Human Development PDF

Chapter 3 Human Development Development After reading this chapter, you would be able to describe the meaning and process of development,...

Chapter 3 Human Development Development After reading this chapter, you would be able to describe the meaning and process of development, explain the influence of heredity, environment and context on human development, identify the stages of development and describe the major characteristics of infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, and reflect on your own course of development and related experiences. Contents Introduction Meaning of Development Life-Span Perspective on Development Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution (Box 3.1) Factors Influencing Development Context of Development Overview of Developmental Stages Prenatal Stage I wish I could travel by the road that Infancy crosses the baby’s mind, and out Childhood beyond all bounds; where messengers Gender and Sex Roles (Box 3.2) run errands for no cause between the Challenges of Adolescence kingdoms of kings of no history; where Adulthood and Old Age Reason makes kites of her laws and Key Terms flies them, and Truth sets Fact free Summary from its fetters. Review Questions Project Ideas – Rabindranath Tagore 40 Psychology 2024-25  Introduction If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various kinds are taking place in an individual’s life, which continue even during old age. Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to communicate, walk, count, and read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong. S/he makes friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows old. Even though we differ from each other, we share many commonalities. Most of us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will familiarise you with the changes observed in people during the course of their life- span in different domains. You will learn about key developmental processes and changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal understanding and self-discovery which should help in your future development. The study of human development would also help you to deal with others better. associated with the processes of knowing, MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT and experiencing, such as thought, When we think of development, invariably we perception, attention, problem solving, etc. think of physical changes, as these are Socio-emotional processes that influence commonly observed at home with younger development refer to changes in an siblings, with parents and grandparents, in individual’s interactions with other people, school with peers or others around us. From changes in emotions, and in personality. A conception until the moment of death, we not child’s hug to her/his mother, a young girl’s only change physically, but we also change in affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or an the way we think, use language, and develop adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are all social relationships. Remember that, changes reflections of socio-emotional processes deeply are not confined to any one area of a person’s involved in human development. life; they occur in the person in an integrated Although you would be reading about the manner. Development is the pattern of different processes in different chapters of this textbook, it is important to remember that the progressive, orderly, and predictable changes biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional that begin at conception and continue processes are interwoven. These processes throughout life. Development mostly involves influence changes in the development of the changes — both growth and decline, as individual as a whole throughout the human observed during old age. life-span. Development is influenced by an interplay of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional Life-Span Perspective on Development processes. Development due to genes inherited from parents, such as in height and The study of development according to the weight, brain, heart, and lungs development, Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the etc. all point towards the role of biological following assumptions : processes. The role of cognitive processes 1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place in development relate to mental activities across all age groups starting from 41 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25  conception to old age. It includes both gains 5. Development is influenced by historical and losses, which interact in dynamic conditions. For example, the experiences (change in one aspect goes with changes in of 20-year olds who lived through the others) ways throughout the life-span. freedom struggle in India would be very 2. The various processes of human different from the experiences of 20 year development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and olds of today. The career orientation of socio-emotional are interwoven in the school students today is very different from development of a person throughout the those students who were in schools 50 life-span. years ago. 3. Development is multi-directional. Some 6. Development is the concer n of a dimensions or components of a given number of disciplines. Dif ferent dimension of development may increase, disciplines like psychology, anthropology, while others show decrement. For example, sociology, and neuro-sciences study the experiences of adults may make them human development, each trying to wiser and guide their decisions. However, provide answers to development with an increase in age, one’s performance throughout the life-span. is likely to decrease on tasks requiring 7. An individual responds and acts on speed, such as running. contexts, which include what was 4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within inherited, the physical environment, social, person, modifiability is found in historical, and cultural contexts. For psychological development, though example, the life events in everyone’s life plasticity varies among individuals. This are not the same, such as, death of a means skills and abilities can be improved parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect or developed throughout the life-span. the course of one’s life as also the positive B o x 3.1 Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution Growth refers to an increase in the size of body commonalities in our growth and development. parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be For example, most children can sit without support measured or quantified, for example, growth in by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 months height, weight, etc. Development is a process and walk by one year. Once the underlying physical by which an individual grows and changes structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency in these throughout the life cycle. The term development behaviours requires adequate environment and little applies to the changes that have a direction and practice. However, special efforts to accelerate these hold definite relationship with what precedes it, behaviours do not help if the infant is maturationally and in turn, will determine what will come after. not ready. These processes seem to “unfold from A temporary change caused by a brief illness, within”: following an inner, genetically determined for example, is not considered a part of timetable that is characteristic of the species. development. All changes which occur as a result Evolution refers to species-specific changes. Natural of development are not of the same kind. Thus, selection is an evolutionary process that favours changes in size (physical growth), changes in individuals or a species that are best adapted to proportion (child to adult), changes in features survive and reproduce. The evolutionary changes are (disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring new passed from one generation to the next within a features are varied in their pace and scope level. species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow pace. Development includes growth as one of its Emergence of human beings from great apes took aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that about 14 million years. It has been estimated that follow an orderly sequence and are largely the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only about dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces 50,000 years ago. 42 Psychology 2024-25  influences such as winning an award or measurable characteristics. Phenotypes getting a good job. People keep on changing include physical traits, such as height, weight, with changing contexts. eye and skin colour, and many of the psychological characteristics such as intelligence, creativity, and personality. These FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT observable characteristics of an individual are Have you observed in your class that some of the result of the interaction between the you have dark skin, others have light coloured person’s inherited traits and the environment. skins, colour of your hair and eyes are You know it is the genetic code which