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40 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS I least acknowledged by law or by...

40 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS I least acknowledged by law or by custom. And whose regular and INTRODUCTION continuous operation cannot be understood without taking those rules This book began with a discussion into account. Institutions impose about the interaction of the individual constraints on individuals. They also and society. We saw that each of us as provide him/her with opportunities. individuals, occupies a place or An institution can also be viewed as location in society. Each one of us has an end in itself. Indeed people have a status and a role or roles, but these viewed family, religion, state or even are not simply what we as individuals education as an end in itself. choose. They are not like roles a film actor may or may not opt to do. There Activity 1 are social institutions that constrain and control, punish and reward. They could Think of examples of how people be ‘macro’ social institutions like the sacrifice for family, for religion or for state or ‘micro’ ones like the family. the state. Here in this chapter we are introduced to social institutions, and also to how We have already seen that there sociology/social anthropology studies are conflicting and different them. This chapter puts forth a very understandings of concepts within brief idea of some of the central areas sociology. We have also been introduced where important social institutions are to the functionalist and conflict located namely: (i) family, marriage and perspective, and seen how differently kinship; (ii) politics; (iii) economics; they saw the same thing, for instance, (iv) religion; and (v) education. stratification or social control. Not In the broadest sense, an surprisingly, therefore, there are institution is something that works different forms of understanding of according to rules established or at social institutions as well. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 41 A functionalist view understands II social institutions as a complex set of social norms, beliefs, values and role FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP relationship that arise in response to Perhaps no other social entity appears the needs of society. Social institutions more ‘natural’ than the family. Often we exist to satisfy social needs. Accordingly are prone to assume that all families are we find informal and formal social like the ones we live in. No other social institutions in societies. Institutions institution appears more universal and such as family and religion are unchanging. Sociology and social examples of informal social institutions anthropology have over many decades, while law and (formal) education are conducted field research across formal social institutions. cultures to show how the institutions of family, marriage and kinship are A conflict view holds that all important in all societies and yet their individuals are not placed equally in character is different in different society. All social institutions whether societies. They have also shown how the familial, religious, political, economic, family (the private sphere) is linked to legal or educational will operate in the economic, political, cultural and interest of the dominant sections of educational (the public) spheres. This society be it class, caste, tribe or gender. may remind you of why there is a need The dominant social section not only to share and borrow from different dominates political and economic disciplines, which we have discussed in Chapter 1. institutions but also ensures that the According to the functionalists the ruling class ideas become the ruling family performs important tasks, which ideas of a society. This is very different contribute to society’s basic needs and from the idea that there are general helps perpetuate social order. The needs of a society. functionalist perspective argues that As you go about reading this modern industrial societies function chapter, see whether you can think best if women look after the family and of examples to show how social men earn the family livelihood. In India studies however suggest that families institutions constrain and also offer need not become nuclear in an opportunities to individuals. Notice industrial pattern of economy (Singh whether they impact different sections 1993: 83). This is but one example to of society unequally. For instance, we show how trends based on experiences could ask, “How does the family of one society cannot necessarily be constrain as well provide opportunities generalised. to men and women?” Or “How do The nuclear family is seen as the political or legal institutions affect the unit best equipped to handle the privileged and dispossessed?” demands of industrial society by the 2015-16 42 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY functionalists. In such a family one families have always existed in India adult can work outside home while the particularly among deprived castes and second adult cares for the home and classes. children. In practical terms, this The sociologist A.M. Shah remarks specialisation of roles within the that in post-independent India the joint nuclear family involves the husband family has steadily increased. The adopting the ‘instrumental’ role as contributing factor is the increasing life breadwinner, and the wife assuming expectancy in India according to him. It the ‘affective’, emotional role in domestic has increased from 32.5 – 55.4 years settings (Giddens 2001). This vision is for men and from 31.7– 55.7 years for questionable not just because it is women during the period 1941– 50 gender unjust but because empirical to 1981 - 85. Consequently, the studies across cultures and history proportion of aged people (60 years and show that it is untrue. Indeed, as