injustice done by one group to another.Litigation is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. Conflict of impersonal ideals is a conflict carries out by individuals for an ideal. Generally conflict maybe classified into corporate and personal conflict, latent and overt conflict, class conflict, racial conflict, caste conflict, group conflict, international conflict etc. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Ist Semester , Sociology Page 124  GEETA INSTITUTE OF LAW Significance of conflict:- Conflict is an essential social process. It is necessary for the formation and growth of society. Conflict has bothe positive and negative effects on society. The negative effects of conflict are i. It disrupts social unity ii. It lowers the morale and weakens the solidarity of the group iii. It creates disorder and confusion in society iv. It causes psychological and moral damage too The positive effects of conflict are i. A limited amount of conflict con