Juan Escoto and Scholasticism (10th-12th Centuries) PDF

# JUAN ESCOTO ERIUGENA Born in 810 in Ireland, Juan Escoto Eriugena was a significant figure of the 9th century, a time of great darkness. His intellect was impressive despite the limits of his era. As a pantheistic philosopher, he challenged religious norms, facing punishment for his views. His th...

# JUAN ESCOTO ERIUGENA Born in 810 in Ireland, Juan Escoto Eriugena was a significant figure of the 9th century, a time of great darkness. His intellect was impressive despite the limits of his era. As a pantheistic philosopher, he challenged religious norms, facing punishment for his views. His thinking was primarily influenced by Saint Augustine, whom he used as a starting point rather than an absolute authority. He also drew inspiration from Pseudo-Dionysius and Pope Gregory, showcasing his quest for deeper understanding in a challenging environment. In 1225, Pope Honorius III condemned his work, "The Divisions of Nature." Escoto moved to the French court in his 40s, where King Charles the Bald appointed him head of the Palatine School. The king also tasked him with translating the works of Dionysius the Areopagite. These translations caused concern in the Church. In 867, after Charles’ death, Escoto disappeared, with some believing he died in France, while others claim he was summoned to England, possibly becoming an abbot or director of a school before his assassination. His work can be divided based on the influence of the Latin and Greek Fathers. Escoto initially leaned towards Latin Patristics, especially Saint Augustine, but later favored Greek Patristics and Greek philosophers. His magnum opus, "De la División de la Naturaleza" (On the Division of Nature), reflects his deep cultural and linguistic knowledge, using a Platonic and deductive approach. Escoto argues for the harmony between reason and faith, positing that rational inquiry must align with the truth revealed in sacred texts. True authority, he contends, does not restrict reason. Rational practice leads to the same conclusions as those presented by ecclesiastical authority. He also emphasizes the inherent superiority and precedence of reason, claiming that it predated authority, which emerged after the time of Christ. Thus, reason should validate claims made by authority. Furthermore, if reason is sound, it does not require confirmation from authority. Escoto argues that freedom of inquiry does not negate religion. He views religion as a process of exploration rather than a rigid authority. Religion and philosophy are, for him, the same; faith is strengthened through philosophical reasoning, making initial belief more robust. In "De la División de la Naturaleza" (On the Division of Nature), Escoto draws from Platonic ideas and divides nature into four sections: - **The First Nature:** God, the creator, but not himself created. - **The Second Nature:** Created and also a creator, encompassing Primal Causes and Ideas. - **The Third Nature:** The Spirit, which aligns with the Holy Spirit from a Christian perspective, and the Third Logos or Soul of the World from a classical perspective - **The Fourth Nature:** God as the ultimate end of creation, neither created nor a creator. Following Parmenides, Escoto distinguishes between things that "are not" and the "nothing." He defines the term "are not" in the context of a lack of existence in relation to other things. Therefore, God is the source, medium, and end of creation, divided into three: - **Father:** (innate substance) - **Son:** (procreated substance) - **Holy Spirit:** (substance originating from the previous two) While qualities can be attributed to God, Escoto warns that such attributions are relative. God’s true essence is beyond human comprehension, but one can learn about him through his works, a continuous revelation called "Theophany." This process allows for God’s manifestation and human return to Him. It relies on divine grace and love. The Second Nature, the Word (logos), encompasses all archetypal ideas, the source for all things. Escoto rejects the notion of creation from nothing, arguing that things do not originate from nothingness but stem from these perfect primal ideas. He further asserts that nothingness does not exist within or outside God. When we say that things are created from nothing, it implies a state of prior non-existence. Instead, all things have always existed. The Third Nature, creation, is both created and non-creator. Escoto differentiates between matter and form, with matter remaining incorporeal until it adopts form, making it perceptible. This Third Nature is intimately linked to the Second, the Word (Logos), which contains everything. This implies the eternality of the world as it subsists within the Word. Escoto explores the apparent contradiction between scripture’s assertion of a created world and the idea of the world’s eternality. He reconciles this by proposing that eternal causes, the Archetypal Ideas, exist from which temporal created things originate. His pantheism is reflected in the belief that God resides within all things and is their essence. Yet, while encompassing the universe, God transcends it and remains distinct. Escoto divides the human soul into three aspects that mirror the threefold nature of the Logos: intellect, reason, and inner sense. The inner sense, analogous to the Hindu concept of Manas, is