different, some of you are tall, others short, predisposes a child to develop in a particular some are quiet or sad while others are talkative way. Genes provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for the development of an individual. or cheerful. People also differ with respect to But genes do not exist in isolation and intelligence, learning abilities, memory, and development occurs within the context of an other psychological characteristics besides individual’s environment. This is what makes physical characteristics. Despite these each one of us a unique person. variations, no one can be mistaken for any What are the environmental influences? other species: we all are homo sapiens. What How does the environment af fect causes us to be different from each other but development? Imagine a child, with genotype at the same time more like each other? The that predisposes her/him to be introverted, answer lies in the interaction of heredity and in an environment that promotes social environment. interaction and extroversion. The influence of You have already lear ned that the such an environment may make the child a principles of heredity explain the mechanism little extroverted. Let us take another example. for transmission of characteristics by every An individual with “short” height genes, even species from one generation to the next. We if s/he is in a very good nutritional inherit genetic codes from our parents, which environment, will never be able to be taller are in every cell of our body. Our genetic than average. This shows that genes set the codes are alike in one important way; they limit and within that limit the environment contain the human genetic code. It is influences development. because of the human genetic code that a You know by now that parents provide the fertilised human egg grows into a human genes for the child’s development. Do you baby and cannot grow into an elephant, a know that they also play an important role in bird or a mouse. determining the type of environment their Genetic transmission is very complex. children will encounter? Sandra Scarr (1992) Most characteristics that we observe in believes that the environment parents provide humans are combinations of larger number for their children depends to some extent on of genes. You can imagine the combinations their own genetic predisposition. For example, produced by 80,000 or more genes – if parents are intelligent and are good readers accounting for a variety of characteristics and they would provide their children with books behaviours. It is also not possible to possess to read, with the likely outcome that their all the characteristics made available to us by children would become good readers who our genetic structure. The actual genetic enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype (what material or a person’s genetic heritage is s/he has inherited) such as being cooperative, known as genotype. However, not all of this and attentive is likely to result in teachers and genetic material is apparent or distinctly parents giving more pleasant response as identifiable in our observable characteristics. compared to children who are not cooperative Phenotype is the way an individual’s or not attentive. Besides these, children genotype is expressed in observable and themselves choose certain environments 43 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 based on their genotype. For example, because of their genotype, children may perform well in music or sports and they will seek and Macrosystem spend more time in environments, which will ies Beli olog Exosystem e fs enable them to perform their musical skills; Ide Mesosystem similarly an athlete would seek sports-related environment. These interactions with Friends Microsystem Neighbour environment keep changing from infancy Family School through adolescence. Environmental The Peers Individual influences are as complex as the genes we Religious Trad inherit. Neighbourhood Work es Mass settings itud Place itio If your class monitor is selected on the basis Media Att ns of being academically bright and a popular student, do you think it is because of her/his genes or the influence of the environment? If a Time child from a rural area who is very intelligent, is not able to get a job because of her/his Chronosystem inability to express herself/himself fluently or handle computers, do you think - it is because of genes or environment? Fig.3.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT Development Development does not take place in a vacuum. It is always embedded in a adolescent’s friends, are experiences likely particular socio-cultural context. As you to influence an individual’s relationships shall read in this chapter, transition with others. The exosystem includes during one’s lifetime such as entering events in social settings where the child school, becoming an adolescent, finding does not participate directly, but they jobs, marrying, having children, influence the childs’ experiences in the retirement, etc. all are joint functions of immediate context. For example, the the biological changes and changes in transfer of father or mother may cause one’s environment. The environment can tension among the parents which might change or alter during any time of the affect their interactions with the child or the individual’s life-span. general amenities available to the child like Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of quality of schooling, libraries, medical care, development emphasises the role of means of entertainment, etc. Macrosystem environmental factors in the development of an includes the culture in which the individual individual. This has been depicted in lives. Chronosystem involves events in the Figure 3.1. The microsystem is the immediate individual’s life course, and socio-historical environment/setting in which the circumstances of the time such as, divorce individual lives. It is in these settings where of parents or parents’ economic setback, the child directly interacts with social agents and their effect on the child. – the family, peers, teachers, and In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is that neighbourhood. The mesosystem consists a child’s development is significantly affected of relations between these contexts. For by the complex world that envelops her/him instance, how a child’s parents relate to the – whether it be the minutiae of the teachers, or how the parents view the conversations s/he has with her/his 44 Psychology 2024-25 playmates, or the social and economic life- have different consequences for development circumstances into which s/he is born. in different people. The ecological Research has shown that children in environment can change or alter during any impoverished environments have time of the individual’s life-span. Therefore, unstimulating environment devoid of books, to understand differences in the functioning magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such of an individual, it is important to see the as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have individual in the context of her/his parents who are ineffective as role models, and experiences. live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings. As a result of these conditions children are at a disadvantage and have difficulties in Activity 3.1 learning. What would your life be if you lived in a rural Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an area or a small town, devoid of all amenities, ecological model for understanding the which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)? development of children in Indian context. Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc. of two concentric layers. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home, school, peer groups, and so on. The most important OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES ecological factors influencing development of the child in the visible upper layer constitute Development is commonly described in terms the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of of periods or stages. You must have observed overcrowding, space available to each member, that your younger brother or sister, or parents, toys, technological devices used, etc., and even yourself, all behave in different ways. (ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities If you observe people living in your to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature neighbourhood, you would find that they too of interactions and activities undertaken with do not behave in a similar manner. This peer groups from childhood onwards. variation is partly because everyone is in a These factors do not operate different stage of life. Human life proceeds independently but constantly interact with through different stages. For example, you are one another. Since these are also embedded at present in the stage of adolescence and after in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the a few years you will enter the stage of “surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed constantly influence the “upper layer” to be temporary and are often characterised factors. However, their influences are not by a dominant feature