you above) in the total population has will see in the discussion on work and increased. “We have to ask” writes Shah: economy how in contemporary “in what kind of household do these industries like the garment export, elderly people live? I submit, most women form a large part of the labour of them live in joint household” force. Such a separation also suggests (Shah 1998). that men are necessarily the heads of This again is a broad generalisation. households. This is not necessarily true But in the spirit of the sociological as the box which is given below shows. perspective, it cautions us against blindly believing a common sense Variation in Family Forms impression that the joint family is fast A central debate in India has been eroding. And alerts us to the need for about the shift from nuclear family to careful comparative and empirical joint families. We have already seen how studies. sociology questions common sense Studies have shown how diverse impressions. The fact is that nuclear family forms are found in different Female headed households When men migrate to urban areas, women have to plough and manage the agricultural fields. Many a time they become the sole providers of their families. Such households are known as female headed households. Widowhood too might create such familial arrangement. Or it may happen when men get remarried and stop sending remittance to their wives, children and other dependents. In such a situation, women have to ensure the maintenance of the family. Among the Kolams, a tribal community in south-eastern Maharashtra and northern Andhra Pradesh, a female headed household is an accepted norm. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 43 societies. With regard to the rule of Families are Linked to other Social residence, some societies are matrilocal Spheres and Families Change in their marriage and family customs Often in our everyday life we look at while others are patrilocal. In the first case, the newly married couple stays the family as distinct and separate from with the woman’s parents, whereas in other spheres such as the economic or the second case the couple lives with political. However, as you will see for the man’s parents. A patriarchal family yourself the family, the household, its structure exists where the men structure and norms are closely linked exercise authority and dominance, and to the rest of society. An interesting matriarchy where the women play a example is that of the unintended major role in decision-making in the consequences of the German uni- family. While matrilineal societies exist, fication. During the post-unification the same cannot be claimed about period in the 1990s Germany matriarchal societies. witnessed a rapid decline in marriage Notice how families and residences are different Work and Home 2015-16 44 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY because the new German state the female child will leave on marriage withdrew all the protection and welfare results in families investing more in a schemes which were provided to the male child. Despite the biological fact families prior to the unification. With that a female baby has better chances growing sense of economic insecurity of survival than a male baby the rate of people responded by refusing to marry. infant mortality among female children This can also be understood as a is higher in comparison to male case of unintended consequence children in lower age group in India. (Chapter 1). Family and kinship are thus The Institution of Marriage subject to change and transformation Historically marriage has been found due to macro economic processes but to exist in a wide variety of forms in the direction of change need not always be similar for all countries and regions. Activity 2 Moreover, change does not mean the A Telegu expression states: complete erosion of previous norms and ‘Bringing up a daughter is like structure. Change and continuity watering a plant in another’s co-exist. courtyard’. Find out other such How gendered is the family? sayings that are contrary. Discuss how popular sayings reflect the The belief is that the male child will social arrangement of a society, support the parents in the old age and Sex Ratio in India between 1901-2001 Year Sex Ratio Year Sex Ratio 1901 972 1951 946 1911 964 1961 941 1921 955 1971 930 1931 950 1981 934 1941 945 1991 926 2001 (927)* * In 2001 the sex ratio of girls in 0-6 group was enumerated as 927 The incidence of female foeticide has led to a sudden decline in the sex ratio. The child sex ratio has declined from 934 per thousand males in 1991 to 927 in 2001. The percentage of decline in the child sex ratio is more alarming. The situation of prosperous states like Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and western Utter Pradesh is all the more grave. In Punjab the child sex ratio has declined to 793 girls per 1,000 boys. In some of the districts of Punjab and Haryana it has fallen below 700. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 45 different societies. It has also been right for upper caste Hindu widows found to perform differing functions. was denied and that the campaign for Indeed, the manner in which marriage widow remarriage was a major issue partners are arranged reveals an in the 19th century reform movements. astonishing variety of modes and What you are probably less aware is customs. that today in modern India nearly 10 per cent of all women and 55 per cent Activiy 3 of women over fifty years are widows (Chen 2000:353). Find out about the different ways Polygamy denotes marriage to that different societies go about more than one mate at one time and finding marriage partners. takes the form of either: Polygyny (one husband with two or more wives) or Polyandry (one wife with two or more Forms of Marriage husbands). Usually where economic Marriage has a large variety of forms. conditions are harsh, polyandry