an innate feeling that surpasses physical senses. Reason corresponds to the second Logos, while pure intellect embodies the first. Escoto places great value on the human being, seeing their purpose as returning to God. This return is not death but a restoration of a lost state, albeit one that is influenced by original sin. Despite this fall, human reason remains intact and seeks redemption. The will and greatness of humanity reflect the divine essence and the innate drive towards fulfillment. # The Scholastic Era: 10th-12th Centuries The scholastic era (10th-12th centuries) was marked by its heterogeneity. The primary conflict was between dialecticians who grounded their ideas in reason and anti-dialecticians who favored faith. This tension — whether reason or faith should prevail — continued to shape thought until the 13th century, when universities began to emerge. Previously, educational institutions had been located in abbeys. After the death of Charlemagne, a period of darkness engulfed Europe. However, with the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire under Otto the Great, culture rejuvenated. A key figure during this period was Gerbert of Reims, known as Silvester II, a scholar of the 10th century. He taught at the Reims school from 972, ascended to various religious positions, including Abbot of Bobbio, Archbishop of Reims, Archbishop of Ravenna, and ultimately became Pope in 999. He died in 1003. Pope Silvester II played a significant role in calming widespread anxieties about the end of the world in the year 1000. He excelled in various fields, particularly mechanics and mathematics. He is credited with the invention of a clock and a steam-powered siren. An ancient chronicler, Vincent of Beauvais, presents a romantic account of Gerberto’s extensive knowledge. The tale suggests that Gerberto, after seducing the daughter of a Spanish “devil-doctor,” stole books. A sorcerer pursued him. Gerberto escaped through the help of constellations. The story hints that Gerberto travelled to Spain and incorporated Arab influences into his knowledge. This was a common practice. To protect their investigations, many intellectual figures of the time had to conceal their thirst for knowledge. Those whose interest went beyond the established views were often seen as practitioners of magic. Gerberto authored commentaries on Porphyry's works and studied Boethius and Aristotle. He delved into understanding the meaning of “utilizing reason”, drawing a distinction between genuine reason, linked to truth, and a misleading superficial logic that can deceive the ignorant. The second half of the 11th century and the 12th century witnessed a blossoming of Western intellectual life. Culture moved beyond abbeys and began to organize into schools that eventually evolved into universities in the 13th century. This period marked the zenith of scholasticism, focused on understanding and justifying faith-based beliefs. Some relied on reason and dialectics as solutions, while others dismissed them and championed authorities like saints and prophets to defend revealed doctrines. This tension between dialecticians and theologians defined the 11th century. The 12th century brought about intense debate on the topic of universals, sparked by a work of Porphyry. This debate focused on the true nature of universals, whether they existed objectively or were mere mental constructs. Two prominent viewpoints emerged: Realism, which proposed that universals exist independently of the mind, and Nominalism, which denied their existence. Previously, genera and species were seen as divine ideas. However, this understanding shifted in the 12th century, recognizing universals as tools of human knowledge. This shift reflected a spirit of freedom and a focus on humanity, coinciding with social and economic advancements of the era, characterized by the growth of municipalities, cultural activities, and a growing secular spirit. Nominalism offered an alternate approach to metaphysics and traditional theology. In contrast to the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition, which interpreted universals as mental constructs representing the essence of things and the idea of God, Nominalism argued that universals are mere signs substituting for things. Realism-based scholastic movements defended theology and their vision of the world, while Nominalism challenged theological interpretations by relegating them to the realm of faith. Escoto initially leaned towards Latin Patristics, especially Saint Augustine, but eventually favoured Greek Patristics and Greek philosophers. His major work, "On the Division of Nature," showcased a deductive platonic approach that reflected his deep understanding of culture and language. Escoto believed in the inherent coherence of reason and faith, asserting that truths revealed through rational inquiry should align with truths revealed in scripture. He argued that genuine authority does not limit reason but instead, through its practice, arrives at the same truths presented by ecclesiastical authority. He also underscored the greater value and precedence of reason. He believed that it existed from the beginning of time, while authority emerged only after the time of Christ. Therefore, reason should confirm claims of authority. Moreover, if rational propositions are valid, they do not require confirmation from authority.