or a leading always clearly visible. The elements of the characteristic, which gives each period its uniqueness. During a particular stage, surrounding layer of ecology constitute the: individual progresses towards an assumed (i) general geographical environment. It goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve includes space and facilities for play and in the same order as other persons before other activities available outside the home progressing to the next stage in the sequence. including general congestion of the locality Of course, individuals do vary with respect to and density of population, (ii) institutional the time or rate of development from one stage setting provided by caste, class, and other to another. It may be noted that certain factors, and (iii) general amenities available patterns of behaviour and certain skills are to the child like drinking water, electricity, learned more easily and successfully during means of entertainment and so on. certain stages. These accomplishments of a The visible and the surrounding layer person become the social expectations of that factors interact with one another and may stage of development. They are known as 45 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 developmental tasks. You will now read The newborn is not as helpless as you might about the different stages of development and think. The activities needed to sustain life their main features. functions are present in the newborn — it breathes, sucks, swallows, and discharges the Prenatal Stage bodily wastes. The newborns in their first week The period from conception to birth is known of life are able to indicate what direction a as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts for sound is coming from, can distinguish their about 40 weeks. You know by now that the mother’s voice from the voices of other women, genetic blueprint guides our development and can imitate simple gestures like tongue during the prenatal period and after birth. Both protrusion and mouth opening. genetic and environmental factors affect our Motor Development : The newborn’s development during different periods of movements are governed by reflexes — which prenatal stage. are automatic, built-in responses to stimuli. Prenatal development is also affected by They are genetically-carried survival maternal characteristics, which include mechanisms, and are the building blocks for mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state. subsequent motor development. Before the Disease or infection carried by the mother can newborns have had the opportunity to learn, adversely affect prenatal development. For reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms. Some example, rubella (German measles), genital reflexes present in the newborn — coughing, herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus blinking, and yawning persist throughout their (HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems in the newborn. Another source of threat to lives. Others disappear as the brain functions prenatal development is teratogens - mature and voluntary control over behaviour environmental agents that cause deviations starts developing (see Table 3.1). in normal development that can lead to As the brain is developing, physical serious abnormalities or death. Common development also progresses. As the infant teratogens include drugs, infections, grows, the muscles and nervous system radiations, and pollution. Intake of drugs mature which lead to the development of finer (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, etc.), alcohol, skills. Basic physical (motor) skills include tobacco, etc. by women during pregnancy may grasping and reaching for objects, sitting, have harmful effects on the foetus and increase crawling, walking and running. The sequence the frequency of congenital abnormalities. of physical (motor) development is universal, Radiations (such as X-rays), and certain with minor exceptions. chemicals near industrial areas can cause permanent change in the genes. Sensory Abilities : You know by now that Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes newborns are not as incompetent as they look. like carbon monoxide, mercury and lead are They can recognise their mother’s voice just a also sources of danger to the unborn child. few hours after birth and have other sensory capabilities. How well can infants see? Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather INFANCY than others such as faces, although these The brain develops at an amazing rate before preferences change over the first few months and after birth. You have already read about of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated to be the parts of the brain and the important role lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it played by cerebrum in human functions, such improves and by about the first year, vision is as language, perception, and intelligence. Just almost the same as that of an adult (20/20). before birth the newborns have most but not Can a newborn see colour? The current all brain cells. The neural connections among consensus is that they might be able to these cells develop at a rapid rate. distinguish between red and white colours but 46 Psychology 2024-25  Table 3. 1 Some Major Reflexes in the Newb Newboo r n Reflex Description Developmental Course Rooting Turning the head and opening the Disappears between 3 and 6 months mouth when touched on the cheek Moro If there is a loud noise, the baby Disappears in 6 to 7 months will throw her/his arms outward (although reaction to loud noises is while arching her/his back, and permanent) then bring the arms together as if grasping something Grasp When a finger or some other object is Disappears in 3 to 4 months; pressed against the baby’s palm, the replaced by voluntary grasping baby’s fingers close around it Babinski When the bottom of the baby’s foot Disappears in 8 to 12 months is stroked, the toes fan out and then curl in general they are colour deficient and full of life, experiences the world through senses colour vision develops by 3 months of age. and interactions with objects — through What is the nature of hearing in newborns? looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and Infants can hear immediately after birth. As grasping. The newborn lives in the present. the infant develops, proficiency at localising What is out of sight is out of mind. For sound improves. Newborns respond to touch example, if you hide the toy in front of the and they can even feel pain. Both smell and child with which the child has been playing, taste capacities are also present in the the young infant would react as if nothing has newborn. happened, i.e. s/he will not search for the toy. Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year The child assumes the toy does not exist. old child understand things the same way as According to Piaget, children at this stage do would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget stressed that not go beyond their immediate sensory children actively construct their experience, i.e. lack object permanence — understanding of the world. Information does the awareness that the objects continue to not simply enter their minds from the exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8 environment. As children grow, additional months of age the child starts pursuing the information is acquired and they adapt their object partially covered in her/his presence. thinking to include new ideas, as this improves The basis of verbal communication seems their understanding of the world. Piaget to be present in infants. Vocalisation begins believed that a child’s mind passes through a with the infant’s babbling, sometime between series of stages of thought from infancy to 3 to 6 months of age. You will read about early adolescence (see Table 3.2). language development in Chapter 7. Each stage is characterised by a distinct Socio-emotional Development : Babies way of thinking and is age related. It is from birth are social creatures. An infant starts important to remember that it is the different preferring familiar faces and responds to way of thinking which makes one stage more parent’s presence by cooing and gurgling. They advanced than the other and not the amount become more mobile by 6 to 8 months of age of information. This also shows why you at and start showing a preference for their your age think differently from an 8 year old. mother’s company. When frightened by a new The child during infancy, i.e. the first two years face or when separated from their mother, they 47 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25  Table 3. 2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Approximate Age Characteristics Sensorimotor 0-2 years Infant explores the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thought develops; object permanence is established; the child cannot coordinate different physical attributes of an object. Concrete operational 7-11 years The child can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. Is able to perform reversible mental operations on representations of objects. Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent can apply logic more abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops. cry or show distress. On being reunited with consistently and appropriately reciprocate to the parent or caregiver they reciprocate with their signals of love and affection. According to smiles or hugs. The close emotional bond of Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is the affection that develop between infants and their key time for the development of attachment. It parents (caregivers) is called attachment. In represents the stage of developing trust or a classic study by Harlow and Harlow (1962), mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a feeling of baby monkeys were separated from their physical comfort which builds an expectation mothers approximately 8 hours after birth. The of the world as a secure and good place. An baby monkeys were placed in experimental infant’s sense of trust is developed by chambers and reared for 6 months by responsive and sensitive parenting. If the surrogate (substitute) “mothers”, one made of parents are sensitive, affectionate, and wire and the other of cloth. Half the baby accepting, it provides the infant a strong base monkeys were fed by the wire mother, half by to explore the environment. Such infants are the cloth mother. Regardless of whether they likely to develop a secure attachment. On the were fed by the wire or the cloth mother the other hand, if parents are insensitive and show baby monkeys showed a preference for the dissatisfaction and find fault with the child, it cloth mother and spent a lot more time with can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in her. This study clearly demonstrates that the child. Securely attached infants respond providing nourishment or feeding was not positively when picked up, move freely, and crucial for attachment and contact-comfort is play whereas insecurely attached infants feel important. You too may have seen young anxious when separated and cry due to fear children having a strong attachment to a and get upset. A close interactive relationship favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing with warm and affectionate adults is a child’s unusual in this, as the children know that first step towards healthy development. the blanket or toy is not their mother. Yet it provides them comfort. As children grow and CHILDHOOD become more sure of themselves, they abandon these objects. The child’s growth slows down during early Human babies also form an attachment childhood as compared to infancy. The child with their parents or caregivers who develops physically, gains height and weight, 48 Psychology 2024-25 learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays with a and body fat decreases. The brain and the head ball. Socially, the child’s world expands from grow more rapidly than any other part of the the parents to the family and adults near home body. The growth and development of the brain and at school. The child also begins to acquire are important as they help in the maturation the concepts of good and bad, i.e. develops a of children’s abilities, such as eye-hand sense of morality. During childhood, children coordination, holding a pencil, and attempts have increased physical capacities, can made at writing. During middle and late perform tasks independently, can set goals, childhood years, children increase significantly and meet adult expectations. The increasing in size and strength; increase in weight is maturation of the brain along with mainly due to increase in the size of the skeletal opportunities to experience the world, and muscular systems, as well as size of some contribute to development of children’s body organs. cognitive abilities. Motor Development : Gross motor skills Physical Development : Early develop- during the early childhood years involve the ment follows two principles : (i) development use of arms and legs, and moving around with proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the confidence and more purposefully in the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail environment. Fine motor skills — finger region. Children gain control over the upper dexterity and eye-hand coordination — part of the body before the lower part. This is improve substantially during early childhood. why you would notice that the infant’s head During these years the child’s preference for is proportionately larger than her/his body left or right hand also develops. The major during early infancy or if you see an infant accomplishments in gross and fine motor skills crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then during early childhood years are given in shift to using the legs, (ii) growth proceeds from Table 3.3. the centre of body and moves towards the Cognitive Development : The child’s extremities or more distal regions — the ability to acquire the concept of object proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain control permanence enables her/him to use mental over their torso before their extremities. symbols to represent objects. However, the Initially infants reach for objects by turning child at this stage lacks the ability that allows their entire body, gradually they extend their her/him to do mentally what was done arms to reach for things. These changes are physically before. Cognitive development in the result of a maturing nervous system and early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage of not because of any limitation since even preoperational thought (see Table 3.2). The visually impaired children show the same child gains the ability to mentally represent sequence. an object that is not physically present. You As children grow older, they look slimmer may have observed children draw designs/ as the trunk part of their bodies lengthens figures to represent people, trees, dog, house, Table 3. 3 Major Accomplishments in Gross and FFine ine Motor Skills Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills 3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build blocks, pick objects with forefinger and thumb 4 years Climb up and downstairs with Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely one foot on each step 5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and body all coordinate with eye movement 49 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 etc. This ability of the child to engage in preoperational child would have done? S/he symbolic thought helps to expand her/his is likely to focus on only one aspect-length or mental world. The progress in symbolic height. Concrete operations allow the child to thought continues. A salient feature of focus on different characteristics and not focus preoperational thought is egocentrism (self- on one aspect of the object. This helps the focus), i.e. children see the world only in terms child to appreciate that there are different ways of their own selves and are not able to of looking at things, which also results in the appreciate others’ point of view. Children decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking because of egocentrism, engage in animism - becomes more flexible, and children can think thinking that all things are living, like oneself. about alternatives when solving problems, or They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate mentally retrace their steps if required. Even objects. For example, if a child while running though the preoperational child develops the slips on the road, s/he might show animism ability to see relationships between different by saying “road hurt me”. As children grow properties of an object, s/he cannot do and are approximately between 4 and 7 years abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot of age they want answers to all their questions manipulate ideas in the absence of objects. like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow? For example, steps required to complete and so on. Such questions help the child to algebraic equations, or imagining line of know why things are as they are. Piaget called longitude or latitude of the earth. this the stage of intuitive thought. Another The growing cognitive abilities of children feature of thought during preoperational stage facilitate the acquisition of language. You will is characterised by children having a tendency read in Chapter 7, how children develop for centration, i.e. focusing on a single vocabulary and grammar. characteristic or feature for understanding an event. For example, a child may insist on drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall Activity 3.2 narrow glass to a short broad one, even though both might be holding the same amount of Take two transparent glasses of the same size juice. and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a child of Class II and Class V of your school: As the child grows and is approximately whether the glasses contain the same amount of between 7 and 11 years of age (the period of water? Take another tall thin glass and in front middle and late childhood) intuitive thought of the child empty water from one of the earlier is replaced by logical thought. This is the stage glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him which of concrete operational thought, which is glass has more water? Did you find