may These forms can be identified on the be one response of society, since in basis of the number of partners and such situations a single male cannot rules governing who can marry whom. adequately support a wife and In terms of the number of partners that children. Also, extreme poverty can legitimately enter into matrimony, conditions pressurise a group to limit we have two forms of marriage, its population. namely, monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy restricts the individual to The Matter of Arranging Marriages: one spouse at a time. Under this Rules and Prescriptions system, at any given time a man can In some societies, the decisions have only one wife and a woman can regarding mate selection are made have only one husband. Even where by parents/relatives; in some other polygamy is permitted, in actual societies individuals are relatively free practice, monogamy is more widely to choose their own mates. prevalent. In many societies, individuals are Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy permitted to marry again, often on the death of the first spouse or after In some societies these restrictions divorce. But they cannot have more are subtle, while in some others, than one spouse at one and the same individuals who can or cannot be time. Such monogamous marriages married, are more explicitly and are termed serial monogamy. specifically defined. Forms of marriage Remarriages on the death of a wife have based on rules governing eligibility/ been a norm for men for the most part. ineligibility of mates is classified as But as all of you are aware that the endogamy and exogamy. 2015-16 46 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Endogamy requires an individual Rock-a-bye-baby, combs in your to marry within a culturally defined pretty hair, group of which he or she is already a The bridegroom will come soon and take you away member, as for example, caste. The drums beat loudly, the shehnai Exogamy, the reverse of endogamy, is playing softly requires the individual to marry outside A stranger’s son has come to fetch me of his/her own group. Endogamy and Come my playmates, come with our exogamy are in reference to certain toys kinship units, such as, clan, caste and Let us play, for I shall never play racial, ethnic or religious groupings. In again When I go off to the strangers’ house. India, village exogamy is practised in certain parts of north India. Village (Dube 2001: 94) exogamy ensured that daughters were married into families from villages far Activity 4 away from home. This arrangement ensured smooth transition and Collect different wedding songs and adjustment of the bride into the affinal discuss how they reflect the social home without interference of her dynamics of marriages and of kinsmen. The geographical distance gender relations. plus the unequal relationship in the patrilineal system ensured that married Activity 5 daughters did not get to see their parents too often. Thus parting from Have you ever seen matrimonial natal home was a sad occasion and is advertisements? Divide your class the theme of folk songs, which depict into groups and look at different the pain of departure. newspapers, magazines and the internet. Discuss your findings. Do Father, we are like flocks of bird you think endogamy is still the We shall fly away; Our flight will be prevalent norm? How does it help long, you to understand choice in We know not to which, marriage? More importantly, what Region we will go. kind of changes in society does it Father, my palanquin cannot reflect? Pass through your palace, (because the door is too small) Daughter, I shall remove a brick Defining Some Basic Concepts, (to enlarge the passage for your Particularly those of Family, palanquin), Kinship and Marriage You must go to your home. A family is a group of persons (Chanana 1993:WS26) directly linked by kin connections, 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 47 the adult members of which assume III responsibility for caring for children. Kinship ties are connections between WORK AND ECONOMIC LIFE individuals, established either through marriage or through the lines of descent What is Work? that connect blood relatives (mothers, fathers, siblings, offspring, etc.) As children and young students we Marriage can be defined as a socially imagine what kind of ‘work’ we will do acknowledged and approved sexual when we grow up. ‘Work’ here quite union between two adult individuals. clearly refers to paid employment. This When two people marry, they become is the most widely understood sense of kin to one another. The marriage bond ‘work’ in modern times. also, however, connects together a wider This in fact is an oversimplified view. range of people. Parents, brothers, Many types of work do not conform to sisters and other blood relatives become the idea of paid employment. Much of relatives of the partner through the work done in the informal economy, marriage. The family of birth is called for example, is not recorded in any family of orientation and the family in direct way in the official employment which a person is married is called the statistics. The term informal economy family of procreation. The kin who are refers to transactions outside the related through “blood” are called sphere of regular employment, consanguinal kin while the kin who are sometimes involving the exchange of related through marriage are called cash for services provided, but also affines. As we move on to the next often involving the direct exchange of section on work and economic goods or services. institutions, you will notice how the We can define work, whether paid family and economic life are closely or unpaid, as the carrying out of tasks interconnected. requiring the expenditure of mental and There was no occupation, which Tiny’s Granny had not tried at some stage of her life. From the time she was old enough to hold her own cup she had started working at odd jobs in people’s houses in return for her two meals a day and cast-off clothes. Exactly what the words ‘odd jobs’ mean, only those know who have been kept at them at an age when they ought to have been laughing and playing with other children. Anything from the uninteresting duty of shaking the baby’s rattle to massaging the master’s head comes under the category of ‘odd jobs’ (Chugtai 2004:125). Find out more about the various kinds of ‘work’ done from your own observation or literature or even films. Discuss. 