any difference made up of operations — mental actions that in their responses? allow the child to do mentally what was done physically before. Concrete operations are also mental actions that are reversible. In a well- Socio-emotional Development : The known test, the child is presented with two important dimensions of children’s socio- identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled by the emotional development are the self, gender experimenter into a long thin strip and the and moral development. During the early other ball remains in its original shape. On years of childhood, some important being asked which has more clay, the child developments in the self take place. The child of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both have due to socialisation has developed a sense of the same amount of clay. This is because the who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be child imagines the ball rolled into thin strip identified with. The developing sense of and then into a ball, that means s/he is able independence makes children do things in to imagine reversible mental action on their own way. According to Erikson, the way concrete/real objects. What do you think a parents respond to their self-initiated activities 50 Psychology 2024-25 leads to developing a sense of initiative or sense understanding in early childhood is limited to of guilt. For example, giving freedom and defining oneself through physical opportunities for play like cycling, running, characteristics: I am tall, she has black hair, I skating, etc. and answering children’s am a girl, etc. During middle and late questions will create a sense of support for childhood, the child is likely to define oneself the initiative taken. In contrast, if they are through internal characteristics such as, “I made to feel that their questions are useless, am smart and I am popular” or “I feel proud and games played by them are stupid, the when teachers assign me responsibility in children are likely to develop feelings of guilt school”. In addition to defining oneself through over self-initiated activities, which may persist psychological characteristics, children’s self- through the children’s later life also. Self- descriptions also include social aspects of self, B o x 3.2 Gender and Sex Roles Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or both? of development. Through rewards and punishments, Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s activity? they induce in children gender appropriate and What about driving, debating, and experimenting inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use rewards in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of the and punishments to teach their daughters to be products sold on T.V. for young men and young feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer influence is women? What do they tell about how girls and also considered to be a major contributor to gender boys should be? socialisation. Psychologists have meticulously researched Parents restrict school-aged girls more than they on whether sex differences exist. Research shows restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and girls that males have been consistently found to be different types of chores. In everyday interactions, more aggressive than females. Men perform parents give their daughters a kind of ‘dependence better than women on tests of sit-ups, short-run training’, and their sons a kind of ‘independence speeds and long jumps. Women show better, fine training’. Media, including cartoons and commercials eye-hand coordination than men do, and their are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes. joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s. Research on gender stereotypes in commercials What do you think is the origin of these shows that across cultures authority figures in differences? Are these essential, or in other commercials were males, and women were more likely words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’ to be shown in dependent and domestic roles, or traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits? women were more likely to sell body products, and Or are these differences the creation of the world men more likely to sell sports products. we live in? Once children learn the role of male or female, The most powerful roles into which people are they organise their world on the basis of gender also. socialised are gender roles. They specify the range Children’s attention and behaviour are guided by an of behaviours which are considered appropriate internal motivation to conform to gender based socio- for males or females. While sex refers to the cultural standards and stereotypes. Children also biological dimension of being male or female, actively socialise themselves according to the gender gender refers to the social dimension of being male mores of their culture. Once they have internalised or female. There are several aspects of gender. gender standards, they begin to expect gender Among these, important ones are gender identity appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young boys of male or female, which most children begin to may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy dress acquire by the time they are about 3 years old competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar), girls and can accurately label themselves as boys and may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they have girls. As they grow, preferences can be evidenced identified with their own gender, children may model in their toys and play. after a powerful cultural figure of the same gender. A gender role is a set of expectations that The “gender typing” occurs when individuals are prescribes how females and males should think, ready to encode and organise information along the act and feel. Parents are important influences on lines of what is considered appropriate or typical for gender socialisation especially in the early years males and females in a society. 51 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 such as references to social groups like being actions are wrong because s/he is punished, a member of school’s music club, environment and right because s/he is rewarded. As the club, or any religious group. Children’s self- child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, s/he understanding also includes social develops moral reasoning through set of rules comparison. Children are likely to think about of others, such as parents or laws of the what they can do or cannot do in comparison society. These rules are accepted by the with others. For example, “I got more marks children as their own. These are “internalised” than Atul” or “I can run faster than others in in order to be virtuous and to win approval the class”. This developmental shift leads to from others (not to avoid punishment). establishing one’s differences from others as Children view rules as absolute guidelines, an individual. which should be followed. Moral thinking at Once the children enter school their social this stage is relatively inflexible. As they grow, world expands beyond their families. They also they gradually develop a personal moral code. spend greater amount of time with their age You have seen that by the end of childhood mates or peers. Thus the increased time that a more gradual growth rate enables the child children spend with their peers shapes their to develop skills of coordination and balance. development. Language develops and the child can reason logically. Socially the child has become more Activity 3.3 involved in social systems, such as family and peer group. The next section traces changes Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if in human development during adolescence you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of your and adulthood. friends and parents. Reflect on your experience and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. You can also ask them about their reactions. How Activity 3.4 difficult was it to perform like the other gender? A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many years and shows no improvement. Should the life Moral Development : Another important support system of the patient be withdrawn? aspect of the child’s development is learning What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy killing” to differentiate between the rightness or as it is sometimes called? Discuss with your teacher. wrongness of human acts. The way children come to distinguish right from wrong, to feel guilty, to put themselves in other people’s CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENCE position, and to help others when they are in trouble, are all components of moral The term adolescence derives from the Latin development. Just as children pass through word adolescere, meaning “to grow into the various stages of cognitive development, maturity”. It is the transitional period in a according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they pass person’s life between childhood and through the various stages of moral adulthood. Adolescence is commonly defined development, which are age related. Kohlberg as the stage of life that begins at the onset of interviewed children in which they were puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability presented with stories in which the characters to reproduce is attained. It has been regarded face moral dilemmas. Children were asked as a period of rapid change, both biologically what the characters in the dilemma should and psychologically. Though the physical do, and why. According to him, children changes that take place during this stage are approach thinking about right and wrong universal, the social and psychological differently at different ages. The young child, dimensions of the adolescent’s experiences i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in terms of depend on the cultural context. For example, external authority. According to her/him, in cultures where the adolescent years are 52 Psychology 2024-25 viewed as problematic or confusing, the sexuality is caused by factors such as adolescent will have very different experiences individual’s awareness of the biological from someone who is in a culture, where changes taking place and the emphasis placed adolescent years are viewed as beginning of on sexuality by peers, parents, and society. adult behaviour and, therefore, undertaking Even then, many adolescents lack adequate responsible tasks. Although most societies knowledge or have misconceptions about sex have at least a brief period of adolescence, it and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find is not universal across cultures. dif ficult to discuss with children, so Physical Development : Puberty or sexual adolescents tend to become secretive about maturity marks the end of childhood and sexual concerns which make exchange of signifies the beginning of adolescence, which information and communication difficult. The is characterised by dramatic physical changes concern over adolescent sexuality has become in both, growth rate, and sexual intense in recent times because of the risk of characteristics. However, puberty is not a AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases. sudden event, but is part of a gradual process. The development of a sexual identity The hormones released during puberty result defines the sexual orientation and guides in the development of primary and secondary sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an sexual characteristics. The primary sex important developmental task for adolescents. characteristics include those directly related How did you think of yourself at the beginning to reproduction and the secondary sex of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied with characteristics include features or signs of what they are like and develop individual achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal changes images of what they look like. Another in boys are marked by acceleration in growth, important developmental task during facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls, rapid adolescence is accepting one’s physical self/ growth in height usually begins about two maturity. Adolescents need to develop a years before menarche, the onset of realistic image of their physical appearance, menstruation. The growth spurt generally which is acceptable to them. It is important begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at to keep in mind that puberty also involves the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal to cognitive and social changes along with have variations in the pubertal sequence. For physical changes. example, among two boys (or two girls) of same Cognitive Developmental Changes : chronological age, one may complete pubertal Adolescents’ thought becomes more abstract, sequence before the other has begun it. Both logical, and idealistic; they become more genetics and environment play a part in this. capable of examining their own thoughts, For example, identical twins reach menarche others’ thoughts, and what others are thinking closer in time than do fraternal twins; on an about them. Adolescents’ developing ability to average, girls from affluent families go through reason gives them a new level of cognitive and menarche earlier than girls from poor families; social awareness. Piaget believed that formal and historical trends show that the age of operational thought appears between the age menarche is declining in industrialised nations of 11 and 15. During this stage adolescent reflecting better nutrition and advances in thinking expands beyond actual concrete medical care. experiences and they begin to think more in Physical development during adolescence abstract terms and reason about them. In is also accompanied by a number of addition to being abstract, adolescent thought psychological changes. Around puberty is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to think adolescents show an increase in interest in about ideal characteristics for themselves and members of the opposite sex and in sexual others and compare themselves and others matters and a new awareness of sexual with these ideal standards. For example, they feelings develops. This increased attention to may think what an ideal parent is like and 53 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 compare their parents with these ideal the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’. To standards. This may at times make retain their sense of personal uniqueness they adolescents wonder which of the new-found may weave stories filled with fantasy around ideal standards they should adopt. In contrast them to create a world that is away from to trial and error approach used by children reality. Personal fables are often part of in earlier stages of development, adolescent adolescent diaries. thinking becomes more systematic in solving Forming an Identity : You must have problems — they think of possible courses of sought answers to questions such as : Who action, why something is happening the way am I? Which subjects should I study? Do I it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget believe in God? The answers to all these called this type of logical thinking — questions involve the quest to define one’s hypothetical deductive reasoning. sense of self or the search for identity. Logical thought also influences the Identity is who you are and what your values, development of moral reasoning. Social rules commitments and beliefs are. The primary task are not considered as absolute standards and of adolescence is to establish an identity moral thinking shows some flexibility. The separate from the parents. During adolescence adolescent recognises alternative moral a detachment process enables the individual courses, explores options, and then decides to develop a personalised set of beliefs that on a personal moral code. For example, should are uniquely her or his own. In the process of I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it ethical achieving an identity the adolescent could to copy answers in the examinations? This also experience conflict with parents and within lends the possibility of adolescents not herself or himself. Those adolescents who can following society’s norms if they conflict with cope with the conflicting identities develop a personal code of ethics. For example, new sense of self. Adolescents who are not individuals at this age might participate in a able to cope with this identity crisis are protest march for a cause rather than adhere/ confused. This “identity confusion”, according conform to college norm. to Erikson, can lead to individuals isolating Adolescents also develop a special kind of themselves from peers and family; or they may egocentrism. According to David Elkind, lose their identity in the crowd. Adolescents imaginary audience and personal fable are on one hand, may desire independence but two components of adolescents’ egocentrism. may also be afraid of it and show a great deal Imaginary audience is adolescent’s belief that of dependence on their parents. Rapid others are as preoccupied with them as they fluctuations between self-confidence and are about themselves. They imagine that insecurity are typical of this stage. Adolescents people are always noticing them and are may at one time complain of being “treated observing each and every behaviour of theirs. like a baby” whereas on other occasions they Imagine a boy who thinks that all will notice may seek comfort by depending on their the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a pimple parents. Seeking an identity involves searching feels, all people would think how bad her skin for continuity and sameness in oneself, greater is. It is this imaginary audience, which makes responsibility and trying to get a clear sense them extremely self-conscious. The personal of who one is, i.e. an identity. fable is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism The for mation of identity during that involves their sense of uniqueness. adolescence is influenced by several factors. Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them The cultural background, family and societal think that no one understands them or their values, ethnic background, and socio- feelings. For example, an adolescent girl thinks economic status all prevail upon the that none can sense the hurt that she feels adolescents’ search for a place in society. because of being betrayed by a friend. It is Family relationships become less important quite common to hear the adolescent say to as the adolescent spends more time outside 54 Psychology 2024-25 the home and develops a strong need for peer delinquency, substance abuse, and eating support and acceptance. Increased disorders. interactions with peers provide them with Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a opportunities for refining their social skills and variety of behaviours, ranging from socially trying out different social behaviours. Peers unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to and parents are dual forces having major criminal acts. Examples include truancy, influences on adolescents. At times conflicting running away from home, stealing or burglary situations with parents lead to increased or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with identification with peers. But generally parents delinquency and behavioural problems tend to and peers serve complementary functions and have a negative self-identity, decreased trust, fulfil different needs of the adolescents. and low level of achievement. Delinquency is Vocational commitment is another factor often associated with low parental support, influencing adolescent identity formation. The inappropriate discipline, and family discord. question “What are you going to be when you Often adolescents from communities grow up?”, requires the ability to think about characterised by poverty, unemployment, and the future and to be able to set realistic and having feelings of alienation from the middle achievable goals. In some cultures freedom is class perform antisocial acts to gain attention given to the young people to choose an and to be popular with their peers. However, occupation, whereas in certain other cultures most delinquent children do not remain the option of making this choice is not given delinquent forever. Change in their peer group, to the children. Here parents’ decision is likely becoming more aware of their social to be accepted by the children. What has been responsibilities and developing feelings of self- your experience while making a choice in the worth, imitating positive behaviour of the role selection of subjects? Career counselling in models, breaking negative attitudes, and schools offers information regarding appraisal overcoming poor self-concept help in reduction of the students for various courses and jobs of delinquent behaviour. and provides guidance in making a decision Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are about career choices. especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and Some Major Concerns : As adults when drug abuse. Some adolescents take recourse we reflect on our adolescent years and recall to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional stress. This can interfere with the development loneliness, group pressures, we feel it was of coping skills and responsible decision- definitely a vulnerable period. During making. The reasons for smoking and drug adolescence peer influence, new gained use could be peer pressure and the freedom, unresolved problems may create adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group, difficulties for many of you. Conforming to peer or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need pressure can be both positive and negative. to escape the pressure of school work or social Adolescents are often confronted with activities. The addictive powers of nicotine decisions regarding smoking, drugs, alcohol, make it difficult to stop smoking. It has been and breaking parental rules, etc. These found that adolescents who are more decisions are taken without much regard to vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use, the effect they can have. Adolescents may face are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self-doubt, and unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and anxiety, and concern about themselves and low expectation for achievement. Peer pressure their future, they are also likely to experience and the need to be with their peer group make excitement, joy, and feelings of competence the adolescent either go along with their as they overcome the developmental demands to experiment with drugs, alcohol, challenges. You will now read about some of and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if the major challenges faced by adolescents like continued long enough can lead to 55 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to to live with their parents even after getting drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously married and being financially independent. jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives. The assumption of adult roles is directed by Positive relationships with parents, peers, an individual’s social context. The best time siblings, and adults play an important role in for some of the most important life events (i.e. preventing drug abuse. In India, a successful marriage, job, having children) might be quite anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre different in different cultures but within a in Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses culture there is similarity in the course of adult street performances to entertain people development. between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching In early adulthood, two major tasks are, them how to say no to drugs. The United exploring the possibilities for adult living and Nations International Drug Control Programme developing a stable life structure. The twenties (UNDCP) has chosen the programme as an represent the novice phase of adult example to be adopted by other non- development. Gradually, a transition from governmental organisations in the region. dependence to independence should occur. Eating Disorders : Adolescents’ obsession This could be marked by an image of the kind with self, living in fantasy world and peer of life the young person wants, especially in comparisons lead to certain conditions where terms of marriage and a career. they become obsessed with their own bodies. Career and Work : Earning a living, Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that choosing an occupation, and developing a involves relentless pursuit of thinness through career are important themes for people in their starvation. It is quite common to see twenties and thirties. Entering work life is a adolescents eliminate certain foods from their challenging event in anyone’s life. There are diets or to eat slimming foods only. The media apprehensions regarding dif ferent also projects thinness, as the most desirable adjustments, proving one’s competence, image and copying such fashionable image of performance, dealing with competition, and thinness leads to anorexia nervosa. Bulimia coping with expectations both of the employers is another form of an eating disorder in which and oneself. It is also the beginning of new the individual follows a binge-and-purge eating roles and responsibilities. Developing and pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge, evaluating a career becomes an important task then purges by self-induced vomiting or using of adulthood. a laxative at times alternating it with fasting. Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are primarily adjustments that young adults have to make female disorders more common in urban when entering a marriage relate to knowing families. the other person if not known earlier, coping with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, and choices. If both the partners are working, ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE adjustments are required regarding sharing and performing roles and responsibilities at Adulthood home. An adult is generally defined as someone who In addition to getting married, becoming a is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and parent can be a difficult and stressful transition well integrated into society. There is a variation in young adults, even though it is usually in developing these attributes, which suggests accompanied by the feeling of love for the baby. that there is a shift in timing when an How adults experience parenting is affected by individual becomes an adult or assumes adult different situations such as the number of roles. Some people take up jobs along with children in the family, the availability of social their college studies or may get married and support, and the happiness or unhappiness not pursue their studies. Others may continue of the married couple. 