2015-16 48 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Types of Work physical effort, which has as its objective the production of goods and services Activity 6 that cater to human needs. Find out the proportion of Indians Modern Forms of Work and Division who are in rural based occupations. of Labour Make a list of these occupations. In pre-modern forms of society most people worked in the field or cared for the livestock. In the industrially agriculture, and farming itself has developed society only a tiny pro- become industrialised — it is carried on portion of the population works in largely by means of machines rather 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 49 than by human hand. In a country like India, the larger share of the population Activity 8 continues to be rural and agricultural Have you seen a master weaver at or involved in other rural based work? Find out how long one piece occupations. of shawl may take to make? There are other trends in India too, for instance an expansion of the service sector. People seeking jobs in factories One of the most distinctive were trained to perform a specialised characteristics of the economic system task and receive a wage for this work. of modern societies is the existence of a Managers supervised the work, for highly complex division of labour. Work their task was to enhance worker has been divided into an enormous productivity and discipline. number of different occupations in One of the main features of modern which people specialise. In traditional societies is an enormous expansion of societies, non-agricultural work economic interdependence. We are all entailed the mastery of a craft. Craft dependent on an immense number of skills were learned through a lengthy other workers-stretching right across period of apprenticeship, and the the world- for the products and services worker normally carried out all aspects that sustain our lives. With few of the production process from exceptions, the vast majority of people beginning to end. in modern societies do not produce the food they eat, the houses they live in or Activity 7 the material goods they consume. Find out whether there has been a shift to the service sector in India Activity 9 in recent times. Which are these Make a list of the food that you eat, sectors? the materials that were used to make Modern society also witnesses a the houses you live in, the clothes shift in the location of work. Before you wear. Find out how and who industrialisation, most work took place made them. at home and was completed collectively by all members of the household. Advances in industrial technology, Transformation of Work such as machinery operating on Industrial processes were broken down electricity and coal, contributed to the into simple operations that could be separation of work and home. Factories precisely timed, organised and owned by capitalist entrepreneurs monitored. Mass production demands became the focal point of industrial mass markets. One of the most development. significant innovations was the 2015-16 50 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Discuss the two forms of production in the two sets of visuals Cloth production in a factory 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 51 Threshing of paddy in a village 2015-16 52 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY construction of a moving assembly line. vision here is that of the creation of Modern industrial production needed an international opinion forum expensive equipment and continuous (Roy Choudhury 2005:2254). monitoring of employees through monitoring or surveillance systems. Read the above given report carefully. Over the last decades there has been Notice how the new organisation of a shift to what is often called ‘flexible production and a body of customers production’ and ‘decentralisation of outside the country have altered the work’. It is argued that in this period economics and the politics of of globalisation, it is the growing production. competition between firms and countries that makes it essential for IV firms to organise production suiting the POLITICS changing market conditions. To illustrate how this new system operates Political institutions are concerned with and what the implications may be for the distribution of power in society. Two the workers, read the quote from a concepts, which are critical to the understanding of political institutions, study of the garment industry in are power and authority. Power is the Bangalore. ability of individuals or groups to carry The industry is essentially part of out their will even when opposed by a long supply chain, and the others. It implies that those who hold power do so at the cost of others. There freedom of manufacturers is to that is a fixed amount of power in a society extent extremely limited. There are, and if some wield power others do not. in fact more than a hundred In other words, an individual or group operations between the designer does not hold power in isolation, they and the final consumer. In this hold it in relation to others. chain, only 15 are in the hands of This notion of power is fairly the manufacturer. Any serious inclusive and extends from family elders agitation for a rise in wages would assigning domestic duties to their lead manufacturers to shift their children to principals enforcing operations to other localities, discipline in school; from the General beyond the reach of unionists... Manager of a factory distributing work among the executives to political leaders whether it is the payment of the regulating programmes of their parties. existing minimum wage, or its The principal has power to maintain substantial revision upwards, what discipline in school. The president of a is important is to enlist the support political party possesses power to expel of the retailer in order to create the a member from the party. In each case, necessary pressure upon the an individual or group has power to the government and local agencies for extent to which others abide by their a higher wage structure and its will. In this sense, political activities or effective implementation. Thus the politics is concerned with ‘power’. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 53 But how is this ‘power’ applied to capacity to use military force to achieve its aim? Why do people comply implement its policies. The functionalist with others’ commands? Answers to perspective sees the state as these questions could be found with representing the interests of all sections reference to a related concept of of society. The conflict perspective sees ‘authority’. Power is exercised through the state as representing the dominant authority. Authority is that form of sections of society. power, which is accepted as legitimate, Modern states are very different that is, as right and just. It is from traditional states. These states are institutionalised because it is based on defined by sovereignty, citizenship legitimacy. People in general accept the and, most often, ideas of nationalism. power of those in authority as they Sovereignty refers to the undisputed consider their control to be fair and political rule of a state over a given justified. Often ideologies exist that help territorial area. this process of legitimation. The sovereign state was not, at first, one in which citizenship carried with it Stateless Societies rights of political participation. These were achieved largely through Empirical studies of stateless societies by struggles, which limited the power of social anthropologists over sixty years monarchs, or actively overthrew them. ago demonstrated how order is The French Revolution and our own maintained without a modern Indian independence struggle are two governmental apparatus. There was instances of such movements. instead the balanced opposition Citizenship rights include civil, between parts; cross-cutting alliances, political and social rights. Civil rights based on kinship, marriage and involve the freedom of individuals to residence; rites and ceremonies involving live where they choose; freedom of the participation of friends and foes. speech and religion; the right to own As we all know, the modern state property; and the right to equal justice has a fixed structure and formal before the law. Political rights include procedures. Yet are not some of the the right to participate in elections and informal mechanisms mentioned above to stand for public office. In most as features of stateless societies present countries governments were reluctant also in state societies? to admit the principle of universal The Concept of the State franchise. In the early years not only women, but a large section of the male A state exists where there is a political population was excluded as holding a apparatus of government (institutions certain amount of property was an like a parliament or congress, plus civil eligibility criterion. Women had to wait service officials) ruling over a given longer for the vote. territory. Government authority is The third type of citizenship rights backed by a legal system and by the are social rights. These concern the 2015-16 54 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 10 Find out when women got voting rights in different countries. Why do you think that despite the right to vote and the right to stand for public office, women are so inadequately represented? Will power in its wider sense be a useful concept to understand this under-representation in the Parliament and other bodies? Does the existing division of labour within families and households impact women’s participation in political life? Find out why there is a demand for 33 per cent reservation for women in the Parliament. prerogative of every individual to enjoy community. Thus, individuals feel a a certain minimum standard of sense of pride and belonging, in being economic welfare and security. They ‘British’, ‘Indian’, ‘Indonesian’ or include such rights as health benefits, ‘French’. Probably people have always unemployment allowance, setting of felt some kind of identity with social minimum level of wages. The groups of one form or another — for broadening of social or welfare rights example, their family, clan or religious led to the welfare state, which was community. Nationalism, however, only established in Western societies since made its appearance with the the Second World War. States of the development of the modern state. erstwhile socialist countries had Contemporary world is marked both by far-reaching provision in this sector. In a rapid expansion of the global market most developing countries, this was as well as intense nationalist feelings virtually non-existent. All over the and conflicts. world today these social rights are Sociology has been interested in the being attacked as liabilities on the state broader study of power, not just with and hindrances to economic growth. the formal apparatus of government. It Nationalism can be defined as a set has been interested in the distribution of symbols and beliefs providing the of power between parties, between sense of being part of a single political classes, between castes, and between Activity 11 Activity 12 Collect information about different Collect information of events that states doing away with social show the growth of global inter- rights. Find out what explanation connectedness as well as instances is given for this. Discuss and of divisions along ethnic, religious, see whether you can see the national conflicts. Discuss how relationship between the economic, politics and economics may have a political and social spheres. part to play in them. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 55 communities based on race, language it to domestic life, economic life and and religion. Its focus is not just on what political life. may be called specifically political Religion exists in all known association, such as state legislatures, societies, although religious beliefs and town councils and political parties but practices vary from culture to culture. also associations such as schools, Characteristics that all religions seem banks and religious institutions whose to share are: aims are not primarily political. The ´ set of symbols, invoking feelings of scope of sociology has been wide. Its reverence or awe; range has extended from the study of ´ rituals or ceremonies; international movements (such as ´ a community of believers. women or environmental) to village factions. The rituals associated with religion are very diverse. Ritual acts may include V praying, chanting, singing, eating certain kinds of food (or refraining from RELIGION doing so), fasting on certain days, and Religion has been a subject of study so on. Since ritual acts are oriented and reflection for a very long time. In towards religious symbols, they are Chapter 1, we have seen how usually seen as quite distinct from the sociological findings about society are habits and procedures of ordinary life. different from religious reflections. The Lighting a candle or diya to honour the sociological study of religion is different divine differs completely in its from a religious or theological study of significance from doing so simply to religion in many ways. One, it conducts light a room. Religious rituals are often empirical studies of how religions carried out by an individual in his/her actually function in society and its personal everyday life. But all religions relationship to other institutions. Two, also involve ceremonials practised it uses a comparative method. Three, it collectively by believers. Regular investigates religious beliefs, practices ceremonials normally occur in special and institutions in relation to other places — churches, mosques, temples, aspects of society and culture. shrines. The empirical method means that Religion is about the sacred realm. the sociologist does not have a Think of what members of different judgemental approach to religious religions do before entering a sacred phenomena. The comparative method realm. For example covering one’s head, is important because in a sense it or not covering one’s head, taking off brings all societies on level with each shoes, or wearing particular kind of other. It helps to study without bias clothes, etc. What is common to them and prejudice. The sociological all is the feeling of awe, recognition perspective means that religious life and respect for sacred places or can be made intelligible only by relating situations. 2015-16 56 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Sociologists of religion, following aspects of society. Why do you think Emile Durkheim, are interested in this is so? understanding this sacred realm which A pioneering work by Max Weber every society distinguishes from (1864 -1920) demonstrates how the profane. In most cases, the sociology looks at religion in its sacred includes an element of the relationship to other aspects of social supernatural. Often the sacred quality and economic behaviour. Weber argues of a tree or a temple comes with the that Calvinism (a branch of Protestant belief that it is sacred precisely because Christianity) exerted an important there is some supernatural force behind influence on the emergence and growth it. However, it is important to keep in of capitalism as a mode of economic mind that some religions like early organisation. The Calvinists believed Buddhism and Confucianism had no that the world was created for the glory conception of the supernatural, but did of God, meaning that any work in this allow sufficient reverence for things and world had to be done for His glory, persons which they considered sacred. making even mundane works acts of Studying religion sociologically worship. More importantly, however, lets us ask questions about the the Calvinists also believed in the relationship of religion with other social concept of predestination, which meant institutions. Religion has had a very that whether one will go to heaven or close relationship with power and hell was pre-ordained. Since there was politics. For instance, periodically in no way of knowing whether one has history there have been religious been assigned heaven or hell, people movements for social change, like sought to look for signs of God’s will in various anti-caste movements this world, in their own occupations. or movements against gender Thus if a person in whatever profession, discrimination. Religion is not just a was consistent and successful in his or matter of the private belief of an individual but it also has a public her work, it was interpreted as a sign character. And it is this public character of God’s happiness. The money earned of religion, which has an important was not to be used for worldly bearing on other institutions of society. consumption; rather the ethics of We have seen how sociology looks Calvinism was to live frugally. This at power in a wide sense. It is, therefore, meant that investment became of sociological interest to look at the something like a holy creed. At the relationship between political and heart of capitalism is the concept of religious spheres. Classical sociologists investment, which is about investing believed that as societies modernised, capital to make more goods, which religion would become less influential create more profit, which in turn over various spheres of life. The concept creates more capital. Thus Weber was secularisation describes this process. able to argue that religion, in this case Contemporary events suggest a Calvinism, does have an influence on persisting role of religion in various economic development. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 57 Religion cannot be studied as a VI separate entity. Social forces always and invariably influence religious EDUCATION institutions. Political debates, economic Education is a life–long process, situations and gender norms will involving both formal and informal always influence religious behaviour. institutions of learning. Here we are Conversely, religious norms influence however confining ourselves only to and sometimes even determine social school education. We are all aware how understanding. Women constitute half important getting admission into a of the world’s population. Sociologically school is. We also know, for many of us, therefore it becomes important to ask school is a step towards higher what relationship this vast segment of education and finally employment. For human population has with religion. some of us it may mean acquiring some Religion is an important part of society necessary social skills. What is common and is inextricably tied to other parts. in all cases is that there is a felt need The task of sociologists is to unravel for education. these various interconnections. In Sociology understands this need as traditional societies, religion usually a process of transmission/commu- plays a central part in social life. nication of group heritage that is Religious symbols and rituals are often common to all societies. There is a integrated with the material and artistic qualitative distinction between simple culture of society. Read the extract societies and complex, modern which is given below in the box to get a societies. In the case of the former there sense of how sociology studies religion. was no need for formal schooling. Many extraneous factors have affected the traditional lives of the religious specialists. The most important of these are the growth of new employment and educational opportunities in Nasik... after Independence, the way of life of the priests has been changing fast. Now the sons and daughters are sent to school, and are trained for jobs other than traditional ones… Like all places of pilgrimage, Nasik also gave rise to supplementary centres around religious activities. It was a normal routine for a pilgrim to take home the sacred water of the Godavari in a copper pot. The coppersmiths provided these wares. The pilgrims also bought wares, which they took home to be distributed as gifts among their relatives and friends. For long Nasik was known for its proficient craftsmen in brass, copper and silver... Since the demand for their wares is intermittent and uncertain, not all the adult males can be supported by this occupation... Many craftsmen have entered industry and business-both small and large scale (Acharya 1974:399-401). 2015-16 58 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Children learnt customs and the For Emile Durkheim, no society can broader way of life by participating in survive without a ‘common base-a activities with their adults. In complex certain number of ideas, sentiments societies, we saw there is an increasing and practices which education must economic division of labour, separation inculcate in all children indiscriminately, of work from home, need for specialised to whatever social category they belong’ learning and skill attainment, rise of (Durkheim 1956:69). Education state systems, nations and complex should prepare the child for a special sets of symbols and ideas. How do you occupation, and enable the child to get educated informally in such internalise the core values of society. context? How would parents or other The functionalist sociologist thus adults informally communicate all that speaks in terms of general social has to be known to the next generation? needs and social norms. For the Education in such social context has functionalists, education maintains to be formal and explicit. and renews the social structure, Furthermore modern complex transmits and develops culture. The societies, in contrast to simple societies, educational system is an important rest on abstract universalistic values. mechanism for the selection and This is what distinguishes it from a allocation of individuals in their simple society that depends on future roles in the society. It is also particularistic values, based on family, regarded as the ground for proving kin, tribe, caste or religion. Schools in one’s ability and hence selective modern societies are designed to agency for different status according promote uniformity, standardised to their abilities. Recall our aspirations and universalistic values. discussion on the functionalist There are many ways of doing this. For understanding of roles and example one can speak of ‘uniform stratification in Chapter 2. dress for school children’. Can you For the sociologists who perceive think of other features that promote society as unequally differentiated, standardisation? education functions as a main Discuss the visuals (Two types of schools) 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 59 stratifying agent. And at the same The report indicates how gender time the inequality of educational and caste discrimination impinge opportunity is also a product of social upon the chances of education. Recall stratification. In other words, we go to how we began this book in Chapter 1 different kinds of schools depending on about a child’s chances for a good job our socio-economic background. And because we go to some kind of schools, we acquire different kind of privileges and finally opportunities. For instance some argue that schooling ‘intensifies the existing divide between the elite and the masses.’ Children going to privileged schools learn to be confident while children deprived of that may feel the opposite (Pathak 2002:151). However, there are many more children who simply cannot attend school or drop out. For instance a study reports : You are seeing some children in the school now. If you come during the cultivation season you may see almost zero attendance from the SC and ST children. They all take some household responsibilities while the parents are out to work. And the girl Discuss the visual children of these communities seldom attend school as they do being shaped by a host of social various kinds of work both domestic factors. Your understanding of the and income generating. A 10-year- way social institutions function old girl picks dry cow dung to sell, should help you analyse the process for example (Pratichi 2002:60). better now. Activity 13 A study of a kindergarten suggested that children learn that: ´ ‘work activities are more important than play activities’. ´ ‘work includes any and all teacher-directed activities.’ ´ ‘work is compulsory and free time activities are called play’ (Apple 1979:102). What do you think? Discuss. 2015-16 60 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY GLOSSARY Citizen : A member of a political community, having both rights and duties associated with that membership. Division of Labour : The specialisation of work tasks, by means of which different occupations are combined within a production system. All societies have at least some rudimentary form of division of labour. With the development of industrialism, however, the division of labour becomes vastly more complex than in any prior type of production system. In the modern world, the division of labour is international in scope. Gender : Social expectations about behaviour regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Gender is seen as a basic organising principle of society. Empirical Investigation : Factual enquiry carried out in any given area of sociological study. Endogamy : When marriage is within a specific caste, class or tribal group. Exogamy : When marriage occurs outside a certain group of relations. Ideology : Shared ideas or beliefs, which serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Ideologies are found in all societies in which there are systematic and engrained inequalities between groups. The concept of ideology connects closely with that of power, since ideological systems serve to legitimise the differential power which groups hold. Legitimacy : The belief that a particular political order is just and valid. Monogamy : When marriage involves one husband and one wife alone. Polygamy : When marriage involves more than one mate at one time. Polyandry : When more than one man is married to a woman. Polygyny : When more than one woman is married to a man. Service Industries : Industries concerned with the production of services rather than manufactured goods, such as the travel industry. State Society : A society which possesses a formal apparatus of government. Stateless Society : A society which lacks formal institutions of government. Social Mobility : Movement from one status or occupation to another. Sovereignty : The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial area. 2015-16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 61 EXERCISES 1. Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society. Compare your observations with these made by other students in the class. Discuss. 2. Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode of interaction changes in the family with broader economic, political and cultural changes, for instance migration. 3. Write an essay on ‘work’. Focus on both the range of occupations, which exist and how they change. 4. Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affect your life? 5. How does sociology study religion? 6. Write an essay on school as a social institution. Draw from both your reading as well as your personal observations. 7. Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You can start the discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And move on to how you are shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirely controlled or can you also resist and redefine social institutions? READINGS ACHARYA, HEMLATA. 1974. ‘Changing Role of Religious Specialists in Nasik — The Pilgrim City’, in ed. RAO, M.S. An Urban Sociology in India : Reader and Source Book. Orient Longman, New Delhi, pp. 391-403. APPLE, MICHAEL W. 1979. Ideology and Curriculum. Routledge and Kegan Paul, LONDON. CHUGTAI, ISMAT. 2004. Tiny’s Granny in Contemporary Indian Short Stories; Series 1. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. DUBE, LEELA. 2001. Anthropological Explorations in Gender : Intersecting Fields. Sage Publications, New Delhi. DURKHEIM, EMILE. 1956. Education and Sociology. The Free Press, New York. PATHAK, AVIJIT. 2002. Social Implications of Schooling : Knowledge, Pedagogy and Consciousness. Rainbow Publishers, Delhi. PRATICHI. 2002. The Pratichi Education Report. Pratichi Trust, Delhi. 2015-16 62 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY R OY C HOUDHUR Y , S UPRIYA. 2005. ‘Labour Activism and Women in the Unorganised Sector : Garment Export Industry in Bangalore’, Economic and Political Weekly. May 28-June 4. pp. 2250-2255. SHAH, A.M. 1998. Family in India : Critical Essays. Orient Longman, Hyderabad. S INGH , Y OGENDRA. 1993. Social Change in India : Crisis and Resilience. Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi. UBEROI, PATRICIA. 2002. ‘Family, Kinship and Marriage in India’, in Student’s Britannica, India. Vol.6, Encyclopedia Britannica Private Ltd, New Delhi, pp.145-155. 2015-16