56 Psychology 2024-25  Death of a spouse or divorce creates a family of the challenges, which the aged have to cope structure in which a single parent either the with include retirement, widowhood, illness, mother or the father has to take up the or death in the family. The image of old age is responsibility of the children. In recent times, changing in certain ways. Now there are people women are increasingly seeking employment who have crossed seventy years of age or so outside the home thus creating another type and are quite active, energetic, and creative. of family in which both parents work. The They are competent and are therefore, valued stressors when both parents are working are by society in many walks of life. In particular, quite the same as of a single working parent, we have aged people in politics, literature, namely, taking care of children, their school- business, art and science. The myth of old age work, illness, and coping with workload at as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening home and in the office, etc. Despite the phase of life is changing. stresses associated with parenting, it provides Of course, the experience of old age also a unique opportunity for growth and depends on the socio-economic conditions, satisfaction and is perceived as a way of availability of health care, attitude of people, establishing concern and guiding the next expectations of society and the available generation. support system. Work is most important Physical changes during middle ages are during early adult years, then family becomes caused by maturational changes in the body. most important and beyond that health Though individuals may vary in the rate at becomes the most important issue in the which these changes occur, almost all middle- person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for aged people notice gradual deterioration in much of our adult life focuses on how effective some aspects of their physical functioning we are at work, how loving our relationships such as decline in vision, sensitivity to glare, are in our family, how good our friendships hearing loss and changes in physical are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or fit we are. thinning of hair, weight gain). Do cognitive Retirement from active vocational life is abilities change during adulthood? It is quite significant. Some people perceive believed that some cognitive abilities decline retirement as a negative change. They with age while others do not. Decline in consider it as a separation from an important memory is more in tasks involving long-term source of satisfaction and self-esteem. Others memory than short-ter m memory. For view it as a shift in life with more time to example, a middle-aged person can remember pursue their own interests. It is seen that the telephone number immediately after s/he older adults who show openness to new has heard it but may not remember it so experiences, more striving and achievement- efficiently after a few days. Memory tends to oriented behaviour prefer to keep busy and show greater decline, while wisdom may are better adjusted. improve with age. Remember that individual Older adults also need to adjust to changes differences exist in intelligence at every age in the family structure and new roles (grand and as not all children are exceptional, neither parenting) that have to be learnt. Children do all adults show wisdom. usually are busy in their careers and families and may set up independent homes. Older Old Age adults may depend on their children for Just when “old age” begins, is not easy to financial support and to overcome their determine. Traditionally, the age of retirement loneliness (after children have moved out). was linked to old age. Now that people are This might trigger-off feelings of hopelessness living longer, age of retiring from work is and depression in some people. changing, and the cut-off point for the In old age feeling of loss of energy, and definition of “old age” is moving upward. Some dwindling of health and financial assets, lead 57 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25 to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend spouse is usually seen as the most difficult to look towards others to lean on and to care loss. Those left behind after the death of their for them. Indian culture favours dependency partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness, of elderly on their children, for old age needs depression, financial loss and are also at risk caring. In fact, parents in most oriental of many health related problems. Widows by cultures rear their children with the fond hope far out number widowers, because studies that they will care for them during old age. It show that women live longer than men and is important to give the elderly a sense of tend to marry men older than themselves. security and belonging, a feeling that people During such times, support from children, care for them (especially in the time of crisis), grandchildren, and friends can help the and to remember that we all have to grow old individual cope with the loss of spouse. one day. People in different cultures view death differently. In the Gond culture in our country, it is believed that death is caused by magic Activity 3.5 and demon. In the T anala culture of Madagascar, natural forces are thought to Interview people from three different stages of life, for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of cause death. Human development as you have age. Talk to them about: read in this chapter thus, helps you to a. Major transitions that have taken place in understand the influence of various factors their lives. in an individual’s lifetime. b. How they feel these transitions have affected them? Compare the events considered important in different groups. Key Terms Adolescence, Animism, Attachment, Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete Although death is more likely to occur in operational stage, Deductive thought, late adulthood, death can come at any point Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender, in development. The deaths, especially of Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche, Motor development, Object permanence, children and younger adults, are often Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period, perceived to be more tragic than those of Preoperational stage, Primary sex others. In children and younger adults, death characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty, is more likely to occur because of accidents Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self, but in older adults it is more likely to occur Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens because of chronic disease. The death of a Summary Prenatal development may be affected by maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and some maternal illnesses. Motor development follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Early motor development depends on both maturation and learning. Cultural variations in child rearing can affect the patterns of attachment between the child and the caregiver. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the main characteristics of sensorimotor stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the permanence of objects. The preoperational stage is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism. 58 Psychology 2024-25  During the concrete operations stage, children develop the ability to perform operations on mental representations, making them capable of conservation. The stage of formal operations is more abstract, systematic, and develops logical thought. According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through three levels that are related to age and determined by cognitive development. The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent event involving the development of reproductive maturity and secondary sex characteristics. According to Erikson, the key challenge of adolescence is to make some progress towards a sense of identity. During adulthood personality is marked by both stability and change. Many landmarks in adult development involve transitions in family relationships, including adjustment to marriage, parenthood, and children leaving home. Age-related physical transitions during adulthood include changes in appearance, memory, and in the cognitive domain. Review Questions 1. What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation? 2. Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development. 3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples. 4. ‘Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child’. Support your answer with examples. 5. How do socio-cultural factors influence development? 6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child. 7. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects. Explain taking examples from daily life. 8. What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism. 9. What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support your answer with examples. 10. What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood? Project Ideas 1. Think of your experiences during the last 2-3 years and answer the following : Did you have confrontations with your parents? What were the main problems? How did you solve your problems, and whose help did you seek? Compare your list with your classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you now think of better ways of solving the problems faced by you? 2. Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7 years old) child’s point of view for playing with friends. Develop the same script for an adolescent. How do these scenarios differ? How are roles played by your friends different? 59 Chapter 3 Human Development 2024-25